Cuisine of Korea
Encyclopedia
Korean cuisine originated from ancient prehistoric traditions
in the Korean peninsula
evolving through a complex interaction of environmental, political, and cultural trends.
Korean cuisine is largely based upon rice
, vegetable
s, and meat
s. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dish
es (banchan
) that accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Kimchi
is served often, sometimes at every meal. Commonly used ingredients include sesame oil
, doenjang
(fermented bean paste
), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, pepper
flakes and gochujang
(fermented red chili paste).
Ingredients and dishes vary by province. Many regional dishes have become national, and dishes that were once regional have proliferated in different variations across the country. The Korean royal court cuisine
once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals are regulated by Korean cultural etiquette
.
s have been one of the most important staples to the Korean diet. Early myths of the foundations of various kingdoms in Korea center on grains. One foundation myth relates to Jumong, who received barley seeds from two dove
s sent by his mother after establishing the kingdom of Goguryeo
. Yet another myth speaks of the three founding deities of Jeju Island
who were to be wed to the three princesses of Tamna
; the deities brought seeds of five grains which were the first seeds planted, which in turn became the first instance of farming.
During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples and were supplemented by wheat, sorghum
, and buckwheat
. Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea, and it is likely millet was the preferred grain before rice was cultivated. Rice became the grain of choice during the Three Kingdoms period, particularly in the kingdoms of Silla
and Baekje
in the southern regions of the peninsula. Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes. The Sino-Korean word for "tax" is a compound character that uses the character for the rice plant. The preference for rice escalated into the Joseon period, when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged that would help increase production.
As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, it is likely the grain was mixed with other grains to "stretch" the rice; this is still done in dishes such as boribap (rice with barley) and kongbap
(rice with beans). White rice, which is rice with the bran removed, has been the preferred form of rice since its introduction into the cuisine. The most traditional method of cooking the rice has been to cook it in an iron pot called a sot (솥) or musoe sot (무쇠솥). This method of rice cookery dates back at least to the Goryeo period, and sot have even been found in tombs from the Silla period. The sot is still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries.
Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice. It is commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes called tteok
, of which there are over two hundred varieties. It is also cooked down into a congee
(juk), or gruel
(mieum) and mixed with other grains, meat, or seafood. Koreans also produce a number of rice wine
s, both in filtered and unfiltered versions.
s in Korea. The excavation at Okbang site, Jinju
, South Gyeongsang province indicates soybean
s were cultivated as a food crop circa 1000–900 BCE. They are made into tofu
(dubu), while soybean sprouts are sauteed as a vegetable (kongnamul
) and whole soybeans are seasoned and served as a side dish. They are also made into soy milk
, which is used as the base for the noodle dish called kongguksu
. A byproduct of soy milk production is okara
(kongbiji), which is used to thicken stews and porridges. Soybeans may also be one of the beans in kongbap
, which boil together with several types of beans and other grains. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient in the production of fermented condiments collectively referred to as jang, such as soy bean pastes, doenjang
and cheonggukjang
, a soy sauce called ganjang, chili pepper paste or gochujang
and others.
Mung bean
s are commonly used in Korean cuisine, where they are called nokdu (绿豆, literally "green bean"). Mung bean sprouts, called sukju namul, are often served as a side dish, blanched and sautéed
with sesame oil, garlic, and salt. Ground mung beans are used to make a porridge called nokdujuk, which is eaten as a nutritional supplement and digestive aid, especially for ill patients. A popular snack, bindaetteok
(mung bean pancake) is made with ground mung beans and fresh mung bean sprouts. Starch extracted from ground mung beans is used to make transparent cellophane noodles
(dangmyeon). The noodles are the main ingredients for japchae
(a salad-like dish), and sundae
(a blood sausage
) or a subsidiary ingredient for soups and stews. The starch can be also used to make jelly-like foods, such as nokdumuk
and hwangpomuk
. The muk have a bland flavor, so are served seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil and crumbled seaweeds or other seasonings such as tangpyeongchae
.
Cultivation of azuki bean
s dates back to ancient times according to an excavation from Odong-ri, Hoeryong
, North Hamgyong province, which is assumed to be that of Mumun period (approximately 1500-300 BCE). Azuki beans are generally eaten as patbap, which is a bowl of rice mixed with the beans, or as a filling and covering for tteok
(rice cake) and breads. A porridge made with azuki beans, called patjuk, is commonly eaten during the winter season. On Dongjinal, a Korean traditional holiday which falls on December 22, Korean people eat Donji patjuk, which contains saealsim (새알심), a ball made from glutinous rice flour. In old Korean tradition, patjuk is believed to have the power to drive evil spirits away.
s are divided into fermented and nonfermented variants. Fermented condiments include ganjang
, doenjang
, gochujang and vinegars. Nonfermented condiments or spices include red pepper, black pepper, Chinese pepper
, cordifolia, mustard, chinensis, garlic, onion, ginger, leek, and scallion (spring onion).
and fishing
. Ancient records indicate rearing of livestock
began on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period. Meat was consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period. Those who lived closer to the oceans were able to complement their diet with more fish, while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing more meat.
Beef
Beef
is the most prized of all meats, with the cattle holding an important cultural role in the Korean home. The cattle were valuable draught animals and were regarded more as servants than for consumption. There were also seen as an equal to human servants, or in some cases, members of family. Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of the lunar New Year
. The importance of cattle does not suggest Koreans ate an abundance of beef, however, as as the cattle were valued as beasts of burden
and slaughtering one would create dire issues in farming the land. Pork and seafood were more likely consumed on a more regular basis, due to this issue. The Buddhist ruling class of the Goryeo period forbade the consumption of beef. The Mongols dispensed with the ban of beef during the 13th century, and they promoted the production of beef cattle. This increased production continued into the Joseon period, when the government encouraged both increased quantities and quality of beef.
Only in the latter part of the 20th century has beef become regular table fare. Beef is prepared in numerous ways today, including roasting, grilling (gui
) or boiling in soups
. Beef can also be dried into jerky
, as with seafood, called respectively yukpo and eopo.
Chicken
Chicken
has played an important role as a protein in Korean history, evidenced by a number of myths. One myth tells of the birth of Kim Alji
, founder of the Kim family of Gyeongju
being announced by the cry of a white chicken. As the birth of a clan's founder is always announced by an animal with preternatural qualities, this myth speaks to the importance of chicken in Korean culture. Chicken is often served roasted or braised with vegetables or in soups. All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine, including the gizzard
, liver
, and feet. Young chickens are braised with ginseng
and other ingredients in medicinal soups eaten during the summer months to combat heat called samgyetang
. The feet of the chicken, called dakbal (닭발), are often roasted and covered with hot and spicy gochujang
-based sauce and served as an anju
, or side dish, to accompany alcoholic beverages, especially soju
.
Pork
Pork
has also been another important land-based protein for Korea. Records indicate pork has been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to beef.
A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork, including Chinese bellflower
(doraji, 도라지) and lotus root (yeonn ppuri, 연뿌리), as the combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea. All parts of the pig are used in Korean cuisine, including the head, intestines, liver, kidneys, etc. Koreans utilize these parts in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling and smoking.
Fish
and shellfish
have been a major part of Korean cuisine because of the oceans bordering the peninsula. Evidence from the 12th century illustrates commoners consumed a diet mostly of fish and shellfish, such as shrimp
, clam
s, oyster
s, abalone
, and loach, while sheep and hogs were reserved for the upper class.
Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular, and are served raw, grilled, broiled, dried or served in soups and stews. Common grilled fish include mackerel
, hairtail, croaker
and Pacific herring
. Smaller fish, shrimp, squid, mollusks and countless other seafood can be salted and fermented as jeotgal
. Fish can also be grilled either whole or in fillets as banchan
. Fish is often dried naturally to prolong storing periods and enable shipping over long distances. Fish commonly dried include yellow corvina, anchovies (myeolchi) and croaker
. Dried anchovies, along with kelp, form the basis of common soup stocks.
Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation. They can be used to prepare broth
, eaten raw with chogochujang, which is a mixture of gochujang
and vinegar, or used as a popular ingredient in countless dishes. Raw oysters and other seafood can be used in making kimchi to improve and vary the flavor. Salted baby shrimp are used as a seasoning agent, known as saeujeot
, for the preparation of some types of kimchi. Large shrimp are often grilled as daeha gui
(대하구이) or dried, mixed with vegetables and served with rice. Mollusks eaten in Korean cuisine include octopus
, cuttlefish
, and squid
.
, cucumber, potato, sweet potato, spinach, bean sprouts, scallions, garlic, chili peppers, seaweed
, zucchini
, mushrooms and lotus root
. Several types of wild greens, known collectively as chwinamul
(such as Aster scaber), are a popular dish, and other wild vegetables such as bracken fern
shoots (gosari) or Korean bellflower root (doraji) are also harvested and eaten in season. Medicinal herbs, such as ginseng
, reishi, wolfberry
, Codonopsis pilosula
, and Angelica sinensis
, are often used as ingredients in cooking, as in samgyetang
.
, as well as sexual and physical stamina lost in the summer heat Commonly eaten boyangshik include: ginseng, chicken, dog
, abalone, eel, carp, bone marrow, pig kidneys and black goat. These foods are popularly consumed by groups of men as a macho, backslapping activity.
Dog meat
The consumption of dog meat in what is now Korea dates back to antiquity. Today, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the nureongi
(누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets, which Koreans may keep in their homes. Dog meat is usually eaten during the summer months, in either roasted form or prepared in soups. The most popular of these soups is gaejang-guk
(also called bosintang), a spicy stew which is believed by consumers to balance the body's heat during the summer months; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi
, or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallion
s and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken
and bamboo shoot
s. While the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is nowhere near as widely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork.
s" (주식), "subsidiary dishes" (부식), and "dessert" (후식). The main dishes are made from grains such as bap (a bowl of rice), juk
(porridge), and guksu
(noodles).
Many Korean banchan rely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy, salty, and spicy taste. Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city of Jeonju
with bibimbap
) either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety. Restaurants will often use these famous names on their signs or menus (i.e. "Suwon
galbi").
Soup
s are a common part of any Korean meal. Unlike other cultures, in Korean culture, soup is served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal, as an accompaniment to rice along with other banchan
. Soups known as guk
are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Soups can be made into more formal soups known as tang, often served as the main dish of the meal. Jjigae
are a thicker, heavier seasoned soups or stews.
Some popular types of soups are:
Stews are referred to as jjigae
, and are often a shared side dish. Jjigae is often both cooked and served in the glazed earthenware pot (ttukbaegi
) in which it is cooked. The most common version of this stew is doenjang jjigae
, which is a stew of soybean paste, with many variations; common ingredients include vegetables, saltwater or freshwater fish, and tofu. The stew often changes with the seasons and which ingredients are available. Other common varieties of jjigae contain kimchi
(kimchi jjigae) or tofu (sundubu jjigae
).
Kimchi
refers to often fermented vegetable dishes usually made with napa cabbage
, Korean radish
, or sometimes cucumber, commonly fermented in a brine of ginger, garlic, scallions, and chili pepper. There are endless varieties with regional variations, and it is served as a side dish or cooked into soups and rice dishes. Koreans traditionally make enough kimchi to last for the entire winter season, as fermented foods can keep for several years. These were stored in traditional Korean mud pots known as Jangdokdae although with the advent of refrigerators, special Kimchi freezers and commercially produced kimchi, this practice has become less common. Kimchi is packed with vitamin A, thiamine B1, riboflavin B2, calcium, and iron. Its main benefit though is found in the bacteria lactobacilli, this is found in yogurt and fermented foods. This bacteria helps with digestion. South Koreans eat an average of 40 pounds of Kimchi each year.
Noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine are collectively referred to as guksu in native Korean or myeon in hanja
. While noodles were eaten in Korea from ancient times, productions of wheat was less than other crops, so noodles did not become a daily food until 1945. Buckwheat (memil guksu) and wheat noodles (milguksu) were specialty foods for birthdays, weddings or auspicious occasions because the long and continued shape were thought to be associated with the bliss for longevity and long-lasting marriage.
In Korean traditional noodle dishes are onmyeon or guksu jangguk (noodles with a hot clear broth), naengmyeon
(cold buckwheat noodles), bibim guksu
(cold noodle dish mixed with vegetables), kalguksu
(knife-cut noodles), kongguksu
(noodles with a cold soybean broth) and others. In royal court, baekmyeon (literally "white noodles") consisting of buckwheat noodles and pheasant
broth, was regarded as the top quality noodle dish. Naengmyeon with a cold soup mixed with dongchimi
(watery radish kimchi) and beef brisket broth was eaten in court during summer.
is a term referring collectively to side dishes in Korean cuisine. Soups and stews are not considered banchan
.
Gui
are grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetable ingredients. At traditional restaurants, meats are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by various banchan and individual rice bowls. The cooked meat is then cut into small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced garlic, ssamjang
(a mixture of gochujang and dwenjang), and other seasonings. The suffix gui is often omitted in the names of meat-based gui such as galbi
, the name of which was originally galbi gui.
Jjim
and seon
(steamed dishes) are generic terms referring to steamed or boiled dishes in Korean cuisine. However, the former is made with meat or seafood-based ingredients marinated in gochujang
or ganjang
while seon is made with vegetable stuffed with fillings.
Hoe
(raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally used to refer to saengseonhoe (생선회, raw fish dishes). It is dipped in gochujang
, or soy sauce with wasabi
, and served with lettuce or perilla
leaves.
Jeon
(or buchimgae) are savory pancakes made from various ingredients. Chopped kimchi or seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried. This dish tastes best when it is dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder.
Namul
may be used to refer to either saengchae
(생채, literally "fresh vegetables") or sukchae (숙채, literally "heated vegetables"), although the term generally indicates the latter. Saengchae is mostly seasoned with vinegar, chili pepper
powder and salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste. On the other hand, sukchae (숙채) is blanched and seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil
, chopped garlic, or sometimes chili pepper powder.
is a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol. Some examples of anju include steamed squid with gochujang
, assorted fruit, dubu kimchi
(tofu with kimchi), peanuts, oden
g/ohmuk, sora (소라) (a kind of shellfish popular in street food tents), and nakji
(small octopus). Soondae is also a kind of anju, as is samgyeopsal, or dwejigalbi. Most Korean foods may be served as anju, depending on availability and the diner's taste. However, anju is considered different from the banchan served with a regular Korean meal. Jokbal
is pig's feet served with saeujeot (salted fermented shrimp sauce).
All Korean traditional nonalcoholic beverages are referred to as eumcheong or eumcheongnyu (음청류 ) which literally means "clear beverages". According to historical documents regarding Korean cuisine, 193 items of eumcheongnyu are recorded. Eumcheongnyu can be divided into the following categories: tea
, hwachae
(fruit punch), sikhye
(sweet rice drink), sujeonggwa
(persimmon punch), tang (탕, boiled water), jang (장, fermented grain juice with a sour taste), suksu (숙수, beverage made of herbs), galsu (갈수, drink made of fruit extract, and Oriental medicine), honeyed water, juice and milk by their ingredient materials and preparation methods. Among the varieties, tea, hwachae, sikhye, and sujeonggwa are still widely favored and consumed; however, the others almost disappeared by the end of the 20th century.
In Korean cuisine, tea
, or cha, refers to various types of tisane
that can be served hot or cold. Not necessarily related to the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis
plant, they are made from diverse substances, including fruits (e.g. yujacha
), flowers (e.g. gukhwacha
), leaves, roots, and grains (e.g. boricha, hyeonmi cha
) or herbs and substances used in traditional Korean medicine
, such as ginseng
(e.g. Insam cha) and ginger (e.g. saenggang cha).
While soju
is the best known liquor, there are well over 100 different alcoholic beverages, such as beers, rice and fruit wines, and liquors produced in South Korea. The top-selling domestic beers (the Korean term for beer being maekju) are lager
s, which differ from Western beers in that they are brewed from rice, rather than barley. Consequently, Korean beers are lighter, sweeter and have less head than their Western counterparts. The South Korean beer market is dominated by the three major brands: Cass, Hite
, and OB
. Taedonggang
is a North Korean beer produced at a brewery based in Pyongyang since 2002. Microbrewery
beers and bars are growing in popularity after 2002.
Soju
is a clear spirit which was originally made from grain, especially rice, and is now also made from sweet potatoes or barley. Soju made from grain is considered superior (as is also the case with grain vs. potato vodka
). Soju is around 22% ABV
, and is a favorite beverage of hard-up college students, hard-drinking businessmen, and blue-collar workers.
Yakju is a refined pure liquor fermented from rice, with the best known being cheongju. Takju is a thick unrefined liquor made with grains, with the best known being makgeolli, a white, milky rice wine traditionally drunk by farmers.
In addition to the rice wine
, various fruit wines and herbal wines exist in Korean cuisine. Acacia, maesil plum, Chinese quince
, cherry, pine fruits, and pomegranate are most popular. Majuang wine (a blended wine of Korean grapes with French or American wines) and ginseng-based wines are also available.
Traditional rice cakes, tteok
and Korean confectionery hangwa
are eaten as treats during holidays and festivals. Tteok refers to all kind of rice cakes
made from either pounded rice (메떡, metteok), pounded glutinous rice
(찰떡, chaltteok), or glutinous rice left whole, without pounding. It is served either filled or covered with sweetened mung bean paste, red bean paste
, mashed red beans, raisin
s, a sweetened filling made with sesame seeds, sweet pumpkin, beans, jujubes, pine nuts, and/or honey). Tteok is usually served as dessert or snack. Among varieties, songpyeon
is a chewy stuffed tteok served at Chuseok
. Honey
or another soft sweet material such as sweetened sesame or black beans are used as fillings. Pine
needles can be used for imparting flavor during the steaming process. Yaksik is a sweet rice cake made with glutinous rice, chestnuts, pine nuts, jujubes, and other ingredients, while chapssaltteok
is a tteok filled with sweet bean paste
.
On the other hand, hangwa
is a general term referring to all types of Korean traditional confectionery
. The ingredients of hahngwa mainly consist of grain flour, honey, yeot
, and sugar, or of fruit and edible roots. Hangwa is largely divided into yumilgwa (fried confectionery), suksilgwa
, jeonggwa
, gwapyeon
, dasik
(tea food) and yeot
. Yumilgwa is made by stir frying
or frying pieces of dough, such as maejakgwa
and yakgwa
. Maejakgwa is a ring-shaped confection made of wheat flour, vegetable oil, cinnamon
, ginger
juice, jocheong, and pine nuts, while yakgwa, literally "medicinal confectionery", is a flower-shaped biscuit made of honey
, sesame oil
and wheat flour.
Suksilgwa
is made by boiling fruits, ginger, or nuts in water, and then forming the mix into the original fruit's shape, or other shapes. Gwapyeon
is a jelly
-like confection made by boiling sour fruits, starch, and sugar. Dasik
, literally "eatery for tea", is made by kneading rice flour, honey, and various types of flour from nuts, herbs, sesame, or jujubes. Jeonggwa
, or jeongwa, is made by boiling fruits, plant roots and seeds in honey, mulyeot
(물엿, liquid candy) or sugar. It is similar to marmalade
or jam/jelly
. Yeot is a Korean traditional candy in liquid or solid form made from steamed rice, glutinous rice, glutinous kaoliang
, corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains. The steamed ingredients are lightly fermented and boiled in a large pot called sot (솥) for a long time.
s where these food and culinary traditions were preserved until modern times.
Although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948 (North Korea
and South Korea), it was once divided into eight provinces (paldo) according to the administrative districts of the Joseon Dynasty
. The northern region consisted of Hamgyeong Province, Pyeongan Province and Hwanghae
Province. The central region comprised Gyeonggi Province, Chungcheong Province, and Gangwon Province
. Gyeongsang
Province and Jeolla
Province made up the southern region.
Until the late 19th century, transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods. Geographic differences are also reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate and types of agriculture, as well as the natural foods available. With the modern development of transportation and the introduction of foreign foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap and integrate. However, many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine have been handed down through the generations.
Korean temple cuisine originated in Buddhist temples of Korea. Since Buddhism was introduced into Korea, Buddhist traditions have strongly influenced Korean cuisine, as well. During the Silla period (57 BC – 935 AD), chalbap (찰밥, a bowl of cooked glutinous rice
) yakgwa
(a fried dessert) and yumilgwa (a fried and puffed rice snack) were served for Buddhist altars and have been developed into types of hangwa, Korean traditional confectionery
. During the Goryeo Dynasty, sangchu ssam
(wraps made with lettuce), yaksik, and yakgwa were developed, and since spread to China and other countries. Since the Joseon Dynasty, Buddhist cuisine has been established in Korea according to regions and temples.
On the other hand, royal court cuisine
is closely related to Korean temple cuisine. In the past, when the royal court maids, sanggung
, who were assigned to Suragan (hangul: 수라간; hanja: 水剌間; the name of the royal kitchen), where they prepared the king's meals, became old, they had to leave the royal palace. Therefore, many of them entered Buddhist temples to become nuns. As the result, culinary techniques and recipes of the royal cuisine were integrated into Buddhist cuisine.
Vegetarian cookery
in Korea may be linked to the Buddhist traditions that influenced Korean culture from the Goryeo
dynasty onwards. There are hundreds of vegetarian restaurants in Korea, although historically they have been local restaurants that are unknown to tourists. Most have buffets, with cold food, and vegetarian kimchi
and tofu
being the main features. Bibimbap
is a common vegan dish. Menus change with seasons. Wine with the alcohol removed and fine teas
are also served. The Korean tea ceremony
is suitable for all vegetarians and vegans, and began with Buddhist influences. All food is eaten with a combination of rather slippery stainless steel oval chopsticks
and a long-handled shallow spoon called together sujeo
.
For example, Rituals are mainly performed on the anniversary of deceased ancestors, called jesa. Ritual food include rice, liquor, soup, vinegar and soy sauce (1st row); noodles, skewered meat, vegetable and fish dishes, and rice cake (2nd row); three types of hot soup, meat and vegetable dishes (3rd row); dried snacks, kimchi
, and sweet rice drink (4th row); and variety of fruit (5th row).
, and bungeoppang
, which are enjoyed in autumn
and winter. Gimbap
is also a very popular street food.
Dining etiquette in Korea can be traced back to the Confucian philosophies of the Joseon period. Guidebooks, such as Sasojeol (士小節, Elementary Etiquette for Scholar Families), written in 1775 by Yi Deokmu (이덕무; 李德懋), comment on the dining etiquette for the period. Suggestions include items such as "when you see a fat cow, goat, pig, or chicken, do not immediately speak of slaughtering, cooking or eating it", "when you are having a meal with others, do not speak of smelly or dirty things, such as boils or diarrhea
," "when eating a meal, neither eat so slowly as to appear to be eating against your will nor so fast as if to be taking someone else's food. Do not throw chopsticks on the table. Spoons should not touch plates, making a clashing sound", amongst many other recommendations which emphasized proper table etiquette.
The eldest male at the table was always served first, commonly served to them in the men's quarters by the women of the house. Women usually dined in a separate portion of the house after the men were served. The eldest men or women always ate before the younger family members. The meal was usually quiet, as conversation was discouraged during meals. In modern times, these rules have become lax, as families usually dine together now and use the time to converse. Of the remaining elements of this decorum, one is that the younger members of the table should not pick up their chopsticks
or start eating before the elders of the table or guests and should not finish eating before the elders or guests finish eating.
In Korea, unlike in China
and Japan
, the rice or soup bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it. This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively as sujeo
. The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected. There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others, and the spoon used should be clean, because usually diners put their spoons in the same serving bowl on the table. Diners should also cover their mouths when using a toothpick
after the meal.
The table setup is important as well, and individual place settings, moving from the diner's left should be as follows: rice bowl, spoon, then chopsticks. Hot foods are set to the right side of the table, with the cold foods to the left. Soup must remain on the right side of the diner along with stew
s. Vegetables remain on the left along with the rice, and kimchi
is set to the back while sauces remain in the front.
at dining is significant in Korean dining etiquette. Each diner is expected to face away from the eldest male
and cover his mouth when drinking alcohol.
According to Hyang Eum Ju Rye (향음주례; 鄕飮酒禮), the drinking etiquette established in Choseon Dynasty, it is impolite for a king and his vassal, a father and his son, or a teacher and his student to drink face to face. Also, a guest should not refuse the first drink offered by host, and in the most formal situations, the diner should politely refuse twice a drink offered by the eldest male or a host. When the host offers for the third time, then finally the guest can receive it. If the guest refuses three times, drink is not to be more offered any more.
(approximately 8000 to 1500 BCE), hunter-gatherer societies engaged in fishing and hunting, and incipient agriculture in the later stages. Since the beginning of the Mumun pottery period
(1500 BCE), agricultural traditions began to develop with new migrant groups from the Liao River
basin of Manchuria. During the Mumun period, people grew millet, barley, wheat, legumes and rice, and continued to hunt and fish. Archaeological remains point to development of fermented beans during this period, and cultural contact with nomadic cultures to the north facilitated domestication of animals.
The Three Kingdoms
period (57 BCE – 668 CE) was one of rapid cultural evolution. The kingdom of Goguryeo
(37 BCE – 668 CE) was located in the northern part of the peninsula along much of modern-day Manchuria
. The second kingdom, Baekje
(18 BCE – 660 CE), was in the southwestern portion of the peninsula, and the third, Silla
(57 BCE – 935 CE), was located at the southeastern portion of the peninsula. Each region had its own distinct set of cultural practices and foods. For example, Baekje was known for cold foods and fermented foods like kimchi
. The spread of Buddhism
and Confucianism
from China during the fourth century CE began to change the distinct cultures of Korea.
The Three Kingdoms were followed by the Unified Silla
period (668 CE – 935 CE), during which Silla unified most of the southern region of Korea, while the northern region was unified by refugees from Goguryeo
, who renamed the region Balhae
. These cultures adhered to the beliefs of Buddhism with a moderate level of peaceful coexistence.
dynasty, which drew much of its culture from the Song Dynasty
of China. It was this dynasty that introduced the peninsula to the Western world
and it is from the word "Goryeo" that the country's modern name of "Korea" was derived.
During the latter Goryeo period, the Mongols
invaded Korea in the 13th century. Although there was a vast loss of life in Korea, some traditional foods found today in Korea have their origins in the Mongol invasion. The dumpling dish, mandu
, grilled meat dishes, noodle dishes
, and the use of seasonings such as black pepper, all have their roots in the this period.
continued to be the guiding influence during the period between the 14th and 19th century CE. A hierarchy of human relationships was created during this time period; lineage and birthright were the governing forces of the time. The majority of citizens in this period were freeborn commoners, the cultivators of food for the society. Butchers, called baekjeong
, held the lowest cultural status level as the work of turning animals into food was deemed degrading.
Agricultural innovations were significant and widespread during this period, such as the invention of the rain gauge during the 15th century. During 1429, the government began publishing books on agriculture and farming techniques, which included Nongsa jikseol
(literally "Straight Talk on Farming"), an agriculture book compiled under King Sejong.
A series of invasions in the earlier half of the Joseon caused a dynamic shift in the culture during the second half of the period. Groups of silhak
("practical learning") scholars began to emphasize the importance of looking outside the country for innovation and technology to help improve the agricultural systems. Crops from the New World
began to appear, acquired through trade with China, Japan, Europe, and the Philippines
; these crops included corn, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, peanuts, and squash. Potatoes and sweet potatoes were particularly favored as they grew in soils and on terrains that were previously unused.
Government further developed agriculture through technology and lower taxation. Complex irrigation systems built by government allowed peasant farmers to produce larger crop volumes and produce crops not only for sustenance but also as cash crop
s. Reduced taxation of the peasantry also furthered the expanded commerce through increasing periodic markets, usually held every five days. One thousand such markets existed in the 19th century, and were communal centers for economic trade and entertainment.
The end of the Joseon period was marked by consistent encouragement to trade with the Western world, China and Japan. In the 1860s, trade agreements pushed by the Japanese government led the Joseon Dynasty
to open its trade ports with the west, and to numerous treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and other Western countries.
The opening of Korea to the Western world brought further exchange of culture and food. Western missionaries introduced new ingredients and dishes to Korea. Joseon elites were introduced to these new foods by way of foreigners who attended the royal court as advisers or physicians. This period also saw the introduction of various seasonings imported from Japan via western traders and alcoholic drinks from China.
Meals during the Japanese occupation were monotonous. Koreans usually ate two meals a day during the cold seasons, and three during the warm seasons. Satiety, rather than quality, was most important. Those in the lower economic levels were likely to enjoy only a single bowl of white rice each year, while the remainder of the year was filled with cheaper grains, such as millet
and barley
. Western food began emerging in the Korean diet, such as white bread and commercially produced staples such as precooked noodles. The Japanese occupational period ended after the defeat of Japan during World War II
.
The country remained in a state of turmoil through the Korean War
(1950–1953) and the Cold War
, which separated the country into North Korea
and South Korea. Both of these periods continued the limited food provisions for Koreans, and the stew called budae jjigae
, which makes use of inexpensive meats such as sausage and Spam
, originated during this period.
At this point, the history of North and South Korea sharply diverged. In the 1960s under President Park Chung Hee, industrialization began to give South Korea the economic and cultural power it holds in the global economy today. Agriculture was increased through use of commercial fertilizers and modern farming equipment. In the 1970s, food shortages began to lessen. Consumption of instant and processed foods increased, as did the overall quality of foods. Livestock
and dairy production was increased during the 1970s through the increase of commercial dairies and mechanized farms. The consumption of pork and beef increased vastly in the 1970s. Per-capita consumption of meat was 3.6 kg in 1961 and 11 kg by 1979. The result of this increased meat consumption brought about the rise of bulgogi
restaurants, which gave the middle class of South Korea the ability to enjoy meat regularly. Meat eating continued to rise, reaching 40 kg in 1997, with fish consumption at 49.5 kg in 1998. Rice consumption continually decreased through these years, with 128 kg consumed per person in 1985 to 106 kg in 1995 and 83 kg in 2003. The decrease in rice consumption has been accompanied by an increase in the consumption of bread and noodles.
kingdom, where a man-made lake (Anapji Lake, located in Gyeongju
), was created with multiple pavilions and halls for the sole purpose of opulent banquet
s, and a spring fed channel, Poseokjeong
, was created for the singular purpose of setting wine cups afloat while they wrote poems.
Reflecting the regionalism of the kingdoms and bordering countries of the peninsula, the cuisine borrowed portions from each of these areas to exist as a showcase. The royalty would have the finest regional specialties and delicacies sent to them at the palace. Although there are records of banquets predating the Joseon period, the majority of these records mostly reflect the vast variety of foods, but do not mention the specific foods presented. The meals cooked for the royal family did not reflect the seasons, as the commoner's meals would have. Instead, their meals varied significantly day-to-day. Each of the eight provinces was represented each month in the royal palace by ingredients presented by their governors, which gave the cooks a wide assortment of ingredients to use for royal meals.
Food was considered significant in the Joseon period. Official positions were created within the Six Ministries
(Yukjo, 육조) that were charged with all matters related to procurement and consumption of food and drink for the royal court. The Board of Personnel (Ijo, 이조) contained positions specific for attaining rice for the royal family. The Board of Rights (Yejo) were responsible for foods prepared for ancestor rites, attaining wines and other beverages, and medicinal foods. There were also hundreds of slaves and women who worked in the palace that had tasks such as making tofu
, liquor, tea, and tteok
(rice cakes). The women were the cooks to the royal palace and were of commoner or low-born families. These women would be split into specific skill sets or "bureau" such as the bureau of special foods (Saenggwa-bang, 생과방) or the bureau of cooking foods (Soju-bang, 소주방). These female cooks may have been assisted by male cooks from outside the palace during larger banquets when necessary.
Five meals were generally served in the royal palace each day during the Joseon period, and records suggest this pattern had existed from antiquity. Three of these meals would be full meals, while the afternoon and after dinner meals would be lighter. The first meal, mieumsang (미음상), was served at sunrise and was served only on days when the king and queen were not taking herbal medicines. The meal consisted of rice porridge
(juk, 죽) made with ingredients such as abalone (jeonbokjuk
), white rice (huinjuk), mushrooms (beoseotjuk), pine nuts (jatjuk
), and sesame (kkaejuk). The side dishes could consist of kimchi, nabak kimchi
, oysters, soy sauce, and other items. The porridge was thought to give vitality to the king and queen throughout the day.
The sura (수라) were the main meals of the day. Breakfast was served at ten in the morning, and the evening meals were served between six and seven at night. The set of three tables (surasang, 수라상), were usually set with two types of rice, two types of soup, two types of stew (jjigae
), one dish of jjim
(meat stew), one dish of jeongol
(a casserole of meat and vegetables), three types of kimchi, three types of jang (장) and twelve side dishes, called 12 cheop (12첩). The meals were set in the suragan (수라간), a room specifically used for taking meals, with the king seated to the east and the queen to the west. Each had their own set of tables and were attended by three palace servant women known as sura sanggung (수라상궁). These women would remove bowl covers and offer the foods to the king and queen after ensuring the dishes were not poisoned.
Banquets (궁중 연회 음식) were held on special occasions in the Korean Royal Palace. These included birthdays of the royal family members, marriages, and national festivals, including Daeborum, Dano, Chuseok, and Dongji. Banquet food was served on individual tables which varied according to the rank of the person. Usually banquet food consisted of ten different types of dishes. Main dishes were prepared based on the seasonal foods. Main dishes of the banquet included sinseollo, jeon, hwayang jeok, honghapcho', nengmyun and mulgimchi. A typical banquet ingredient was chogyetang (chicken broth with vinegar), which was prepared with five different chickens, five abalones, ten sea cucumbers, twenty eggs, half a bellflower root, mushrooms, two cups of black pepper, two peeled pine nuts, starch, soy sauce and vinegar. Yaksik was a favorite banquet dessert.
Prehistoric Korea
The Prehistoric Korea is the era of human existence in the Korean Peninsula for which written records did not exist. It, however, constitutes the greatest segment of the Korean past and is the major object of study in the disciplines of archaeology, geology, and...
in the Korean peninsula
Korean Peninsula
The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 684 miles from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water.Until the end of...
evolving through a complex interaction of environmental, political, and cultural trends.
Korean cuisine is largely based upon rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
, vegetable
Vegetable
The noun vegetable usually means an edible plant or part of a plant other than a sweet fruit or seed. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant....
s, and meat
Meat
Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs and offal...
s. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dish
Side dish
A side dish, sometimes referred to as a side order or simply a side, is a food item that accompanies the entrée or main course at a meal.-Common types:...
es (banchan
Banchan
Banchan refers to small dishes of food served along with cooked rice in Korean cuisine. This word is used both in the singular and plural....
) that accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Kimchi
Kimchi
Kimchi , also spelled gimchi, kimchee, or kim chee, is a traditional fermented Korean dish made of vegetables with varied seasonings. There are hundreds of varieties of kimchi made with a main vegetable ingredient such as napa cabbage, radish, green onions or cucumber. It is the most common...
is served often, sometimes at every meal. Commonly used ingredients include sesame oil
Sesame oil
Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used as a cooking oil in South India, it is often used as a flavor enhancer in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and to a lesser extent Southeast Asian cuisine.The oil from the nutrient rich seed is popular in alternative...
, doenjang
Doenjang
Doenjang is a traditional Korean fermented soybean paste. Its name literally means "thick paste" in Korean.-Production:...
(fermented bean paste
Fermented bean paste
Fermented bean paste is a category of fermented foods typically made from ground soybeans, which are indigenous to the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia...
), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, pepper
Chili pepper
Chili pepper is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The term in British English and in Australia, New Zealand, India, Malaysia and other Asian countries is just chilli without pepper.Chili peppers originated in the Americas...
flakes and gochujang
Gochujang
Gochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
(fermented red chili paste).
Ingredients and dishes vary by province. Many regional dishes have become national, and dishes that were once regional have proliferated in different variations across the country. The Korean royal court cuisine
Korean royal court cuisine
Korean royal court cuisine was the style of cookery within Korean cuisine traditionally consumed at the court of the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1910. There has been a revival of this cookery style in the 21st century...
once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals are regulated by Korean cultural etiquette
Etiquette
Etiquette is a code of behavior that delineates expectations for social behavior according to contemporary conventional norms within a society, social class, or group...
.
Grains
GrainGRAIN
GRAIN is a small international non-profit organisation that works to support small farmers and social movements in their struggles for community-controlled and biodiversity-based food systems. Our support takes the form of independent research and analysis, networking at local, regional and...
s have been one of the most important staples to the Korean diet. Early myths of the foundations of various kingdoms in Korea center on grains. One foundation myth relates to Jumong, who received barley seeds from two dove
Dove
Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae within the order Columbiformes, which include some 300 species of near passerines. In general terms "dove" and "pigeon" are used somewhat interchangeably...
s sent by his mother after establishing the kingdom of Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
. Yet another myth speaks of the three founding deities of Jeju Island
Jeju-do
Jeju-do is the only special autonomous province of South Korea, situated on and coterminous with the country's largest island. Jeju-do lies in the Korea Strait, southwest of Jeollanam-do Province, of which it was a part before it became a separate province in 1946...
who were to be wed to the three princesses of Tamna
Tamna
The kingdom of Tamna or Tamna guk ruled Jeju Island from ancient times until it was absorbed by the Korean Joseon Dynasty in 1404. This kingdom is also sometimes known as Tangna , Seomna , and Tammora . All of these names mean "island country."There is no historical record of the founding or early...
; the deities brought seeds of five grains which were the first seeds planted, which in turn became the first instance of farming.
During the pre-modern era, grains such as barley and millet were the main staples and were supplemented by wheat, sorghum
Sorghum
Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, one of which is raised for grain and many of which are used as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents...
, and buckwheat
Buckwheat
Buckwheat refers to a variety of plants in the dicot family Polygonaceae: the Eurasian genus Fagopyrum, the North American genus Eriogonum, and the Northern Hemisphere genus Fallopia. Either of the latter two may be referred to as "wild buckwheat"...
. Rice is not an indigenous crop to Korea, and it is likely millet was the preferred grain before rice was cultivated. Rice became the grain of choice during the Three Kingdoms period, particularly in the kingdoms of Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
and Baekje
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla....
in the southern regions of the peninsula. Rice was such an important commodity in Silla that it was used to pay taxes. The Sino-Korean word for "tax" is a compound character that uses the character for the rice plant. The preference for rice escalated into the Joseon period, when new methods of cultivation and new varieties emerged that would help increase production.
As rice was prohibitively expensive when it first came to Korea, it is likely the grain was mixed with other grains to "stretch" the rice; this is still done in dishes such as boribap (rice with barley) and kongbap
Kongbap
Kongbap is a Korean dish consisting of white or brown rice cooked together with one or more beans . Kongbap may be made from scratch by combining and cooking together dried rice and beans, although it is also commercially available premixed packages in dried form in grocery stores throughout Korea,...
(rice with beans). White rice, which is rice with the bran removed, has been the preferred form of rice since its introduction into the cuisine. The most traditional method of cooking the rice has been to cook it in an iron pot called a sot (솥) or musoe sot (무쇠솥). This method of rice cookery dates back at least to the Goryeo period, and sot have even been found in tombs from the Silla period. The sot is still used today, much in the same manner as it was in the past centuries.
Rice is used to make a number of items, outside of the traditional bowl of plain white rice. It is commonly ground into a flour and used to make rice cakes called tteok
Tteok
Tteok is a class of Korean rice cakes made with glutinous rice flour , by steaming. Normal rice flour can be used for some kinds of tteok. There are hundreds of different kinds of tteok eaten year round...
, of which there are over two hundred varieties. It is also cooked down into a congee
Congee
Congee is a type of rice porridge popular in many Asian countries. It can be eaten alone or served with a side dish. Names for congee are as varied as the style of its preparation...
(juk), or gruel
Gruel
Gruel is a food preparation consisting of some type of cereal—oat, wheat or rye flour, or rice—boiled in water or milk. It is a thinner version of porridge that may be more often drunk than eaten and need not even be cooked...
(mieum) and mixed with other grains, meat, or seafood. Koreans also produce a number of rice wine
Rice wine
Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage made from rice. Unlike wine, which is made by fermentation of naturally sweet grapes and other fruit, rice "wine" results from the fermentation of rice starch converted to sugars...
s, both in filtered and unfiltered versions.
Legumes
Legumes have been significant crops in Korean history and cuisine according to earliest preserved legumes found in archaeological siteArchaeological site
An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past activity is preserved , and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely,...
s in Korea. The excavation at Okbang site, Jinju
Jinju
Jinju is a city in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. It was the location of the first and second Sieges of Jinju by Japanese forces during the Imjin War...
, South Gyeongsang province indicates soybean
Soybean
The soybean or soya bean is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses...
s were cultivated as a food crop circa 1000–900 BCE. They are made into tofu
Tofu
is a food made by coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into soft white blocks. It is part of East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Indonesian, Vietnamese, and others. There are many different varieties of tofu, including fresh tofu and tofu...
(dubu), while soybean sprouts are sauteed as a vegetable (kongnamul
Kongnamul
Kongnamul, an example of Korean cuisine, refers to a seasoned banchan made from soybean sprouts, as well as being a term for the sprouts themselves in the Korean language...
) and whole soybeans are seasoned and served as a side dish. They are also made into soy milk
Soy milk
Soy milk and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage is a beverage made from soybeans. A stable emulsion of oil, water, and protein, it is produced by soaking dry soybeans and grinding them with water...
, which is used as the base for the noodle dish called kongguksu
Kongguksu
Kongguksu is a seasonal Korean noodle dish served in a cold soy milk broth. It comprises noodles made with wheat flour and soup made from ground soybeans...
. A byproduct of soy milk production is okara
Okara (food)
Okara or Soy Pulp is a white or yellowish pulp consisting of insoluble parts of the soybean which remain in the filter sack when pureed soybeans are filtered in the production of soy milk...
(kongbiji), which is used to thicken stews and porridges. Soybeans may also be one of the beans in kongbap
Kongbap
Kongbap is a Korean dish consisting of white or brown rice cooked together with one or more beans . Kongbap may be made from scratch by combining and cooking together dried rice and beans, although it is also commercially available premixed packages in dried form in grocery stores throughout Korea,...
, which boil together with several types of beans and other grains. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient in the production of fermented condiments collectively referred to as jang, such as soy bean pastes, doenjang
Doenjang
Doenjang is a traditional Korean fermented soybean paste. Its name literally means "thick paste" in Korean.-Production:...
and cheonggukjang
Cheonggukjang
Cheonggukjang is a fermented soybean paste used in Korean cuisine. It contains whole as well as ground soybeans.- Production :It can be made in 2 to 3 days through fermentation of boiled soybeans, adding Bacillus subtilis, which is usually contained in the air or in the jip, dried rice plants,...
, a soy sauce called ganjang, chili pepper paste or gochujang
Gochujang
Gochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
and others.
Mung bean
Mung bean
The mung bean is the seed of Vigna radiata. It is native to the Indian subcontinent.-Description:They are small, ovoid in shape, and green in color...
s are commonly used in Korean cuisine, where they are called nokdu (绿豆, literally "green bean"). Mung bean sprouts, called sukju namul, are often served as a side dish, blanched and sautéed
Sautéing
Sautéing is a method of cooking food, that uses a small amount of fat in a shallow pan over relatively high heat. Ingredients are usually cut into pieces or thinly sliced to facilitate fast cooking. The primary mode of heat transfer during sautéing is conduction between the pan and the food being...
with sesame oil, garlic, and salt. Ground mung beans are used to make a porridge called nokdujuk, which is eaten as a nutritional supplement and digestive aid, especially for ill patients. A popular snack, bindaetteok
Bindaetteok
Bindaetteok is a variety of jeon, a Korean style pancake...
(mung bean pancake) is made with ground mung beans and fresh mung bean sprouts. Starch extracted from ground mung beans is used to make transparent cellophane noodles
Cellophane noodles
Cellophane noodles are a type of transparent noodle made from starch , and water.They are generally sold in dried form, boiled to reconstitute, then used in soups, stir fried dishes,...
(dangmyeon). The noodles are the main ingredients for japchae
Japchae
Japchae is a Korean dish made from sweet potato noodles , stir fried in sesame oil with various vegetables , sometimes served with beef, and flavoured with soy sauce, and sweetened with sugar...
(a salad-like dish), and sundae
Sundae (Korean food)
Sundae is a Korean dish made generally by boiling or steaming cow or pig's intestines that are stuffed with various ingredients. It is a kind of blood sausage and believed to have been eaten for a long time...
(a blood sausage
Blood sausage
Black pudding, blood pudding or blood sausage is a type of sausage made by cooking blood or dried blood with a filler until it is thick enough to congeal when cooled. The dish exists in various cultures from Asia to Europe...
) or a subsidiary ingredient for soups and stews. The starch can be also used to make jelly-like foods, such as nokdumuk
Nokdumuk
Nokdumuk also spelled noktumuk is a Korean muk, or jelly, made from mung bean starch. In its most commonly encountered form, it is also called cheongpomuk , which literally means "clear froth jelly," owing to its clear white color...
and hwangpomuk
Hwangpomuk
Hwangpomuk is a Korean food which is a yellow jelly made from mung beans. The yellow color comes from dyeing with the fruit of gardenia...
. The muk have a bland flavor, so are served seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil and crumbled seaweeds or other seasonings such as tangpyeongchae
Tangpyeongchae
Tangpyeongchae is a Korean dish that was part of the Korean royal court cuisine. It is made by mixing julienned nokdumuk, mung bean sprouts, watercress, stir-fried shredded beef, thinly shredded red pepper and lightly broiled gim. Tangpyeongchae is seasoned with a sauce made with ganjang, vinegar,...
.
Cultivation of azuki bean
Azuki bean
The is an annual vine, Vigna angularis, widely grown throughout East Asia and the Himalayas for its small bean. The cultivars most familiar in north-east Asia have a uniform red color, but white, black, gray and variously mottled varieties are also known. Scientists presume Vigna angularis var...
s dates back to ancient times according to an excavation from Odong-ri, Hoeryong
Hoeryong
Hoeryŏng is a city in North Hamgyŏng Province, North Korea. It is opposite Jilin Province, China, with the Tumen River in between. Sanhe , in Longjing prefecture, is the closest Chinese town across the river. Hoeryŏng is said to be the birthplace of Kim Il Sung's first wife and Kim Jong Il's...
, North Hamgyong province, which is assumed to be that of Mumun period (approximately 1500-300 BCE). Azuki beans are generally eaten as patbap, which is a bowl of rice mixed with the beans, or as a filling and covering for tteok
Tteok
Tteok is a class of Korean rice cakes made with glutinous rice flour , by steaming. Normal rice flour can be used for some kinds of tteok. There are hundreds of different kinds of tteok eaten year round...
(rice cake) and breads. A porridge made with azuki beans, called patjuk, is commonly eaten during the winter season. On Dongjinal, a Korean traditional holiday which falls on December 22, Korean people eat Donji patjuk, which contains saealsim (새알심), a ball made from glutinous rice flour. In old Korean tradition, patjuk is believed to have the power to drive evil spirits away.
Condiments and seasoning
CondimentCondiment
A condiment is an edible substance, such as sauce or seasoning, added to food to impart a particular flavor, enhance its flavor, or in some cultures, to complement the dish. Many condiments are available packaged in single-serving sachets , like mustard or ketchup, particularly when supplied with...
s are divided into fermented and nonfermented variants. Fermented condiments include ganjang
Ganjang
Ganjang is a kind of Korean soy sauce made from fermented soybeans. Ganjang is a uniquely Korean condiment.Traditionally, Koreans start processing soybeans around the 10th month of the lunar calendar. They soak soybeans overnight and then boil them. They then pound the soybeans into a powder and...
, doenjang
Doenjang
Doenjang is a traditional Korean fermented soybean paste. Its name literally means "thick paste" in Korean.-Production:...
, gochujang and vinegars. Nonfermented condiments or spices include red pepper, black pepper, Chinese pepper
Sichuan Pepper
Sichuan pepper is the outer pod of the tiny fruit of a number of species in the genus Zanthoxylum , widely grown and consumed in Asia as a spice. Despite the name, it is not related to black pepper or to chili peppers...
, cordifolia, mustard, chinensis, garlic, onion, ginger, leek, and scallion (spring onion).
Meat and fish
In antiquity, most meat in Korea was likely obtained through huntingHunting
Hunting is the practice of pursuing any living thing, usually wildlife, for food, recreation, or trade. In present-day use, the term refers to lawful hunting, as distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species contrary to applicable law...
and fishing
Fishing
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch wild fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping....
. Ancient records indicate rearing of livestock
Livestock
Livestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
began on a small scale during the Three Kingdoms period. Meat was consumed roasted or in soups or stews during this period. Those who lived closer to the oceans were able to complement their diet with more fish, while those who lived in the interior had a diet containing more meat.
Beef
Beef
Beef is the culinary name for meat from bovines, especially domestic cattle. Beef can be harvested from cows, bulls, heifers or steers. It is one of the principal meats used in the cuisine of the Middle East , Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the United States, and is also important in...
is the most prized of all meats, with the cattle holding an important cultural role in the Korean home. The cattle were valuable draught animals and were regarded more as servants than for consumption. There were also seen as an equal to human servants, or in some cases, members of family. Cattle were also given their own holiday during the first 'cow' day of the lunar New Year
Korean New Year
Korean New Year, commonly known as Seollal , is the first day of the lunar calendar. It is the most important of the traditional Korean holidays. It consists of a period of celebrations, starting on New Year's Day. Koreans also celebrate solar New Year's Day on January 1 each year, following the...
. The importance of cattle does not suggest Koreans ate an abundance of beef, however, as as the cattle were valued as beasts of burden
Pack animal
A pack animal or beast of burden is a working animal used by humans as means of transporting materials by attaching them so their weight bears on the animal's back; the term may be applied to either an individual animal or a species so employed...
and slaughtering one would create dire issues in farming the land. Pork and seafood were more likely consumed on a more regular basis, due to this issue. The Buddhist ruling class of the Goryeo period forbade the consumption of beef. The Mongols dispensed with the ban of beef during the 13th century, and they promoted the production of beef cattle. This increased production continued into the Joseon period, when the government encouraged both increased quantities and quality of beef.
Only in the latter part of the 20th century has beef become regular table fare. Beef is prepared in numerous ways today, including roasting, grilling (gui
Gui
Gui or guee is a generic term to refer to grilled dishes in Korean cuisine. These most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetarian ingredients. The term derives from the verb, "gupda" in Korean, which literally...
) or boiling in soups
Guk
Guk , also sometimes known as Tang , is a class of soup-like dishes in Korean cuisine. Guk and tang are commonly grouped together and regarded as the same type of dish, although guk is more watery and a basic dish for the Korean table setting, and is usually eaten at home...
. Beef can also be dried into jerky
Jerky
Jerky can refer to:*Jerky, a type of dried meat*The Jerky Boys, a prank phone call performance groupSee also*Jerk...
, as with seafood, called respectively yukpo and eopo.
Chicken
Chicken
Chicken (food)
Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world, and is prepared as food in a wide variety of ways, varying by region and culture.- History :...
has played an important role as a protein in Korean history, evidenced by a number of myths. One myth tells of the birth of Kim Alji
Kim Alji
Kim Alji was a historical figure in Korean history. His descendents formed the Kim royal clan of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea....
, founder of the Kim family of Gyeongju
Gyeongju
Gyeongju is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang province in South Korea. It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong, covering with a population of 269,343 people according to the 2008 census. Gyeongju is southeast of Seoul, and east of the...
being announced by the cry of a white chicken. As the birth of a clan's founder is always announced by an animal with preternatural qualities, this myth speaks to the importance of chicken in Korean culture. Chicken is often served roasted or braised with vegetables or in soups. All parts of the chicken are used in Korean cuisine, including the gizzard
Gizzard
The gizzard, also referred to as the ventriculus, gastric mill, and gigerium, is an organ found in the digestive tract of some animals, including birds, reptiles, earthworms and some fish. This specialized stomach constructed of thick, muscular walls is used for grinding up food; often rocks are...
, liver
Liver
The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion...
, and feet. Young chickens are braised with ginseng
Ginseng
Ginseng is any one of eleven species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, belonging to the genus Panax of the family Araliaceae....
and other ingredients in medicinal soups eaten during the summer months to combat heat called samgyetang
Samgyetang
Samgyetang is a variety of guk or Korean soup, which primarily consists of a whole young chicken and Korean ginseng. The dish's name literally translates as "ginseng chicken soup" in English...
. The feet of the chicken, called dakbal (닭발), are often roasted and covered with hot and spicy gochujang
Gochujang
Gochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
-based sauce and served as an anju
Anju (food)
Anju is a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol . Some of these side dishes can also be ordered as an appetizer or a main dish. These side dishes are different from the banchan side dishes served with a regular Korean meal...
, or side dish, to accompany alcoholic beverages, especially soju
Soju
Soju is a distilled beverage native to Korea. Its taste is comparable to vodka, though often slightly sweeter due to sugars added in the manufacturing process, and more commonly consumed neat.Most brands of soju are made in South Korea...
.
Pork
Pork
Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig , which is eaten in many countries. It is one of the most commonly consumed meats worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC....
has also been another important land-based protein for Korea. Records indicate pork has been a part of the Korean diet back to antiquity, similar to beef.
A number of foods have been avoided while eating pork, including Chinese bellflower
Chinese bellflower
Platycodon grandiflorus is a species of perennial flowering plant of the family Campanulaceae and the only member of the genus Platycodon . This species is known as platycodon or Chinese bellflower...
(doraji, 도라지) and lotus root (yeonn ppuri, 연뿌리), as the combinations have been thought to cause diarrhea. All parts of the pig are used in Korean cuisine, including the head, intestines, liver, kidneys, etc. Koreans utilize these parts in a variety of cooking methods including steaming, stewing, boiling and smoking.
Fish and seafood
Fish (food)
Fish is a food consumed by many species, including humans. The word "fish" refers to both the animal and to the food prepared from it. Fish has been an important source of protein for humans throughout recorded history.-Terminology:...
and shellfish
Shellfish
Shellfish is a culinary and fisheries term for exoskeleton-bearing aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish are harvested from saltwater environments, some kinds are found only in freshwater...
have been a major part of Korean cuisine because of the oceans bordering the peninsula. Evidence from the 12th century illustrates commoners consumed a diet mostly of fish and shellfish, such as shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp are swimming, decapod crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh and salt water. Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals living close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. Shrimp are an important...
, clam
Clam
The word "clam" can be applied to freshwater mussels, and other freshwater bivalves, as well as marine bivalves.In the United States, "clam" can be used in several different ways: one, as a general term covering all bivalve molluscs...
s, oyster
Oyster
The word oyster is used as a common name for a number of distinct groups of bivalve molluscs which live in marine or brackish habitats. The valves are highly calcified....
s, abalone
Abalone
Abalone , from aulón, are small to very large-sized edible sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Haliotidae and the genus Haliotis...
, and loach, while sheep and hogs were reserved for the upper class.
Both fresh and saltwater fish are popular, and are served raw, grilled, broiled, dried or served in soups and stews. Common grilled fish include mackerel
Mackerel
Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of fish, mostly, but not exclusively, from the family Scombridae. They may be found in all tropical and temperate seas. Most live offshore in the oceanic environment but a few, like the Spanish mackerel , enter bays and can be...
, hairtail, croaker
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae is a family of fish commonly called drums, croakers, or hardheads for the repetitive throbbing or drumming sounds they make...
and Pacific herring
Pacific herring
The Pacific herring, Clupea pallasii, is a species of the herring family associated with the Pacific Ocean environment of North America and northeast Asia. This species is a silvery fish with unspined fins and a deeply forked caudal fin...
. Smaller fish, shrimp, squid, mollusks and countless other seafood can be salted and fermented as jeotgal
Jeotgal
Jeotgal or jeot is a salted fermented food in Korean cuisine. It is made with various seafood, such as shrimp, oysters, shellfish, fish, fish eggs, and fish intestines....
. Fish can also be grilled either whole or in fillets as banchan
Banchan
Banchan refers to small dishes of food served along with cooked rice in Korean cuisine. This word is used both in the singular and plural....
. Fish is often dried naturally to prolong storing periods and enable shipping over long distances. Fish commonly dried include yellow corvina, anchovies (myeolchi) and croaker
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae is a family of fish commonly called drums, croakers, or hardheads for the repetitive throbbing or drumming sounds they make...
. Dried anchovies, along with kelp, form the basis of common soup stocks.
Shellfish is widely eaten in all different types of preparation. They can be used to prepare broth
Stock (food)
Stock is a flavoured water preparation. It forms the basis of many dishes, particularly soups and sauces.- Preparation :Stock is made by simmering various ingredients in water, including some or all of the following...
, eaten raw with chogochujang, which is a mixture of gochujang
Gochujang
Gochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
and vinegar, or used as a popular ingredient in countless dishes. Raw oysters and other seafood can be used in making kimchi to improve and vary the flavor. Salted baby shrimp are used as a seasoning agent, known as saeujeot
Saeujeot
Saeujeot is a variety of jeotgal, salted and fermented food made with small shrimp in Korean cuisine. It is the most consumed jeotgal along with myeolchijeot in South Korea. The name consists of the two Korean words, saeu and jeot...
, for the preparation of some types of kimchi. Large shrimp are often grilled as daeha gui
Gui
Gui or guee is a generic term to refer to grilled dishes in Korean cuisine. These most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetarian ingredients. The term derives from the verb, "gupda" in Korean, which literally...
(대하구이) or dried, mixed with vegetables and served with rice. Mollusks eaten in Korean cuisine include octopus
Octopus
The octopus is a cephalopod mollusc of the order Octopoda. Octopuses have two eyes and four pairs of arms, and like other cephalopods they are bilaterally symmetric. An octopus has a hard beak, with its mouth at the center point of the arms...
, cuttlefish
Cuttlefish
Cuttlefish are marine animals of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda . Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs....
, and squid
Squid
Squid are cephalopods of the order Teuthida, which comprises around 300 species. Like all other cephalopods, squid have a distinct head, bilateral symmetry, a mantle, and arms. Squid, like cuttlefish, have eight arms arranged in pairs and two, usually longer, tentacles...
.
Vegetables
Korean cuisine uses a wide variety of vegetables, which are often served uncooked, either in salads or pickles, as well as cooked in various stews, stir-fried dishes, and other hot dishes. Commonly used vegetables include Korean radish, Napa cabbageNapa cabbage
Napa cabbage , also known as celery cabbage, is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China, and is widely used in East Asian cuisine. In much of the world, this is the vegetable referred to as "Chinese cabbage"...
, cucumber, potato, sweet potato, spinach, bean sprouts, scallions, garlic, chili peppers, seaweed
Seaweed
Seaweed is a loose, colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthic marine algae. The term includes some members of the red, brown and green algae...
, zucchini
Zucchini
The zucchini is a summer squash which often grows to nearly a meter in length, but which is usually harvested at half that size or less. It is a hybrid of the cucumber. Along with certain other squashes, it belongs to the species Cucurbita pepo. Zucchini can be dark or light green...
, mushrooms and lotus root
Nelumbo nucifera
Nelumbo nucifera, known by a number of names including Indian Lotus, Sacred Lotus, Bean of India, or simply Lotus, is a plant in the monogeneric family Nelumbonaceae...
. Several types of wild greens, known collectively as chwinamul
Chwinamul
Chwinamul is a Korean leaf vegetable. It consists of the leaves of various species of wild flowering plants, including Aster scaber. There are approximately 24 edible varieties in Korea of which most are found on mountains...
(such as Aster scaber), are a popular dish, and other wild vegetables such as bracken fern
Bracken
Bracken are several species of large, coarse ferns of the genus Pteridium. Ferns are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells . Brackens are in the family Dennstaedtiaceae, which are noted for their large, highly...
shoots (gosari) or Korean bellflower root (doraji) are also harvested and eaten in season. Medicinal herbs, such as ginseng
Ginseng
Ginseng is any one of eleven species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, belonging to the genus Panax of the family Araliaceae....
, reishi, wolfberry
Wolfberry
Wolfberry, commercially called goji berry, is the common name for the fruit of two very closely related species: Lycium barbarum and L. chinense , two species of boxthorn in the family Solanaceae...
, Codonopsis pilosula
Codonopsis pilosula
Codonopsis pilosula , also known as dang shen or poor man's ginseng, is a perennial species of flowering plant native to Northeast Asia and Korea and usually found growing around streambanks and forest openings under the shade of trees....
, and Angelica sinensis
Angelica sinensis
Angelica sinensis, commonly known as "dong quai" or "female ginseng" is a herb from the family Apiaceae, indigenous to China.-Chinese:...
, are often used as ingredients in cooking, as in samgyetang
Samgyetang
Samgyetang is a variety of guk or Korean soup, which primarily consists of a whole young chicken and Korean ginseng. The dish's name literally translates as "ginseng chicken soup" in English...
.
Medical foods
Medical food (boyangsik) is a wide variety of specialty foods prepared and eaten for medicinal purposes, especially during the hottest 30-day period in the lunar calendar, called sambok. Hot foods consumed are believed to restore kiQi
In traditional Chinese culture, qì is an active principle forming part of any living thing. Qi is frequently translated as life energy, lifeforce, or energy flow. Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts...
, as well as sexual and physical stamina lost in the summer heat Commonly eaten boyangshik include: ginseng, chicken, dog
Bosintang
Boshintang , or Gaejangguk is a Korean soup that includes dog meat as its primary ingredient. The soup has been claimed to provide increased virility. The meat is boiled with vegetables such as green onions, perilla leaves, and dandelions, and spices such as Doenjang , Gochujang , and perilla...
, abalone, eel, carp, bone marrow, pig kidneys and black goat. These foods are popularly consumed by groups of men as a macho, backslapping activity.
Dog meat
The consumption of dog meat in what is now Korea dates back to antiquity. Today, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the nureongi
Nureongi
The Nureongi also spelled Noo-rung-yee is a yellowish dog landrace from Korea. It is most often used as a livestock dog, raised for its meat and not commonly kept as a pet.-Terminology:This dog has no formal name...
(누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets, which Koreans may keep in their homes. Dog meat is usually eaten during the summer months, in either roasted form or prepared in soups. The most popular of these soups is gaejang-guk
Bosintang
Boshintang , or Gaejangguk is a Korean soup that includes dog meat as its primary ingredient. The soup has been claimed to provide increased virility. The meat is boiled with vegetables such as green onions, perilla leaves, and dandelions, and spices such as Doenjang , Gochujang , and perilla...
(also called bosintang), a spicy stew which is believed by consumers to balance the body's heat during the summer months; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi
Qi
In traditional Chinese culture, qì is an active principle forming part of any living thing. Qi is frequently translated as life energy, lifeforce, or energy flow. Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts...
, or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallion
Scallion
Scallions , are the edible plants of various Allium species, all of which are "onion-like", having hollow green leaves and lacking a fully developed root bulb.-Etymology:The words...
s and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken
Chicken (food)
Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world, and is prepared as food in a wide variety of ways, varying by region and culture.- History :...
and bamboo shoot
Bamboo shoot
Bamboo shoots or bamboo sprouts are the edible shoots of many bamboo species including Bambusa vulgaris and Phyllostachys edulis. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths...
s. While the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is nowhere near as widely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork.
Dishes
Korean foods can be largely categorized into groups of "main staple foodStaple food
A staple food is one that is eaten regularly and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a diet, and that supplies a high proportion of energy and nutrient needs. Most people live on a diet based on one or more staples...
s" (주식), "subsidiary dishes" (부식), and "dessert" (후식). The main dishes are made from grains such as bap (a bowl of rice), juk
Rice congee
Congee is a type of rice porridge popular in many Asian countries. It can be eaten alone or served with a side dish. Names for congee are as varied as the style of its preparation...
(porridge), and guksu
Korean noodles
Korean noodles are noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine and are collectively referred to as "guksu" in native Korean or "myeon" in hanja. Preparations and cooking with noodles are relatively simple, so the history is longer than that of bread, dating back around BCE 6000 to BCE 5000 in China...
(noodles).
Many Korean banchan rely on fermentation for flavor and preservation, resulting in a tangy, salty, and spicy taste. Certain regions are especially associated with some dishes (for example, the city of Jeonju
Jeonju
Jeonju is a city in South Korea, and the capital of Jeollabuk-do, or North Jeolla Province. It is an important tourist center famous for Korean food, historic buildings, sports activities and innovative festivals.- History :...
with bibimbap
Bibimbap
Bibimbap is a signature Korean dish. The word literally means "mixed meal." Bibimbap is served as a bowl of warm white rice topped with namul and gochujang . A raw or fried egg and sliced meat are common additions. The ingredients are stirred together thoroughly just before eating...
) either as a place of origin or for a famous regional variety. Restaurants will often use these famous names on their signs or menus (i.e. "Suwon
Suwon
Suwon is the provincial capital of Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. A major city of over a million inhabitants, Suwon lies approximately south of Seoul. It is traditionally known as "The City of Filial Piety"....
galbi").
Soups and stews
Soup
Soup is a generally warm food that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth.Traditionally,...
s are a common part of any Korean meal. Unlike other cultures, in Korean culture, soup is served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal, as an accompaniment to rice along with other banchan
Banchan
Banchan refers to small dishes of food served along with cooked rice in Korean cuisine. This word is used both in the singular and plural....
. Soups known as guk
Guk
Guk , also sometimes known as Tang , is a class of soup-like dishes in Korean cuisine. Guk and tang are commonly grouped together and regarded as the same type of dish, although guk is more watery and a basic dish for the Korean table setting, and is usually eaten at home...
are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Soups can be made into more formal soups known as tang, often served as the main dish of the meal. Jjigae
Jjigae
Jjigae is a Korean dish similar to a Western stew. There are many different varieties but it is typically made with meat, seafood or vegetables in a broth seasoned with gochujang, doenjang, ganjang or saeujeot. Jjigae is typically served in a communal dish and boiling hot.A Korean meal almost...
are a thicker, heavier seasoned soups or stews.
Some popular types of soups are:
- Malgeunguk (맑은국), are flavored with ganjangGanjangGanjang is a kind of Korean soy sauce made from fermented soybeans. Ganjang is a uniquely Korean condiment.Traditionally, Koreans start processing soybeans around the 10th month of the lunar calendar. They soak soybeans overnight and then boil them. They then pound the soybeans into a powder and...
. Small amounts of long boiled meat may be added to the soup, or seafood both fresh and dried may be added, or vegetables may be the main component for the clear soup. - Tojangguk (토장국) are seasoned with doenjangDoenjangDoenjang is a traditional Korean fermented soybean paste. Its name literally means "thick paste" in Korean.-Production:...
. Common ingredients for tojang guk include seafood such as clams, dried anchovies, and shrimp. For a spicier soup, gochujangGochujangGochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
is added. - GomgukGomgukGomguk, also called gomtang, refers to a soup in Korean cuisine made with various beef parts such as ribs, oxtail, brisket, ox's head or ox bones by slow simmering on a low flame. The broth of gomguk tends to have a milky color with a rich and hearty taste.-Regional:*Hyeonpung gomtang : from the...
(곰국) or gomtang (곰탕), and they are made from boiling beef bones or cartilageCartilageCartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs...
. Originating as a peasant dish, all parts of beef are used, including tail, leg and rib bones with or without meat attached; these are boiled in water to extract fat, marrowBone marrowBone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the interior of bones. In humans, bone marrow in large bones produces new blood cells. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in adults weighing 65 kg , bone marrow accounts for approximately 2.6 kg...
, and gelatinGelatinGelatin is a translucent, colorless, brittle , flavorless solid substance, derived from the collagen inside animals' skin and bones. It is commonly used as a gelling agent in food, pharmaceuticals, photography, and cosmetic manufacturing. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a similar...
to create a rich soup. Some versions of this soup may also use the beef head and intestines. The only seasoning generally used in the soup is salt. - NaenggukNaenggukNaengguk refers to all kinds of cold guk in Korean cuisine, mainly eaten in summer. It is so called changuk, which literally means "cold soup" in pure Korean, while the term naengguk is a combination of a hanja word and a pure Korean word with the same meaning.The first historical record on...
(냉국), which are cold soups generally eaten during the summer months to cool the diner. A light hand is usually used in the seasoning of these soups usually using ganjangGanjangGanjang is a kind of Korean soy sauce made from fermented soybeans. Ganjang is a uniquely Korean condiment.Traditionally, Koreans start processing soybeans around the 10th month of the lunar calendar. They soak soybeans overnight and then boil them. They then pound the soybeans into a powder and...
and sesame oilSesame oilSesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used as a cooking oil in South India, it is often used as a flavor enhancer in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and to a lesser extent Southeast Asian cuisine.The oil from the nutrient rich seed is popular in alternative...
.
Stews are referred to as jjigae
Jjigae
Jjigae is a Korean dish similar to a Western stew. There are many different varieties but it is typically made with meat, seafood or vegetables in a broth seasoned with gochujang, doenjang, ganjang or saeujeot. Jjigae is typically served in a communal dish and boiling hot.A Korean meal almost...
, and are often a shared side dish. Jjigae is often both cooked and served in the glazed earthenware pot (ttukbaegi
Ttukbaegi
A ttukbaegi is Korean unglazed earthenware pot. used to cook or serve jjigae , guk , or other boiled dishes in Korean cuisine.-External links: at Joins.com...
) in which it is cooked. The most common version of this stew is doenjang jjigae
Doenjang jjigae
Doenjang jjigae is a variety of jjigae or stew-like Korean traditional dish, made with doenjang and available ingredients such as vegetables, mushrooms, seafood, or dubu . It is regarded as one of the representative dishes of food in Korea.-External links:* at TasteofKorea.org** at JoongAng Daily...
, which is a stew of soybean paste, with many variations; common ingredients include vegetables, saltwater or freshwater fish, and tofu. The stew often changes with the seasons and which ingredients are available. Other common varieties of jjigae contain kimchi
Kimchi
Kimchi , also spelled gimchi, kimchee, or kim chee, is a traditional fermented Korean dish made of vegetables with varied seasonings. There are hundreds of varieties of kimchi made with a main vegetable ingredient such as napa cabbage, radish, green onions or cucumber. It is the most common...
(kimchi jjigae) or tofu (sundubu jjigae
Sundubu jjigae
Sundubu jjigae is a hot and spicy jjigae dish made with uncurdled dubu , seafood , vegetables, mushrooms, onion, scallions, and gochujang or gochu garu in Korean cuisine. A raw egg is put in the jjigae while it is still boiling...
).
Kimchi
Kimchi
Kimchi , also spelled gimchi, kimchee, or kim chee, is a traditional fermented Korean dish made of vegetables with varied seasonings. There are hundreds of varieties of kimchi made with a main vegetable ingredient such as napa cabbage, radish, green onions or cucumber. It is the most common...
refers to often fermented vegetable dishes usually made with napa cabbage
Napa cabbage
Napa cabbage , also known as celery cabbage, is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China, and is widely used in East Asian cuisine. In much of the world, this is the vegetable referred to as "Chinese cabbage"...
, Korean radish
Radish
The radish is an edible root vegetable of the Brassicaceae family that was domesticated in Europe, in pre-Roman times. They are grown and consumed throughout the world. Radishes have numerous varieties, varying in size, color and duration of required cultivation time...
, or sometimes cucumber, commonly fermented in a brine of ginger, garlic, scallions, and chili pepper. There are endless varieties with regional variations, and it is served as a side dish or cooked into soups and rice dishes. Koreans traditionally make enough kimchi to last for the entire winter season, as fermented foods can keep for several years. These were stored in traditional Korean mud pots known as Jangdokdae although with the advent of refrigerators, special Kimchi freezers and commercially produced kimchi, this practice has become less common. Kimchi is packed with vitamin A, thiamine B1, riboflavin B2, calcium, and iron. Its main benefit though is found in the bacteria lactobacilli, this is found in yogurt and fermented foods. This bacteria helps with digestion. South Koreans eat an average of 40 pounds of Kimchi each year.
Noodles
Noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine are collectively referred to as guksu in native Korean or myeon in hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
. While noodles were eaten in Korea from ancient times, productions of wheat was less than other crops, so noodles did not become a daily food until 1945. Buckwheat (memil guksu) and wheat noodles (milguksu) were specialty foods for birthdays, weddings or auspicious occasions because the long and continued shape were thought to be associated with the bliss for longevity and long-lasting marriage.
In Korean traditional noodle dishes are onmyeon or guksu jangguk (noodles with a hot clear broth), naengmyeon
Naengmyeon
Naengmyeon is a Korean dish of long and thin hand-made noodles made from the flour and starch of various ingredients: buckwheat , potatoes, sweet potatoes, 칡냉면, naengmyun made with the starch from arrowroot , and kudzu...
(cold buckwheat noodles), bibim guksu
Bibim guksu
Bibim guksu, a cold dish made with very thin wheat flour noodles called somyeon with added flavorings, is one of the most popular traditional noodle dishes in Korean cuisine. It is also called guksu bibim or goldong myeon, all of which literally mean "stirred noodles" or "mixed noodles"...
(cold noodle dish mixed with vegetables), kalguksu
Kalguksu
Kalguksu is a Korean noodle dish consisting of handmade, knife-cut wheat flour noodles served in a large bowl with broth and other ingredients. It is traditionally considered a seasonal food, consumed most often in summer...
(knife-cut noodles), kongguksu
Kongguksu
Kongguksu is a seasonal Korean noodle dish served in a cold soy milk broth. It comprises noodles made with wheat flour and soup made from ground soybeans...
(noodles with a cold soybean broth) and others. In royal court, baekmyeon (literally "white noodles") consisting of buckwheat noodles and pheasant
Pheasant
Pheasants refer to some members of the Phasianinae subfamily of Phasianidae in the order Galliformes.Pheasants are characterised by strong sexual dimorphism, males being highly ornate with bright colours and adornments such as wattles and long tails. Males are usually larger than females and have...
broth, was regarded as the top quality noodle dish. Naengmyeon with a cold soup mixed with dongchimi
Dongchimi
Dongchimi is a variety of kimchi consisting of daikon, baechu , spring onions, fermented green chili, ginger, bae and watery brine in Korean cuisine...
(watery radish kimchi) and beef brisket broth was eaten in court during summer.
- JajangmyeonJajangmyeonJajangmyeon is a popular Korean dish, derived from the Chinese dish zha jiang mian. It consists of wheat noodles topped with a thick sauce made of chunjang , diced meat and vegetables, and sometimes also seafood...
, a staple Koreanized ChineseChinese cuisineChinese cuisine is any of several styles originating in the regions of China, some of which have become highly popular in other parts of the world – from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa...
noodle dish, is extremely popular in Korea as fast, take-out food. It is made with a black bean sauce usually fried with diced pork or seafood and a variety of vegetables, including zucchini and potatoes. It is popularly ordered and delivered, like Chinese take-out food in other parts of the world. - Ramyeon refers to Korean instant noodles similar to ramenRamenis a Japanese noodle dish. It consists of Chinese-style wheat noodles served in a meat- or fish-based broth, often flavored with soy sauce or miso, and uses toppings such as , , kamaboko, green onions, and occasionally corn...
.
Banchan
BanchanBanchan
Banchan refers to small dishes of food served along with cooked rice in Korean cuisine. This word is used both in the singular and plural....
is a term referring collectively to side dishes in Korean cuisine. Soups and stews are not considered banchan
Banchan
Banchan refers to small dishes of food served along with cooked rice in Korean cuisine. This word is used both in the singular and plural....
.
Gui
Gui or guee is a generic term to refer to grilled dishes in Korean cuisine. These most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetarian ingredients. The term derives from the verb, "gupda" in Korean, which literally...
are grilled dishes, which most commonly have meat or fish as their primary ingredient, but may in some cases also comprise grilled vegetables or other vegetable ingredients. At traditional restaurants, meats are cooked at the center of the table over a charcoal grill, surrounded by various banchan and individual rice bowls. The cooked meat is then cut into small pieces and wrapped with fresh lettuce leaves, with rice, thinly sliced garlic, ssamjang
Ssamjang
Ssamjang is a thick, spicy paste used with food wrapped in a leaf in Korean cuisine. The sauce is made of doenjang, gochujang, sesame oil, onion, garlic, green onions, and optionally brown sugar.-Use:...
(a mixture of gochujang and dwenjang), and other seasonings. The suffix gui is often omitted in the names of meat-based gui such as galbi
Galbi
Galbi or kalbi generally refers to a variety of gui or grilled dishes in Korean cuisine that is made with marinated beef short ribs in a ganjang-based sauce . In the Korean language, galbi literally means "rib" and can often indicate uncooked ribs...
, the name of which was originally galbi gui.
- List of grilled dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine
Jjim
Jjim
Jjim is a Korean cuisine term referring to dishes made by steaming or boiling meat, chicken, fish, or shellfish which have been marinated in a sauce or soup. The cooking technique originally referred to dishes cooked in a siru by steaming...
and seon
Seon (food)
Seon refers to Korean traditional dishes made by steaming vegetables such as zucchinis, cucumbers, eggplants, or Napa cabbages that are stuffed with fillings. Although the term is a counterpart of jjim, dishes made by steaming meat or seafood, the concept is not clearly settled...
(steamed dishes) are generic terms referring to steamed or boiled dishes in Korean cuisine. However, the former is made with meat or seafood-based ingredients marinated in gochujang
Gochujang
Gochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
or ganjang
Ganjang
Ganjang is a kind of Korean soy sauce made from fermented soybeans. Ganjang is a uniquely Korean condiment.Traditionally, Koreans start processing soybeans around the 10th month of the lunar calendar. They soak soybeans overnight and then boil them. They then pound the soybeans into a powder and...
while seon is made with vegetable stuffed with fillings.
- List of steamed dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine
Hoe
Hoe (dish)
Hoe may refer to various raw food dishes in Korean cuisine. Saengseon hoe or "Hwal-eo hoe" is thinly sliced raw fish or other raw seafood ; yukhoe is hoe made with a raw beef and seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil, and rice wine; and gan hoe is raw beef liver with a sauce of sesame oil and...
(raw dishes): although the term originally referred to any kind of raw dish, it is generally used to refer to saengseonhoe (생선회, raw fish dishes). It is dipped in gochujang
Gochujang
Gochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
, or soy sauce with wasabi
Wasabi
, also known as Japanese horseradish, is a member of the Brassicaceae family, which includes cabbages, horseradish, and mustard. Its root is used as a condiment and has an extremely strong flavor. Its hotness is more akin to that of a hot mustard rather than the capsaicin in a chili pepper,...
, and served with lettuce or perilla
Perilla
Perilla is the common name of the herbs of the genus Perilla of the mint family, Lamiaceae. In mild climates, the plant reseeds itself. There are both green-leafed and purple-leafed varieties, which are generally recognized as separate species by botanists. The leaves resemble stinging nettle...
leaves.
- list of raw dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine
Jeon (food)
Jeon , buchimgae, jijimgae, or jijim refer to many pancake-like dishes in Korean cuisine. It has been also called jeonyueo or jeonyuhwa, especially in Korean royal court cuisine. Sometimes, jeonya is used as an abbreviated term for the two...
(or buchimgae) are savory pancakes made from various ingredients. Chopped kimchi or seafood is mixed into a wheat flour-based batter, and then pan fried. This dish tastes best when it is dipped in a mixture of soy sauce, vinegar, and red pepper powder.
- List of jeon dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine
Namul
Namul is a general term for a Korean seasoned vegetable dish. The name of the dish may vary slightly depending on what vegetables are used and how they are prepared, but they will nonetheless still be a type of namul....
may be used to refer to either saengchae
Saengchae
Saengchae is a kind of Korean salad generally consisting of uncooked mixed seasonal vegetables such as radishes and other ingredients such as chicken or jellyfish....
(생채, literally "fresh vegetables") or sukchae (숙채, literally "heated vegetables"), although the term generally indicates the latter. Saengchae is mostly seasoned with vinegar, chili pepper
Chili pepper
Chili pepper is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The term in British English and in Australia, New Zealand, India, Malaysia and other Asian countries is just chilli without pepper.Chili peppers originated in the Americas...
powder and salt to give a tangy and refreshing taste. On the other hand, sukchae (숙채) is blanched and seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil
Sesame oil
Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used as a cooking oil in South India, it is often used as a flavor enhancer in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and to a lesser extent Southeast Asian cuisine.The oil from the nutrient rich seed is popular in alternative...
, chopped garlic, or sometimes chili pepper powder.
- List of namul dishes commonly found in Korean cuisine
Anju (side dishes accompanying alcoholic beverages)
* AnjuAnju (food)
Anju is a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol . Some of these side dishes can also be ordered as an appetizer or a main dish. These side dishes are different from the banchan side dishes served with a regular Korean meal...
is a general term for a Korean side dish consumed with alcohol. Some examples of anju include steamed squid with gochujang
Gochujang
Gochujang is a savory and pungent fermented Korean condiment. Traditionally, it has been naturally fermented over years in large earthen pots outdoors, more often on an elevated stone platform, called jangdokdae in the backyard...
, assorted fruit, dubu kimchi
Dubu kimchi
Dubu kimchi is a Korean dish consisting of sauteed kimchi served with tofu. Boiled or pan-fried sliced tofu and the kimchi are often served with sliced pork or canned tuna...
(tofu with kimchi), peanuts, oden
Oden
Oden is a Japanese winter dish consisting of several ingredients such as boiled eggs, daikon radish, konnyaku, and processed fish cakes stewed in a light, soy-flavoured dashi broth. Ingredients vary according to region and between each household...
g/ohmuk, sora (소라) (a kind of shellfish popular in street food tents), and nakji
Sannakji
Sannakji or sannakji hoe is a variety of hoe, or raw dish, in Korean cuisine. It consists of live nakji that has been cut into small pieces and served immediately, usually lightly seasoned with sesame and sesame oil. The nakji pieces are usually still squirming on the plate...
(small octopus). Soondae is also a kind of anju, as is samgyeopsal, or dwejigalbi. Most Korean foods may be served as anju, depending on availability and the diner's taste. However, anju is considered different from the banchan served with a regular Korean meal. Jokbal
Jokbal
Jokbal is a Korean dish consisting of pigs' feet cooked with soy sauce and spices.-Preparation:The hair is removed from pigs' feet and they are thoroughly washed. Leeks, garlic, ginger, cheongju and water are brought to a boil. The pigs' feet are added, brought back to a boil and then simmered...
is pig's feet served with saeujeot (salted fermented shrimp sauce).
Nonalcoholic beverages
Korean tea
Korean tea refers to various types of tisane that can be served hot or cold. Not necessarily related to "common" tea, they are made from diverse substances including fruits, leaves, roots, and grains used in traditional Korean medicine....
, hwachae
Hwachae
Hwachae is a general term for Korean traditional punches made with various fruits or edible flower petals soaked in omija or honeyed juice.-Types:...
(fruit punch), sikhye
Sikhye
Sikhye is a traditional sweet Korean rice beverage, usually served as a dessert...
(sweet rice drink), sujeonggwa
Sujeonggwa
Sujeonggwa is a Korean traditional fruit punch. Dark reddish brown in color, it is made from dried persimmons, cinnamon, ginger, peppercorn and is often garnished with pine nuts. The punch is made by brewing first the cinnamon, ginger and peppercorn at a slow boil...
(persimmon punch), tang (탕, boiled water), jang (장, fermented grain juice with a sour taste), suksu (숙수, beverage made of herbs), galsu (갈수, drink made of fruit extract, and Oriental medicine), honeyed water, juice and milk by their ingredient materials and preparation methods. Among the varieties, tea, hwachae, sikhye, and sujeonggwa are still widely favored and consumed; however, the others almost disappeared by the end of the 20th century.
In Korean cuisine, tea
Korean tea
Korean tea refers to various types of tisane that can be served hot or cold. Not necessarily related to "common" tea, they are made from diverse substances including fruits, leaves, roots, and grains used in traditional Korean medicine....
, or cha, refers to various types of tisane
Tisane
A herbal tea, tisane, or ptisan is a herbal or plant infusion and usually not made from the leaves of the tea bush . Typically, herbal tea is simply the combination of boiling water and dried fruits, flowers or herbs. Herbal tea has been imbibed for nearly as long as written history extends...
that can be served hot or cold. Not necessarily related to the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis
Camellia sinensis
Camellia sinensis is the species of plant whose leaves and leaf buds are used to produce Chinese tea. It is of the genus Camellia , a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae. White tea, green tea, oolong, pu-erh tea and black tea are all harvested from this species, but are processed...
plant, they are made from diverse substances, including fruits (e.g. yujacha
Yujacha
Yujacha or yuja cha is a traditional Korean tea made from citron. Yuja fruit is thinly sliced with its peel and combined with honey or sugar, prepared as fruit preserves...
), flowers (e.g. gukhwacha
Chrysanthemum tea
Chrysanthemum tea is a flower-based tisane made from chrysanthemum flowers of the species Chrysanthemum morifolium or Chrysanthemum indicum, which are most popular in East Asia...
), leaves, roots, and grains (e.g. boricha, hyeonmi cha
Hyeonmi cha
Hyeonmi cha is a tisane made from roasted brown rice.To make hyeonmi cha, brown rice is washed, then roasted in a pot. Then water is poured into the pot, brought to a boil, and then simmered for approximately ten minutes...
) or herbs and substances used in traditional Korean medicine
Traditional Korean medicine
Traditional Korean medicine developed with the influence of other traditional medicine. Its techniques in treatment and diagnosis are both similar and unique to other traditional medicine...
, such as ginseng
Ginseng
Ginseng is any one of eleven species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, belonging to the genus Panax of the family Araliaceae....
(e.g. Insam cha) and ginger (e.g. saenggang cha).
Alcoholic beverages
Soju
Soju is a distilled beverage native to Korea. Its taste is comparable to vodka, though often slightly sweeter due to sugars added in the manufacturing process, and more commonly consumed neat.Most brands of soju are made in South Korea...
is the best known liquor, there are well over 100 different alcoholic beverages, such as beers, rice and fruit wines, and liquors produced in South Korea. The top-selling domestic beers (the Korean term for beer being maekju) are lager
Lager
Lager is a type of beer made from malted barley that is brewed and stored at low temperatures. There are many types of lager; pale lager is the most widely-consumed and commercially available style of beer in the world; Pilsner, Bock, Dortmunder Export and Märzen are all styles of lager...
s, which differ from Western beers in that they are brewed from rice, rather than barley. Consequently, Korean beers are lighter, sweeter and have less head than their Western counterparts. The South Korean beer market is dominated by the three major brands: Cass, Hite
Hite
Hite Brewery Company Limited is a South Korean brewery company headquartered in Yeongdeungpo-gu, Seoul. Its main products are beer, rice wine, and mineral water. The company was established as Chosun Breweries in 1933...
, and OB
Oriental Brewery
Oriental Brewery or OB is a South Korean brewery established by the Doosan Group in 1952. It was purchased by InBev in 1998. In 2009, it was sold by Anheuser-Busch InBev as the parent company sought to reduce its debt. It was sold to an affiliate of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co....
. Taedonggang
Taedonggang
Taedonggang is a brand of North Korean beer brewed by the state-owned Taedonggang Brewing Company based in Pyongyang. Technically, it is actually 4 brands, though the brand known simply as "Taedonggang Beer" is that described below....
is a North Korean beer produced at a brewery based in Pyongyang since 2002. Microbrewery
Microbrewery
A microbrewery or craft brewer is a brewery which produces a limited amount of beer, and is associated by consumers with innovation and uniqueness....
beers and bars are growing in popularity after 2002.
Soju
Soju
Soju is a distilled beverage native to Korea. Its taste is comparable to vodka, though often slightly sweeter due to sugars added in the manufacturing process, and more commonly consumed neat.Most brands of soju are made in South Korea...
is a clear spirit which was originally made from grain, especially rice, and is now also made from sweet potatoes or barley. Soju made from grain is considered superior (as is also the case with grain vs. potato vodka
Vodka
Vodka , is a distilled beverage. It is composed primarily of water and ethanol with traces of impurities and flavorings. Vodka is made by the distillation of fermented substances such as grains, potatoes, or sometimes fruits....
). Soju is around 22% ABV
ABV
ABV is a three-letter acronym that may refer to:* Alcohol by volume, a measure of the alcohol content of alcoholic drinks* Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport, Abuja, Nigeria, from its IATA airport code...
, and is a favorite beverage of hard-up college students, hard-drinking businessmen, and blue-collar workers.
Yakju is a refined pure liquor fermented from rice, with the best known being cheongju. Takju is a thick unrefined liquor made with grains, with the best known being makgeolli, a white, milky rice wine traditionally drunk by farmers.
In addition to the rice wine
Rice wine
Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage made from rice. Unlike wine, which is made by fermentation of naturally sweet grapes and other fruit, rice "wine" results from the fermentation of rice starch converted to sugars...
, various fruit wines and herbal wines exist in Korean cuisine. Acacia, maesil plum, Chinese quince
Pseudocydonia
Pseudocydonia sinensis , the only species in the genus Pseudocydonia, is a deciduous or semi-evergreen tree in the family Rosaceae, native to eastern Asia in China. It is closely related to the east Asian genus Chaenomeles, and is sometimes placed in Chaenomeles as C...
, cherry, pine fruits, and pomegranate are most popular. Majuang wine (a blended wine of Korean grapes with French or American wines) and ginseng-based wines are also available.
Sweets
Tteok
Tteok is a class of Korean rice cakes made with glutinous rice flour , by steaming. Normal rice flour can be used for some kinds of tteok. There are hundreds of different kinds of tteok eaten year round...
and Korean confectionery hangwa
Hangwa
Hangwa is a general term for Korean traditional confectionery. Common ingredients in hangwa are grain flour, honey, yeot, sugar, fruit or edible root.-Types of hangwa:*Yumilgwa : made by frying and kneading....
are eaten as treats during holidays and festivals. Tteok refers to all kind of rice cakes
Tteok
Tteok is a class of Korean rice cakes made with glutinous rice flour , by steaming. Normal rice flour can be used for some kinds of tteok. There are hundreds of different kinds of tteok eaten year round...
made from either pounded rice (메떡, metteok), pounded glutinous rice
Glutinous rice
Glutinous rice is a type of short-grained Asian rice that is especially sticky when cooked. It is called glutinous Glutinous rice (Oryza sativa var. glutinosa or Oryza glutinosa; also called sticky rice, sweet rice, waxy rice, botan rice, biroin chal, mochi rice, and pearl rice, and pulut) is a...
(찰떡, chaltteok), or glutinous rice left whole, without pounding. It is served either filled or covered with sweetened mung bean paste, red bean paste
Red bean paste
Red bean paste or Azuki bean paste is a sweet, dark red bean paste originating from China. It is used in Chinese cuisine, Japanese confectionery, and Korean cuisine. It is prepared by boiling and mashing azuki beans and then sweetening the paste with sugar or honey...
, mashed red beans, raisin
Raisin
Raisins are dried grapes. They are produced in many regions of the world. Raisins may be eaten raw or used in cooking, baking and brewing...
s, a sweetened filling made with sesame seeds, sweet pumpkin, beans, jujubes, pine nuts, and/or honey). Tteok is usually served as dessert or snack. Among varieties, songpyeon
Songpyeon
Songpyeon is a traditional Korean food made of glutinous rice. It is a variation of tteok, consisting of small rice cakes traditionally eaten during the Korean autumn harvest festival, Chuseok. They have become a popular symbol of traditional Korean culture...
is a chewy stuffed tteok served at Chuseok
Chuseok
Chuseok , originally known as Hangawi , is a major harvest festival and a three-day holiday in Korea celebrated on the 15th day of the 8th month of the lunar calendar. Like many other harvest festivals, it is held around the Autumn Equinox...
. Honey
Honey
Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers. The variety produced by honey bees is the one most commonly referred to and is the type of honey collected by beekeepers and consumed by humans...
or another soft sweet material such as sweetened sesame or black beans are used as fillings. Pine
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
needles can be used for imparting flavor during the steaming process. Yaksik is a sweet rice cake made with glutinous rice, chestnuts, pine nuts, jujubes, and other ingredients, while chapssaltteok
Chapssaltteok
Chapssaltteok is a Korean dessert that consists of rice cakes filled with sweet bean paste. The cakes themselves are made from either pounded rice , pounded glutinous rice , or glutinous rice left whole, without pounding . It is a variant of tteok and is similar to Japanese mochi....
is a tteok filled with sweet bean paste
Sweet bean paste
Sweet bean paste is a food ingredient used in several Asian cuisines. Within Chinese cuisine, it is primarily used as a filling for sweet desserts and Chinese pastry.- Production :...
.
On the other hand, hangwa
Hangwa
Hangwa is a general term for Korean traditional confectionery. Common ingredients in hangwa are grain flour, honey, yeot, sugar, fruit or edible root.-Types of hangwa:*Yumilgwa : made by frying and kneading....
is a general term referring to all types of Korean traditional confectionery
Confectionery
Confectionery is the set of food items that are rich in sugar, any one or type of which is called a confection. Modern usage may include substances rich in artificial sweeteners as well...
. The ingredients of hahngwa mainly consist of grain flour, honey, yeot
Yeot
Yeot is a variety of hangwa, or Korean traditional confectionery. It can be made in either liquid or solid form, as a syrup, taffy, or candy. Yeot is made from steamed rice, glutinous rice, glutinous sorghum, corn, sweet potatoes, or mixed grains...
, and sugar, or of fruit and edible roots. Hangwa is largely divided into yumilgwa (fried confectionery), suksilgwa
Suksilgwa
Suksilgwa is a variety of hangwa, Korean traditional confectionery, made by boiling various fruits, ginger or nuts in water and then reformed into their original fruit-shape or other shapes. The ingredients are sweetened or coated with honey or yeot. Suksilgwa literally means "cooked fruits" in...
, jeonggwa
Jeonggwa
Jeonggwa, also spelled jeongwa is a variety of hangwa or Korean traditional confectionery made by boiling fruits, plant roots, seeds in honey, mulyeot or sugar...
, gwapyeon
Gwapyeon
Gwapyeon is a variety of hangwa or Korean traditional confectionery made by boiling fruits, starch, and sugar, until they reach a jellylike consistency. The fruits for the hangwa are Korean cherry, apricot, Chinese quince, and omija which have a soft texture, large amounts of natural pectin and a...
, dasik
Dasik
Dasik is a variety of hangwa or Korean confectionery, mainly eaten with Korean tea.It is made from nongmal , pine pollen , Ostericum grosseserratum , black sesame, honey, flour from rice or other grains, nuts and/or herbs.Dasik is kneaded and pressed with...
(tea food) and yeot
Yeot
Yeot is a variety of hangwa, or Korean traditional confectionery. It can be made in either liquid or solid form, as a syrup, taffy, or candy. Yeot is made from steamed rice, glutinous rice, glutinous sorghum, corn, sweet potatoes, or mixed grains...
. Yumilgwa is made by stir frying
Stir frying
Stir frying is an umbrella term used to describe two Chinese cooking techniques for preparing food in a wok: chǎo and bào . The term stir-fry was introduced into the English language by Buwei Yang Chao, in her book How to Cook and Eat in Chinese, to describe the chǎo technique...
or frying pieces of dough, such as maejakgwa
Maejakgwa
Maejakgwa or tareagwa is a variety of hahngwa, or Korean traditional confection, consisting of wheat flour, vegetable oil, cinnamon, ginger juice, jocheong, and pine nuts. It is also categorized as a form of yumilgwa....
and yakgwa
Yakgwa
Yakgwa is a Korean traditional dish. It was originally considered as a dessert and more recently as a confectionery , because of its sweet taste and flower biscuit shape. Yakgwa is made mainly from honey, sesame oil, and wheat flour.-Origin:...
. Maejakgwa is a ring-shaped confection made of wheat flour, vegetable oil, cinnamon
Cinnamon
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several trees from the genus Cinnamomum that is used in both sweet and savoury foods...
, ginger
Ginger
Ginger is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale, consumed as a delicacy, medicine, or spice. It lends its name to its genus and family . Other notable members of this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal....
juice, jocheong, and pine nuts, while yakgwa, literally "medicinal confectionery", is a flower-shaped biscuit made of honey
Honey
Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers. The variety produced by honey bees is the one most commonly referred to and is the type of honey collected by beekeepers and consumed by humans...
, sesame oil
Sesame oil
Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. Besides being used as a cooking oil in South India, it is often used as a flavor enhancer in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and to a lesser extent Southeast Asian cuisine.The oil from the nutrient rich seed is popular in alternative...
and wheat flour.
Suksilgwa
Suksilgwa
Suksilgwa is a variety of hangwa, Korean traditional confectionery, made by boiling various fruits, ginger or nuts in water and then reformed into their original fruit-shape or other shapes. The ingredients are sweetened or coated with honey or yeot. Suksilgwa literally means "cooked fruits" in...
is made by boiling fruits, ginger, or nuts in water, and then forming the mix into the original fruit's shape, or other shapes. Gwapyeon
Gwapyeon
Gwapyeon is a variety of hangwa or Korean traditional confectionery made by boiling fruits, starch, and sugar, until they reach a jellylike consistency. The fruits for the hangwa are Korean cherry, apricot, Chinese quince, and omija which have a soft texture, large amounts of natural pectin and a...
is a jelly
Gelatin dessert
Gelatin desserts are desserts made with sweetened and flavored gelatin. They can be made by combining plain gelatin with other ingredients or by using a premixed blend of gelatin with additives...
-like confection made by boiling sour fruits, starch, and sugar. Dasik
Dasik
Dasik is a variety of hangwa or Korean confectionery, mainly eaten with Korean tea.It is made from nongmal , pine pollen , Ostericum grosseserratum , black sesame, honey, flour from rice or other grains, nuts and/or herbs.Dasik is kneaded and pressed with...
, literally "eatery for tea", is made by kneading rice flour, honey, and various types of flour from nuts, herbs, sesame, or jujubes. Jeonggwa
Jeonggwa
Jeonggwa, also spelled jeongwa is a variety of hangwa or Korean traditional confectionery made by boiling fruits, plant roots, seeds in honey, mulyeot or sugar...
, or jeongwa, is made by boiling fruits, plant roots and seeds in honey, mulyeot
Yeot
Yeot is a variety of hangwa, or Korean traditional confectionery. It can be made in either liquid or solid form, as a syrup, taffy, or candy. Yeot is made from steamed rice, glutinous rice, glutinous sorghum, corn, sweet potatoes, or mixed grains...
(물엿, liquid candy) or sugar. It is similar to marmalade
Marmalade
Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits, boiled with sugar and water. The benchmark citrus fruit for marmalade production in Britain is the "Seville orange" from Spain, Citrus aurantium var...
or jam/jelly
Fruit preserves
Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. The preparation of fruit preserves today often involves adding commercial or natural pectin as a gelling agent, although sugar or honey may be used, as well. Prior to World War II, fruit preserve...
. Yeot is a Korean traditional candy in liquid or solid form made from steamed rice, glutinous rice, glutinous kaoliang
Commercial sorghum
Commercial sorghum refers to the cultivation and commercial exploitation of species of grasses within the genus Sorghum . These plants are used for grain, fibre and fodder. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide...
, corn, sweet potatoes or mixed grains. The steamed ingredients are lightly fermented and boiled in a large pot called sot (솥) for a long time.
Regional and variant cuisines
Korean regional cuisines (Korean: hyangto eumsik, literally "native local foods") are characterized by local specialties and distinctive styles within Korean cuisine. The divisions reflected historical boundaries of the provinceProvince
A province is a territorial unit, almost always an administrative division, within a country or state.-Etymology:The English word "province" is attested since about 1330 and derives from the 13th-century Old French "province," which itself comes from the Latin word "provincia," which referred to...
s where these food and culinary traditions were preserved until modern times.
Although Korea has been divided into two nation-states since 1948 (North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
and South Korea), it was once divided into eight provinces (paldo) according to the administrative districts of the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
. The northern region consisted of Hamgyeong Province, Pyeongan Province and Hwanghae
Hwanghae
Hwanghae was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju.The regional name for the province was Haesŏ .-History:...
Province. The central region comprised Gyeonggi Province, Chungcheong Province, and Gangwon Province
Gangwon (historical)
Gangwon Province or Gangwon-do was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The province was formed in 1395, and derived its name from the names of the principal cities of Gangneung and the provincial capital Wonju .In 1895, Gangwon-do was replaced by the Districts of...
. Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Gyeongsang was located in the southeast of Korea....
Province and Jeolla
Jeolla
Jeolla was a province in southwestern Korea, one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and the Special City of Gwangju as well as Jeju Island...
Province made up the southern region.
Until the late 19th century, transportation networks were not well developed, and each provincial region preserved its own characteristic tastes and cooking methods. Geographic differences are also reflected by the local specialty foodstuffs depending on the climate and types of agriculture, as well as the natural foods available. With the modern development of transportation and the introduction of foreign foods, Korean regional cuisines have tended to overlap and integrate. However, many unique traditional dishes in Korean regional cuisine have been handed down through the generations.
Buddhist cuisine
Korean temple cuisine originated in Buddhist temples of Korea. Since Buddhism was introduced into Korea, Buddhist traditions have strongly influenced Korean cuisine, as well. During the Silla period (57 BC – 935 AD), chalbap (찰밥, a bowl of cooked glutinous rice
Glutinous rice
Glutinous rice is a type of short-grained Asian rice that is especially sticky when cooked. It is called glutinous Glutinous rice (Oryza sativa var. glutinosa or Oryza glutinosa; also called sticky rice, sweet rice, waxy rice, botan rice, biroin chal, mochi rice, and pearl rice, and pulut) is a...
) yakgwa
Yakgwa
Yakgwa is a Korean traditional dish. It was originally considered as a dessert and more recently as a confectionery , because of its sweet taste and flower biscuit shape. Yakgwa is made mainly from honey, sesame oil, and wheat flour.-Origin:...
(a fried dessert) and yumilgwa (a fried and puffed rice snack) were served for Buddhist altars and have been developed into types of hangwa, Korean traditional confectionery
Confectionery
Confectionery is the set of food items that are rich in sugar, any one or type of which is called a confection. Modern usage may include substances rich in artificial sweeteners as well...
. During the Goryeo Dynasty, sangchu ssam
Ssam
Ssam, literally meaning "wrapped," refers to a dish in Korean cuisine in which usually leaf vegetables are used to wrap a piece of meat such as pork...
(wraps made with lettuce), yaksik, and yakgwa were developed, and since spread to China and other countries. Since the Joseon Dynasty, Buddhist cuisine has been established in Korea according to regions and temples.
On the other hand, royal court cuisine
Korean royal court cuisine
Korean royal court cuisine was the style of cookery within Korean cuisine traditionally consumed at the court of the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1910. There has been a revival of this cookery style in the 21st century...
is closely related to Korean temple cuisine. In the past, when the royal court maids, sanggung
Sanggung
Sanggung was an official title of the senior 5th rank , the highest attainable for gungnyeo, a lady-in-waiting during the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. Female officers with the title were assigned to govern the inner affairs of the palace. When a regular nain served for more than 15 years, she would be...
, who were assigned to Suragan (hangul: 수라간; hanja: 水剌間; the name of the royal kitchen), where they prepared the king's meals, became old, they had to leave the royal palace. Therefore, many of them entered Buddhist temples to become nuns. As the result, culinary techniques and recipes of the royal cuisine were integrated into Buddhist cuisine.
Vegetarian cuisine
Vegetarian cuisine
Vegetarian cuisine refers to food that meets vegetarian standards by not including meat and animal tissue products. For lacto-ovo vegetarianism , eggs and dairy products such as milk and cheese are permitted...
in Korea may be linked to the Buddhist traditions that influenced Korean culture from the Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
dynasty onwards. There are hundreds of vegetarian restaurants in Korea, although historically they have been local restaurants that are unknown to tourists. Most have buffets, with cold food, and vegetarian kimchi
Kimchi
Kimchi , also spelled gimchi, kimchee, or kim chee, is a traditional fermented Korean dish made of vegetables with varied seasonings. There are hundreds of varieties of kimchi made with a main vegetable ingredient such as napa cabbage, radish, green onions or cucumber. It is the most common...
and tofu
Tofu
is a food made by coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into soft white blocks. It is part of East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Indonesian, Vietnamese, and others. There are many different varieties of tofu, including fresh tofu and tofu...
being the main features. Bibimbap
Bibimbap
Bibimbap is a signature Korean dish. The word literally means "mixed meal." Bibimbap is served as a bowl of warm white rice topped with namul and gochujang . A raw or fried egg and sliced meat are common additions. The ingredients are stirred together thoroughly just before eating...
is a common vegan dish. Menus change with seasons. Wine with the alcohol removed and fine teas
Korean tea
Korean tea refers to various types of tisane that can be served hot or cold. Not necessarily related to "common" tea, they are made from diverse substances including fruits, leaves, roots, and grains used in traditional Korean medicine....
are also served. The Korean tea ceremony
Korean tea ceremony
The Korean tea ceremony or darye is a traditional form of tea ceremony practiced in Korea. Darye literally refers to "etiquette for tea" or "day tea rite" and has been kept among Korean people for a few thousand years...
is suitable for all vegetarians and vegans, and began with Buddhist influences. All food is eaten with a combination of rather slippery stainless steel oval chopsticks
Chopsticks
Chopsticks are small, often tapered, sticks used in pairs of equal length as the traditional eating utensils of China and its diaspora, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Northern provinces of Laos, Thailand and Burma. Generally believed to have originated in ancient China, they can also be found in some...
and a long-handled shallow spoon called together sujeo
Sujeo
Sujeo is the Korean word for the set of eating utensils commonly used to eat Korean food. The word is a contraction of the word sutgarak and jeotgarak . The sujeo set includes a pair of oval-shaped metal chopsticks, and a long handled shallow spoon of the same materials. One may use both at the...
.
Ceremonial food
Food is an important part of traditions of Korean family ceremonies, which are mainly based on the Confucian culture. Gwan Hon Sang Je (관혼상제; 冠婚喪祭), the four family ceremonies (coming-of-age ceremony, wedding, funeral, and ancestrial rite) have been considered especially important and elaborately developed, continuting to influence Korean life to these days. Ceremonial food in Korea has developed with variation across different regions and cultures.For example, Rituals are mainly performed on the anniversary of deceased ancestors, called jesa. Ritual food include rice, liquor, soup, vinegar and soy sauce (1st row); noodles, skewered meat, vegetable and fish dishes, and rice cake (2nd row); three types of hot soup, meat and vegetable dishes (3rd row); dried snacks, kimchi
Kimchi
Kimchi , also spelled gimchi, kimchee, or kim chee, is a traditional fermented Korean dish made of vegetables with varied seasonings. There are hundreds of varieties of kimchi made with a main vegetable ingredient such as napa cabbage, radish, green onions or cucumber. It is the most common...
, and sweet rice drink (4th row); and variety of fruit (5th row).
Street food
In South Korea, food may be purchased from street carts during the day, where customers may eat standing beside the cart or have their food wrapped up to take home. At night, many streets are filled with small tents that sell inexpensive foods, drinks, and alcoholic beverages. Seasonal foods include hotteokHotteok
Hotteok is a variety of filled Korean pancake, and is a popular street food of South Korea. It is usually eaten during the winter season.-Preparation:...
, and bungeoppang
Bungeoppang
Bungeoppang is the Korean name of a pastryBungeoppangs are made using an appliance similar to a waffle iron. The batter is poured into a fish-shaped mold, red bean paste is added, then more batter to encase the red bean paste...
, which are enjoyed in autumn
Autumn
Autumn is one of the four temperate seasons. Autumn marks the transition from summer into winter usually in September or March when the arrival of night becomes noticeably earlier....
and winter. Gimbap
Gimbap
Gimbap or kimbap is a popular Korean dish made from steamed white rice and various other ingredients, rolled in gim and served in bite-size slices...
is also a very popular street food.
Dining etiquette
Diarrhea
Diarrhea , also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day. It is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause dehydration and...
," "when eating a meal, neither eat so slowly as to appear to be eating against your will nor so fast as if to be taking someone else's food. Do not throw chopsticks on the table. Spoons should not touch plates, making a clashing sound", amongst many other recommendations which emphasized proper table etiquette.
The eldest male at the table was always served first, commonly served to them in the men's quarters by the women of the house. Women usually dined in a separate portion of the house after the men were served. The eldest men or women always ate before the younger family members. The meal was usually quiet, as conversation was discouraged during meals. In modern times, these rules have become lax, as families usually dine together now and use the time to converse. Of the remaining elements of this decorum, one is that the younger members of the table should not pick up their chopsticks
Chopsticks
Chopsticks are small, often tapered, sticks used in pairs of equal length as the traditional eating utensils of China and its diaspora, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Northern provinces of Laos, Thailand and Burma. Generally believed to have originated in ancient China, they can also be found in some...
or start eating before the elders of the table or guests and should not finish eating before the elders or guests finish eating.
In Korea, unlike in China
Chinese cuisine
Chinese cuisine is any of several styles originating in the regions of China, some of which have become highly popular in other parts of the world – from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa...
and Japan
Japanese cuisine
Japanese cuisine has developed over the centuries as a result of many political and social changes throughout Japan. The cuisine eventually changed with the advent of the Medieval age which ushered in a shedding of elitism with the age of shogun rule...
, the rice or soup bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it. This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively as sujeo
Sujeo
Sujeo is the Korean word for the set of eating utensils commonly used to eat Korean food. The word is a contraction of the word sutgarak and jeotgarak . The sujeo set includes a pair of oval-shaped metal chopsticks, and a long handled shallow spoon of the same materials. One may use both at the...
. The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected. There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others, and the spoon used should be clean, because usually diners put their spoons in the same serving bowl on the table. Diners should also cover their mouths when using a toothpick
Toothpick
A toothpick is a small stick of wood, plastic, bamboo, metal, bone or other substance used to remove detritus from the teeth, usually after a meal. A toothpick usually has one or two sharp ends to insert between teeth. They can also be used for picking up small appetizers or as a cocktail...
after the meal.
The table setup is important as well, and individual place settings, moving from the diner's left should be as follows: rice bowl, spoon, then chopsticks. Hot foods are set to the right side of the table, with the cold foods to the left. Soup must remain on the right side of the diner along with stew
Stew
A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables , meat, especially tougher meats suitable for slow-cooking, such as beef. Poultry, sausages, and seafood are also used...
s. Vegetables remain on the left along with the rice, and kimchi
Kimchi
Kimchi , also spelled gimchi, kimchee, or kim chee, is a traditional fermented Korean dish made of vegetables with varied seasonings. There are hundreds of varieties of kimchi made with a main vegetable ingredient such as napa cabbage, radish, green onions or cucumber. It is the most common...
is set to the back while sauces remain in the front.
Drinking etiquette
The manner of drinking alcoholic drinksSoju
Soju is a distilled beverage native to Korea. Its taste is comparable to vodka, though often slightly sweeter due to sugars added in the manufacturing process, and more commonly consumed neat.Most brands of soju are made in South Korea...
at dining is significant in Korean dining etiquette. Each diner is expected to face away from the eldest male
Korean Confucianism
Korean Confucianism is the form of Confucianism developed in Korea. One of the most substantial influences in Korean intellectual history was the introduction of Confucian thought as part of the cultural influence from China...
and cover his mouth when drinking alcohol.
According to Hyang Eum Ju Rye (향음주례; 鄕飮酒禮), the drinking etiquette established in Choseon Dynasty, it is impolite for a king and his vassal, a father and his son, or a teacher and his student to drink face to face. Also, a guest should not refuse the first drink offered by host, and in the most formal situations, the diner should politely refuse twice a drink offered by the eldest male or a host. When the host offers for the third time, then finally the guest can receive it. If the guest refuses three times, drink is not to be more offered any more.
Prehistoric
In the Jeulmun pottery periodJeulmun pottery period
The Jeulmun Pottery Period is an archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 8000-1500 BC.. It is named after the decorated pottery vessels that form a large part of the pottery assemblage consistently over the above period, especially 4000-2000 BC. Jeulmun means...
(approximately 8000 to 1500 BCE), hunter-gatherer societies engaged in fishing and hunting, and incipient agriculture in the later stages. Since the beginning of the Mumun pottery period
Mumun pottery period
The Mumun pottery period is an archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 1500-300 BC This period is named after the Korean name for undecorated or plain cooking and storage vessels that form a large part of the pottery assemblage over the entire length of the period, but...
(1500 BCE), agricultural traditions began to develop with new migrant groups from the Liao River
Liao River
The Liao River is the principal river in northeast China . The province of Liaoning and the Liaodong Peninsula derive their names from the river....
basin of Manchuria. During the Mumun period, people grew millet, barley, wheat, legumes and rice, and continued to hunt and fish. Archaeological remains point to development of fermented beans during this period, and cultural contact with nomadic cultures to the north facilitated domestication of animals.
Three Kingdoms period
Three Kingdoms of Korea
The Three Kingdoms of Korea refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium...
period (57 BCE – 668 CE) was one of rapid cultural evolution. The kingdom of Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
(37 BCE – 668 CE) was located in the northern part of the peninsula along much of modern-day Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
. The second kingdom, Baekje
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla....
(18 BCE – 660 CE), was in the southwestern portion of the peninsula, and the third, Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
(57 BCE – 935 CE), was located at the southeastern portion of the peninsula. Each region had its own distinct set of cultural practices and foods. For example, Baekje was known for cold foods and fermented foods like kimchi
Kimchi
Kimchi , also spelled gimchi, kimchee, or kim chee, is a traditional fermented Korean dish made of vegetables with varied seasonings. There are hundreds of varieties of kimchi made with a main vegetable ingredient such as napa cabbage, radish, green onions or cucumber. It is the most common...
. The spread of Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
and Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
from China during the fourth century CE began to change the distinct cultures of Korea.
The Three Kingdoms were followed by the Unified Silla
Unified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
period (668 CE – 935 CE), during which Silla unified most of the southern region of Korea, while the northern region was unified by refugees from Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, who renamed the region Balhae
Balhae
Balhae was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang, established Jin , later called Balhae.Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and...
. These cultures adhered to the beliefs of Buddhism with a moderate level of peaceful coexistence.
Goryeo period
During the tenth century, however, both cultures began to erode and were eventually unified under the GoryeoGoryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
dynasty, which drew much of its culture from the Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
of China. It was this dynasty that introduced the peninsula to the Western world
Western world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
and it is from the word "Goryeo" that the country's modern name of "Korea" was derived.
During the latter Goryeo period, the Mongols
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
invaded Korea in the 13th century. Although there was a vast loss of life in Korea, some traditional foods found today in Korea have their origins in the Mongol invasion. The dumpling dish, mandu
Mandu (dumpling)
Mandu are dumplings in Korean cuisine. They are similar to pelmeni and pierogi in some Slavic cultures. The name is a cognate to the names of similar types of meat-filled dumplings in Central Asia, such as Turkish manti, Kazakh manty, and Uzbek manti.In Korean cuisine, mandu generally denotes a...
, grilled meat dishes, noodle dishes
Korean noodles
Korean noodles are noodles or noodle dishes in Korean cuisine and are collectively referred to as "guksu" in native Korean or "myeon" in hanja. Preparations and cooking with noodles are relatively simple, so the history is longer than that of bread, dating back around BCE 6000 to BCE 5000 in China...
, and the use of seasonings such as black pepper, all have their roots in the this period.
Joseon period
ConfucianismConfucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
continued to be the guiding influence during the period between the 14th and 19th century CE. A hierarchy of human relationships was created during this time period; lineage and birthright were the governing forces of the time. The majority of citizens in this period were freeborn commoners, the cultivators of food for the society. Butchers, called baekjeong
Baekjeong
The baekjeong were an “untouchable” outcaste group of Korea, often compared with the burakumin of Japan and the dalits of India and Nepal.-Social history:...
, held the lowest cultural status level as the work of turning animals into food was deemed degrading.
Agricultural innovations were significant and widespread during this period, such as the invention of the rain gauge during the 15th century. During 1429, the government began publishing books on agriculture and farming techniques, which included Nongsa jikseol
Nongsa jikseol
Nongsa jikseol is a Korean agricultural book written by two civil ministers , Jeong Cho and Byeon Hyo-mun as ordered by Sejong the Great Nongsa jikseol (literally "Straight Talk on Farming") is a Korean agricultural book written by two civil ministers (munsin), Jeong Cho and Byeon Hyo-mun as...
(literally "Straight Talk on Farming"), an agriculture book compiled under King Sejong.
A series of invasions in the earlier half of the Joseon caused a dynamic shift in the culture during the second half of the period. Groups of silhak
Silhak
Silhak was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in late Joseon Dynasty. Sil means "actual" or "practical," and hak means "studies" or "learning." It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-Confucianism that seemed disconnected from the rapid agricultural,...
("practical learning") scholars began to emphasize the importance of looking outside the country for innovation and technology to help improve the agricultural systems. Crops from the New World
New World
The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically America and sometimes Oceania . The term originated in the late 15th century, when America had been recently discovered by European explorers, expanding the geographical horizon of the people of the European middle...
began to appear, acquired through trade with China, Japan, Europe, and the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
; these crops included corn, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, peanuts, and squash. Potatoes and sweet potatoes were particularly favored as they grew in soils and on terrains that were previously unused.
Government further developed agriculture through technology and lower taxation. Complex irrigation systems built by government allowed peasant farmers to produce larger crop volumes and produce crops not only for sustenance but also as cash crop
Cash crop
In agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for profit.The term is used to differentiate from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the producer's own livestock or grown as food for the producer's family...
s. Reduced taxation of the peasantry also furthered the expanded commerce through increasing periodic markets, usually held every five days. One thousand such markets existed in the 19th century, and were communal centers for economic trade and entertainment.
The end of the Joseon period was marked by consistent encouragement to trade with the Western world, China and Japan. In the 1860s, trade agreements pushed by the Japanese government led the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
to open its trade ports with the west, and to numerous treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and other Western countries.
The opening of Korea to the Western world brought further exchange of culture and food. Western missionaries introduced new ingredients and dishes to Korea. Joseon elites were introduced to these new foods by way of foreigners who attended the royal court as advisers or physicians. This period also saw the introduction of various seasonings imported from Japan via western traders and alcoholic drinks from China.
20th century to the present
A number of internal rebellions lead to the fall of the Joseon dynasty, followed by a thirty-five year (1910–1945) occupation of the Korean peninsula by the imperial government of Japan. Many of the agricultural systems were taken over by the Japanese to support Japan's food supply. Land changes resulting from the Japanese occupation included combining small farms into large-scale farms, which led to larger yields for export to Japan. Rice production increased during this period, but most of it was shipped out of the country. The Koreans, in turn, increased the production of other grains for their own consumption.Meals during the Japanese occupation were monotonous. Koreans usually ate two meals a day during the cold seasons, and three during the warm seasons. Satiety, rather than quality, was most important. Those in the lower economic levels were likely to enjoy only a single bowl of white rice each year, while the remainder of the year was filled with cheaper grains, such as millet
Millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
and barley
Barley
Barley is a major cereal grain, a member of the grass family. It serves as a major animal fodder, as a base malt for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods...
. Western food began emerging in the Korean diet, such as white bread and commercially produced staples such as precooked noodles. The Japanese occupational period ended after the defeat of Japan during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
The country remained in a state of turmoil through the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
(1950–1953) and the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
, which separated the country into North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
and South Korea. Both of these periods continued the limited food provisions for Koreans, and the stew called budae jjigae
Budae jjigae
Budae jjigae is a type of jjigae . Soon after the Korean War, meat was scarce in Seoul, South Korea. Some people made use of surplus foods from U.S...
, which makes use of inexpensive meats such as sausage and Spam
Spam (food)
Spam is a canned precooked meat product made by the Hormel Foods Corporation, first introduced in 1937. The labeled ingredients in the classic variety of Spam are chopped pork shoulder meat, with ham meat added, salt, water, modified potato starch as a binder, and sodium nitrite as a preservative...
, originated during this period.
At this point, the history of North and South Korea sharply diverged. In the 1960s under President Park Chung Hee, industrialization began to give South Korea the economic and cultural power it holds in the global economy today. Agriculture was increased through use of commercial fertilizers and modern farming equipment. In the 1970s, food shortages began to lessen. Consumption of instant and processed foods increased, as did the overall quality of foods. Livestock
Livestock
Livestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
and dairy production was increased during the 1970s through the increase of commercial dairies and mechanized farms. The consumption of pork and beef increased vastly in the 1970s. Per-capita consumption of meat was 3.6 kg in 1961 and 11 kg by 1979. The result of this increased meat consumption brought about the rise of bulgogi
Bulgogi
Bulgogi is a Korean dish that usually consists of marinated barbecued beef, although chicken or pork may also be used. It is listed at number 23 on World's 50 most delicious foods readers' poll complied by CNN Go in 2011.-Etymology:...
restaurants, which gave the middle class of South Korea the ability to enjoy meat regularly. Meat eating continued to rise, reaching 40 kg in 1997, with fish consumption at 49.5 kg in 1998. Rice consumption continually decreased through these years, with 128 kg consumed per person in 1985 to 106 kg in 1995 and 83 kg in 2003. The decrease in rice consumption has been accompanied by an increase in the consumption of bread and noodles.
Royal court cuisine
Collectively known as kungjiung ǔmsik during the pre-modern era, the foods of the royal palace were reflective of the opulent nature of the past rulers of the Korean peninsula. This nature is evidenced in examples as far back as the SillaSilla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
kingdom, where a man-made lake (Anapji Lake, located in Gyeongju
Gyeongju
Gyeongju is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang province in South Korea. It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong, covering with a population of 269,343 people according to the 2008 census. Gyeongju is southeast of Seoul, and east of the...
), was created with multiple pavilions and halls for the sole purpose of opulent banquet
Banquet
A banquet is a large meal or feast, complete with main courses and desserts. It usually serves a purpose such as a charitable gathering, a ceremony, or a celebration, and is often preceded or followed by speeches in honour of someone....
s, and a spring fed channel, Poseokjeong
Poseokjeong
The Poseokjeong site near Namsan in Gyeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do South Korea, was built in the Silla period. The site once featured a royal pavilion–said to have been the most beautiful royal villa of the time—, but the only remains today is a granite water feature. This abalone-shaped watercourse...
, was created for the singular purpose of setting wine cups afloat while they wrote poems.
Reflecting the regionalism of the kingdoms and bordering countries of the peninsula, the cuisine borrowed portions from each of these areas to exist as a showcase. The royalty would have the finest regional specialties and delicacies sent to them at the palace. Although there are records of banquets predating the Joseon period, the majority of these records mostly reflect the vast variety of foods, but do not mention the specific foods presented. The meals cooked for the royal family did not reflect the seasons, as the commoner's meals would have. Instead, their meals varied significantly day-to-day. Each of the eight provinces was represented each month in the royal palace by ingredients presented by their governors, which gave the cooks a wide assortment of ingredients to use for royal meals.
Six Ministries of Joseon
The Six Ministries of Joseon were the major executive bodies of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. They included ministries of Personnel , Taxation , Rites , Military Affairs , Punishments , and Public works .It was established in 1298...
(Yukjo, 육조) that were charged with all matters related to procurement and consumption of food and drink for the royal court. The Board of Personnel (Ijo, 이조) contained positions specific for attaining rice for the royal family. The Board of Rights (Yejo) were responsible for foods prepared for ancestor rites, attaining wines and other beverages, and medicinal foods. There were also hundreds of slaves and women who worked in the palace that had tasks such as making tofu
Tofu
is a food made by coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into soft white blocks. It is part of East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Indonesian, Vietnamese, and others. There are many different varieties of tofu, including fresh tofu and tofu...
, liquor, tea, and tteok
Tteok
Tteok is a class of Korean rice cakes made with glutinous rice flour , by steaming. Normal rice flour can be used for some kinds of tteok. There are hundreds of different kinds of tteok eaten year round...
(rice cakes). The women were the cooks to the royal palace and were of commoner or low-born families. These women would be split into specific skill sets or "bureau" such as the bureau of special foods (Saenggwa-bang, 생과방) or the bureau of cooking foods (Soju-bang, 소주방). These female cooks may have been assisted by male cooks from outside the palace during larger banquets when necessary.
Five meals were generally served in the royal palace each day during the Joseon period, and records suggest this pattern had existed from antiquity. Three of these meals would be full meals, while the afternoon and after dinner meals would be lighter. The first meal, mieumsang (미음상), was served at sunrise and was served only on days when the king and queen were not taking herbal medicines. The meal consisted of rice porridge
Rice congee
Congee is a type of rice porridge popular in many Asian countries. It can be eaten alone or served with a side dish. Names for congee are as varied as the style of its preparation...
(juk, 죽) made with ingredients such as abalone (jeonbokjuk
Jeonbokjuk
Jeonbokjuk is a variety of juk , or Korean porridge, made with abalone and white rice. Abalone is regarded as a high quality ingredient in Korean cuisine and was often presented as a gift to the king of Korea.The dish is a local specialty of Jeju Island where abalones are commonly harvested...
), white rice (huinjuk), mushrooms (beoseotjuk), pine nuts (jatjuk
Jatjuk
Jatjuk or jaht jook is a variety of juk , or Korean porridge, made by boiling finely ground pine nuts and rice flour or soaked rice in water. It is seasoned with salt and garnished with pine nuts and sliced jujubes. The dish has been regarded as a quality food in Korea because of its rich and...
), and sesame (kkaejuk). The side dishes could consist of kimchi, nabak kimchi
Nabak kimchi
Nabak kimchi is a watery kimchi, similar to dongchimi, in Korean cuisine. It is made of thinly sliced Korean white radish and Napa cabbage into a rectangular shape as main ingredients and salted them with mixed vegetables and spices such as cucumber, spring onions, water dropwort , garlic, ginger,...
, oysters, soy sauce, and other items. The porridge was thought to give vitality to the king and queen throughout the day.
The sura (수라) were the main meals of the day. Breakfast was served at ten in the morning, and the evening meals were served between six and seven at night. The set of three tables (surasang, 수라상), were usually set with two types of rice, two types of soup, two types of stew (jjigae
Jjigae
Jjigae is a Korean dish similar to a Western stew. There are many different varieties but it is typically made with meat, seafood or vegetables in a broth seasoned with gochujang, doenjang, ganjang or saeujeot. Jjigae is typically served in a communal dish and boiling hot.A Korean meal almost...
), one dish of jjim
Jjim
Jjim is a Korean cuisine term referring to dishes made by steaming or boiling meat, chicken, fish, or shellfish which have been marinated in a sauce or soup. The cooking technique originally referred to dishes cooked in a siru by steaming...
(meat stew), one dish of jeongol
Jeongol
Jeongol is a category of elaborate stews or casseroles in Korean cuisine. It is similar to the category of Korean stews called jjigae, with the main difference being that jjigae are generally made with only a single main ingredient, and named after that ingredient , while jeongol usually contain a...
(a casserole of meat and vegetables), three types of kimchi, three types of jang (장) and twelve side dishes, called 12 cheop (12첩). The meals were set in the suragan (수라간), a room specifically used for taking meals, with the king seated to the east and the queen to the west. Each had their own set of tables and were attended by three palace servant women known as sura sanggung (수라상궁). These women would remove bowl covers and offer the foods to the king and queen after ensuring the dishes were not poisoned.
Banquets (궁중 연회 음식) were held on special occasions in the Korean Royal Palace. These included birthdays of the royal family members, marriages, and national festivals, including Daeborum, Dano, Chuseok, and Dongji. Banquet food was served on individual tables which varied according to the rank of the person. Usually banquet food consisted of ten different types of dishes. Main dishes were prepared based on the seasonal foods. Main dishes of the banquet included sinseollo, jeon, hwayang jeok, honghapcho', nengmyun and mulgimchi. A typical banquet ingredient was chogyetang (chicken broth with vinegar), which was prepared with five different chickens, five abalones, ten sea cucumbers, twenty eggs, half a bellflower root, mushrooms, two cups of black pepper, two peeled pine nuts, starch, soy sauce and vinegar. Yaksik was a favorite banquet dessert.
See also
- Asian cuisineAsian cuisineAsian cuisine styles can be broken down into several tiny regional styles that have roots in the peoples and cultures of those regions. The major types can be roughly defined as East Asian with its origins in Imperial China and now encompassing modern Japan and the Korean peninsula; Southeast Asian...
- Dae Jang GeumDae Jang GeumDae Jang Geum is a 2003 epic South Korean television series directed by Lee Byung Hoon and produced by MBC. Starring Lee Young Ae, it tells the tale of an orphaned kitchen cook who went on to become the king's first female physician...
- GinsengGinsengGinseng is any one of eleven species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, belonging to the genus Panax of the family Araliaceae....
- List of Korean beverages
- List of Korean dishes
- List of sources of Korean culinary history
External links
- Official site of Korea National Tourism List of Korean Food
- Food in Korea at the Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation
- Eating the Korean way at the Cultural Profiles Project (Canada) List of articles about Korean cuisine at the Doosan EncyclopediaDoosan EncyclopediaDoosan Encyclopedia is a Korean language encyclopedia published by Doosan Donga . The encyclopedia is based on the Dong-A Color Encyclopedia , which comprises 30 volumes and began to be published in 1982 by Dong-A Publishing...
Categories of Korean cuisine at the EmpasEmpasEmpas was one of the popular total internet search tools and web portal sites in South Korea. The service was launched in 1998 by Knowledge Plant Corporation , which changed its name to Empas Corporation in 2004...
/ EncyKorea