Plug-in electric vehicle
Encyclopedia
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle
that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs
drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicle
s that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversion
s of hybrid electric vehicle
s and conventional internal combustion engine
vehicles.
Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives
to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on battery size and their all-electric range. The term plug-in electric drive vehicle is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentives.
Examples of mass production
PEVs available in the several markets by October 2011 include the Tesla Roadster
, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, REVAi, BYD F3DM
, Nissan Leaf
, Chevrolet Volt
, Smart ED
, Wheego Whip LiFe, Fisker Karma
, BYD e6
, and several neighborhood electric vehicle
s (NEV). There are also several demonstration vehicles undergoing trial programs including the Mini E
, Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, and Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid
.
As of December 2010, the GEM
neighborhood electric vehicle, with global sales of 45,000 units, is the world's most sold plug-in electric vehicle. With worldwide cumulative sales by October 2011 of more than 16,000 units each, the Nissan Leaf and the Mitsubishi i-MiEV rank as the top selling highway-capable plug-in electric cars in the world. Also as of October 2011, the United States and Japan are the world's largest highway-capable plug-in electric car markets. In Japan, more than 10,000 electric cars have been sold by July 2011, including more than 6,000 Leafs and more than 4,000 i MiEVs. Since December 2010, more than 13,500 plug-in electric cars have been sold in the U.S. through October 2011, with the Nissan Leaf (8,066 units) and the Chevrolet Volt (5,329 units) as the top selling PEVs.
with rechargeable battery packs
that can be charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion. Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV) and also as electrically chargeable vehicles.
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicle
s that includes battery electric vehicle
s (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversion
s of hybrid electric vehicle
s and conventional internal combustion engine
vehicles. Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicle
s (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine
and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.
"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range. In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.
While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to automobile
s or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including scooters
, motorcycle
s, neighborhood electric vehicle
s or microcar
s, city car
s, van
s, light truck
s or light commercial vehicle
s, bus
es, trucks or lorries
, and military vehicles.
A battery electric vehicle
(BEV) uses chemical energy
stored in rechargeable battery
packs
as its only source for propulsion. BEVs use electric motor
s and motor controller
s instead of internal combustion engine
s (ICEs) for propulsion.
A plug-in hybrid operates as an all electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting
mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge
(SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range
(AER).
(PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle
with rechargeable batteries
that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power
source. A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all-electric vehicle: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in all-electric mode until the battery is depleted.
electric vehicle conversion
is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine
vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric
propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
.
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius
and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.
s are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motor
s, on the other hand, are more efficient
at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reused as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking. Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engine
s can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.
In the United States, with a national average electricity rate of per kWh as of early 2010, the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon. As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline
and increases in global demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs will be even more advantageous.
The operating cost of a conventional automobile with fuel economy
of 25 miles per US gallon at $4.00 per gallon (reached in mid 2008) would be $0.16 per mile. In comparison, the all-electric Tesla Roadster
has a cost of $0.022 per mile, the 2011 Chevrolet Volt
plug-in hybrid is estimated to have an operating cost of $0.021 per mile, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid
cost is estimated at $0.03 per mile considering an electricity rate of $0.10 per kWh.
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.
The following table compares out-of-pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency according to the official ratings for fuel economy
(miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
in the case of PEVs) for three plug-in cars available in the U.S. in 2011, and the U.S. best selling gasoline-electric hybrid car
and gasoline only automobile for calendar year 2010.
s, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants
from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot
), volatile organic compound
s, hydrocarbon
s, carbon monoxide
, ozone
, lead
, and various oxides of nitrogen
. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants. In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation
. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind
, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power
for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions. On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal
-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine
vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicle
s. In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy
.
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France
can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California
, where most energy comes from natural gas
, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas
plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany
, China
, India
, and the central regions of the United States
are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal
. However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cites with chronic air pollution
problems, such as Los Angeles
, México City
, Santiago, Chile
, São Paulo
, Beijing
, Bangkok
and Katmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.
Carbon footprint during production
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo
in collaboration with experts from the UK’s Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint
over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size
electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasoline internal combustion engine
vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel
used in the vehicle glider
. The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:
The study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.
For many net oil importing countries the 2000s energy crisis brought back concerns first raised during the 1973 oil crisis
. For the United States, the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks
and supply
disruption
. Also, there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production
and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil. A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security
because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations, including some countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests. In addition, for many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest Africa
n countries, high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments
, all leading to lower economic growth.
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine
vehicles for electric car
s and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport
sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.
, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks. A vehicle-to-grid
(V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car. In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric
(BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.
vehicles and hybrid electric vehicle
s due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council
, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack is about /kW·h of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV
-10 requires about 2.0 kW·h and a PHEV-40 about 8 kW·h, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around and it goes up to for a PHEV-40.
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center
, Harvard University
, found that the gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value
of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices, and assuming no government subidies. According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicles is more expensive. These findings assumed a battery cost of per kWh, which means that the Chevrolet Volt
battery pack cost around and the Nissan Leaf
pack costs . The study also assumed a gasoline price of per gallon (as of mid June 2011), that vehicles are driven 12000 miles (19,312.1 km) per year, an average price of electricity of per kWh, that the plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time, and that the owner of PEVs pay to install a Level II 220/240 volt charger at home.
The study also include hybrid electric vehicle
s in the comparison, and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase, and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars, among other scenarios. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars ( to cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in an scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines. The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study.
s near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lot
s, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety
. Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers. However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.
Several cities in California
and Oregon
, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area
and Silicon Valley
, already have deployed public charging station
s and have expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric car
s. Some local private firms such as Google
and Adobe Systems
have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case, its Mountain View
campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees. Solar panels are used to generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT
website.
and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars will be built and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not be allowed to purchase battery packs, instead, they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users will pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity
, and other costs. The firm has already tested battery-swap stations allowing drivers to exchange their car's depleted battery pack for a fully recharged one in less than a minute. Better Place has already signed agreement for deployment in Australia
, Denmark
, Israel
, Canada
, California
, and Hawaii
.
SV trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to trickle charge
the batteries when the car is moving or parked. Another proposed technology is REVive, by REVA
. When the Reva NXR's batteries are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS
to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. REVA has not provided details on how the system will work.
Other upcoming plug-in vehicles to use solar panels to charge the batteries include the Ford Focus Electric
and the Fisker Karma
.
s in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power
load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.
Electric car
s and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise
as compared to vehicles propelled by a internal combustion engine
, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects
. However, blind people or the visually impaired
consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence electric-drive cars and hybrid
s could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds. Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mile per hour for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired. At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as a result, the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt
plug-in hybrid, both launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma
plug-in hybrid due in 2011, include manually-activated electric warning sounds
to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence.
The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourismissued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles in January 2010. In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010. The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound that allows blind and other pedestrians to reasonably detect a nearby electric drive vehicles, and the ruling must be finalized within eighteen months.
which uses rare earth element
s. The demand for lithium
, heavy metals and other rare elements (such as neodymium
, boron
and cobalt
) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the incoming market entrance of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term. The Toyota Prius
battery contains more than 20 pounds (9.1 kg) of the rare earth element lanthanum
, and its motor magnets use neodymium
and dysprosium
.
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.
Lithium
The main deposits of lithium are found in China
and throughout the Andes
mountain chain in South America
. In 2008 Chile
was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina
, and Australia
. In the United States
lithium is recovered from brine
pools in Nevada
.
Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia
, and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni
desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium. Other important reserves are located in Chile
, China
, and Brazil
. Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves. Already the Japan
ese and South Korea
n governments, as well as companies from these two countries and France
, have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining
and industrialization
model suitable to Bolivian interests.
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
and the University of California Berkeley, currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries for electric car could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey. Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan
and Ford Motor Company
found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required from the potential demand due to widespread use of electric vehicles, including hybrid electric
, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicle
s. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 90 million tons and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed was estimated to be in the range of 12-20 million tons depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.
Rare earth elements
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare earth production, but since the mid 1990's China controls the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo
near Baotou
, Inner Mongolia
, are the greatest source of rare earth metals, providing 80% of China's rare earths production. In 2010 the country accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare earth elements. Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10% a year.
Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid 2010 as China imposed a 40% export reduction, citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions. These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths. However, the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world, including the United States, Australia, Vietnam
, and Kazakhstan
.
In September 2010, China temporarily blocked all exports of rare elements to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries. These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles, thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply. A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies. China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25%, and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before. The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011, which represent a 35% reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010.
On September 29, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 (H.R.6160). The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements, and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy (US DoE) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry's near-complete dependence on China for the minerals. A similar bill, the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 (S. 3521), is being discussed in the U.S. Senate.
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation
announced in January 2011 that is developing for future hybrid and electric cars an alternative motor does not need rare earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor
that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor used in the Prius, which uses two rare elements in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf
, the Chevrolet Volt
and Honda Insight
. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota will use an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors
that does not use rare earth materials. The Tesla Roadster
and future Tesla Model S
use a similar motor.
In May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the "Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure" that went into effect on June 19, 2009, but retroactive to April 10, 2009. The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly
and fuel efficient vehicles, according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria, and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles. The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases, consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade-in (non-replacement program), and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier (scrappage program
).
China
On June 1, 2010, The Chinese
government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60,000 yuan
(~US$8,785) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicle
s and 50,000 yuan (~US$7,320) for plug-in hybrids in five cities.
, Romania
, and 15 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles. In the U.K. the Plug-in Car Grant Program provides a 25% incentive towards the cost of new plug-in electric cars that qualify as ultra-low carbon vehicles, but the benefit is capped at . Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant.
In the United States
the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric vehicles. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
(ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.
The federal tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $7,500. Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEV
s and PHEV, and other non-monetary incentives.
Two separate initiatives are being pursued in 2011 to transform the tax credit into into a cash rebate worth up to $7,500. The initiatives by Senator Debbie Stabenow
and the Obama Administration seek to make new qualifying plug-in electric cars more accessible to buyers by making the incentive more effective. The rebate will be available at the point of sale allowing consumers to avoid a wait of up to a year to apply the tax credit against income tax returns. Another change to the rules governing the tax credit was introduced by Senator Carl Levin
and Representative Sander Levin who are proposing to raise the existing cap on the number of plug-in vehicles eligible for the tax credit. The proposal raises that limit from the existing 200,000 PEVs per manufacturer to 500,000 units.
Canada
Ontario
established a rebate between to (~ to ), depending on battery size, for purchasing or leasing a new plug-in electric vehicle after July 1, 2010. The rebates will be available to the first 10,000 applicants who qualify.
s, and they were available through leasing mainly in California
. Popular models included the General Motors EV1
, the Ford TH!NK City
, and the Toyota RAV4 EV
. Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today.
After the mid 2000s a new wave of mass production
plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks were developed and are available in several countries and regions. Popular models include the Tesla Roadster
electric car
, available in the US, Europe, Asia, and Australia; the BYD F3DM
plug-in hybrid and BYD e6
electric car available in China; the Th!nk City
was available in several European countries and the US; the Mitsubishi i MiEV
is available in Japan, Hong Kong, Australia, the UK, Costa Rica, Chile, and several European countries; the Nissan Leaf
is available in Japan, the US, Canada, the UK and several other European countries; the Chevrolet Volt
plug-in hybrid is available in selected markets in the U.S. and Canada. The Fisker Karma
plug-in hybrid and the Smart ED
and Wheego Whip
electric cars are available in selected U.S. markets. The Mia electric
is available in France and Germany. Other models undergoing field testing include the Mini E
, the Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid; the Prius Plug-in Hybrid; and the Ford Focus Electric
.
Commercial plug in motorcycles include the Brammo Enertia
, the Yamaha EC-03, and the Zero X
. Plug-in electric light trucks include the Azure Transit Connect Electric
, Cleanova
, Bright IDEA plug-in hybrid
, and Miles Electric Vehicles
.
As of October 2011, the United States and Japan are the largest highway-capable plug-in electric car markets in the world, followed by several European countries. In the U.S. more than 14,000 plug-in electric cars have been sold since December 2010 through October 2011, with sales led by the Nissan Leaf (8,066 units) and the Chevrolet Volt (5,329 units). In Japan, more than 10,000 electric cars have been sold by July 2011, including more than 6,000 Leafs and more than 4,000 i MiEVs. As of September 2011, Norway had almost 4,750 electric cars, the largest fleet of PEVs in Europe and the largest per capita in the world, with 1,425 electric vehicles sold during the first nine months of 2011, led by the i-MiEV with 804 units. Germany had 2,307 units registered by January 1, 2011, and a total of 1,020 units were sold during the first half of 2011. By mid 2001, the UK had a fleet of electric cars of almost 2,500 units, and a total of 812 units were sold between January and August 2011. Since January 2011, 1,428 electric cars were sold in France through September, up from 184 units in 2010. Also during 2010, around 1,200 non highway-capable PEVs were sold in the French market, including 406 heavy quadricycle
s and 796 utility vehicles. During the first half of 2011, a total of 5,222 electric cars were sold in the 15 EU markets, led by Germany (1,020), France (953) and Norway (850).
As of December 2010, the Global Electric Motorcars
neighborhood electric vehicle
, with global sales of 45,000 units, is the world's most sold plug-in electric vehicle. With worldwide cumulative sales by October 2011 of more than 16,000 units each, the Leaf and the i MiEV rank as the top selling highway-capable plug-in electric cars in the world. The following table presents key features and sales of highway-capable and city plug-in cars available by October 2011:
Motor vehicle
A motor vehicle or road vehicle is a self-propelled wheeled vehicle that does not operate on rails, such as trains or trolleys. The vehicle propulsion is provided by an engine or motor, usually by an internal combustion engine, or an electric motor, or some combination of the two, such as hybrid...
that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs
Rechargeable battery
A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to...
drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicle
Electric vehicle
An electric vehicle , also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion...
s that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversion
Electric vehicle conversion
An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.-Elements of a conversion:...
s of hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
s and conventional internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
vehicles.
Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives
Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles have been established by several national and local governments around the world as a financial incentive for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle....
to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on battery size and their all-electric range. The term plug-in electric drive vehicle is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentives.
Examples of mass production
Mass production
Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
PEVs available in the several markets by October 2011 include the Tesla Roadster
Tesla Roadster
The Tesla Roadster is a battery electric vehicle sports car produced by the electric car firm Tesla Motors in California. The Roadster was the first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production available in the United States. Since 2008 Tesla has sold 2,024 Roadsters in 30 countries...
, Mitsubishi i-MiEV, REVAi, BYD F3DM
BYD F3DM
The BYD F3DM is a plug-in hybrid compact sedan manufactured by BYD Auto with an all-electric range of and a hybrid electric powertrain that can extend the range an additional . The F3DM is the world's first mass produced plug-in hybrid automobile and went on sale to government agencies and...
, Nissan Leaf
Nissan Leaf
Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997. The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002, only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as...
, Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
, Smart ED
Smart ED
The Smart fortwo electric drive is a battery electric vehicle version of the Smart Fortwo micro car. This electric car was formerly known as Smart fortwo EV...
, Wheego Whip LiFe, Fisker Karma
Fisker Karma
The Fisker Karma is a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at equivalent in all-electric mode, and at in...
, BYD e6
BYD e6
BYD e6 is an all-electric crossover car manufactured by BYD Auto with a range of according to the carmaker. Field testing began in China in May 2010 with 40 units operating as taxis in the city of Shenzhen...
, and several neighborhood electric vehicle
Neighborhood electric vehicle
A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle is a U.S. denomination for battery electric vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits as high as depending on the particular laws of the state, usually are built to have a top speed of , and have a maximum loaded weight of 3,000 lbs...
s (NEV). There are also several demonstration vehicles undergoing trial programs including the Mini E
Mini E
The Mini E is a demonstration electric car developed by BMW as a conversion of its Mini Cooper car. The MINI E was developed for field trials and deployed in several countries, including the United States, Germany, UK, France, Japan and China...
, Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, and Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid
The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid is a mid-size plug-in hybrid electric vehicle to be produced by Toyota Motor Corporation and scheduled to be released to the market beginning in January 2012...
.
As of December 2010, the GEM
Global Electric Motorcars
Global Electric Motorcars , a wholly owned subsidiary of Polaris Industries, is a U.S. manufacturer in the low-speed vehicle category, producing neighborhood electric vehicles since 1998 and has sold more than 45,000 GEM battery-electric vehicles worldwide as of December 2010.Until June 2011, GEM...
neighborhood electric vehicle, with global sales of 45,000 units, is the world's most sold plug-in electric vehicle. With worldwide cumulative sales by October 2011 of more than 16,000 units each, the Nissan Leaf and the Mitsubishi i-MiEV rank as the top selling highway-capable plug-in electric cars in the world. Also as of October 2011, the United States and Japan are the world's largest highway-capable plug-in electric car markets. In Japan, more than 10,000 electric cars have been sold by July 2011, including more than 6,000 Leafs and more than 4,000 i MiEVs. Since December 2010, more than 13,500 plug-in electric cars have been sold in the U.S. through October 2011, with the Nissan Leaf (8,066 units) and the Chevrolet Volt (5,329 units) as the top selling PEVs.
Terminology
Plug-in electric vehicle
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicleMotor vehicle
A motor vehicle or road vehicle is a self-propelled wheeled vehicle that does not operate on rails, such as trains or trolleys. The vehicle propulsion is provided by an engine or motor, usually by an internal combustion engine, or an electric motor, or some combination of the two, such as hybrid...
with rechargeable battery packs
Rechargeable battery
A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to...
that can be charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on board drives or contributes to drive the wheels for propulsion. Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles (GEV) and also as electrically chargeable vehicles.
PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicle
Electric vehicle
An electric vehicle , also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion...
s that includes battery electric vehicle
Battery electric vehicle
A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or...
s (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversion
Electric vehicle conversion
An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.-Elements of a conversion:...
s of hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
s and conventional internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
vehicles. Even though conventional hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
s (HEVs) have a battery that is continually recharged with power from the internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
and regenerative braking, they can not be recharged from an off-vehicle electric energy source, and therefore, they do not belong to the category of plug-in electric vehicles.
"Plug-in electric drive vehicle" is the legal term used in U.S. federal legislation to designate the category of motor vehicles eligible for federal tax credits depending on battery size and their all-electric range. In some European countries, particularly in France, "electrically chargeable vehicle" is the formal term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives.
While the term "plug-in electric vehicle" most often refers to automobile
Automobile
An automobile, autocar, motor car or car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor...
s or "plug-in cars", there are several other types of plug-in electric vehicle, including scooters
Scooter (motorcycle)
A scooter is a motorcycle with step-through frame and a platform for the operator's feet. Elements of scooter design have been present in some of the earliest motorcycles, and motorcycles identifiable as scooters have been made from 1914 or earlier...
, motorcycle
Motorcycle
A motorcycle is a single-track, two-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycles vary considerably depending on the task for which they are designed, such as long distance travel, navigating congested urban traffic, cruising, sport and racing, or off-road conditions.Motorcycles are one of the most...
s, neighborhood electric vehicle
Neighborhood electric vehicle
A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle is a U.S. denomination for battery electric vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits as high as depending on the particular laws of the state, usually are built to have a top speed of , and have a maximum loaded weight of 3,000 lbs...
s or microcar
Microcar
A microcar is the smallest automobile classification usually applied to standard small car . Such small cars were generally referred to as cyclecars until the 1940s. More recent models are also called bubblecars due to their egg-shaped appearance.-Definition:The definition of a microcar has varied...
s, city car
City car
A city car is a small car intended for use primarily in an urban area.City cars are sold worldwide and most automotive industry manufacturers have one or two in their line-up. In North-America city cars are often referred to simply as "subcompacts" alongside the superminis. These kind of cars...
s, van
Van
A van is a kind of vehicle used for transporting goods or groups of people.In British English usage, it can be either specially designed or based on a saloon or sedan car, the latter type often including derivatives with open backs...
s, light truck
Light truck
Light truck or light duty truck is a U.S. classification for trucks or truck-based vehicles with a payload capacity of less than 4,000 pounds...
s or light commercial vehicle
Light commercial vehicle
Light commercial vehicles is a commercial carrier vehicles with a Gross vehicle weight of up to 3.5 tonnes. The formal term within the European Union is Light commercial vehicles. Vehicles which qualify in this category are pickup trucks, vans and 3 wheelers all commercially based goods or...
s, bus
Bus
A bus is a road vehicle designed to carry passengers. Buses can have a capacity as high as 300 passengers. The most common type of bus is the single-decker bus, with larger loads carried by double-decker buses and articulated buses, and smaller loads carried by midibuses and minibuses; coaches are...
es, trucks or lorries
Truck
A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile...
, and military vehicles.
Battery electric vehicles
Battery electric vehicle
A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or...
(BEV) uses chemical energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
stored in rechargeable battery
Rechargeable battery
A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to...
packs
Battery pack
A battery pack is a set of any number of identical batteries or individual battery cells. They may be configured in a series, parallel or a mixture of both to deliver the desired voltage, capacity, or power density...
as its only source for propulsion. BEVs use electric motor
Electric motor
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force...
s and motor controller
Motor controller
A motor controller is a device or group of devices that serves to govern in some predetermined manner the performance of an electric motor. A motor controller might include a manual or automatic means for starting and stopping the motor, selecting forward or reverse rotation, selecting and...
s instead of internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
s (ICEs) for propulsion.
A plug-in hybrid operates as an all electric vehicle or BEV when operating in charge-depleting
Charge-depleting
Charge-depleting or EV mode refers to a mode of vehicle operation that is dependent on energy from the battery pack. Battery electric vehicles operate solely in this mode...
mode, but it switches to charge-sustaining mode after the battery has reached its minimum state of charge
State of charge
State of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
(SOC) threshold, exhausting the vehicle's all-electric range
All-electric range
All-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
(AER).
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
A plug-in hybrid electric vehiclePlug-in hybrid electric vehicle
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle , plug-in hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid is a hybrid vehicle which utilizes rechargeable batteries, or another energy storage device, that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source...
(PHEV or PHV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
with rechargeable batteries
Rechargeable battery
A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to...
that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power
Electric power
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt.-Circuits:Electric power, like mechanical power, is represented by the letter P in electrical equations...
source. A plug-in hybrid shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle and an all-electric vehicle: it uses a gasoline engine and an electric motor for propulsion, but a PHEV has a larger battery pack that can be recharged, allowing operation in all-electric mode until the battery is depleted.
Aftermarket conversions
An aftermarketAftermarket (automotive)
The automotive aftermarket is the secondary market of the automotive industry, concerned with the manufacturing, remanufacturing, distribution, retailing, and installation of all vehicle parts, chemicals, tools, equipment and accessories for light and heavy vehicles, after the sale of the...
electric vehicle conversion
Electric vehicle conversion
An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.-Elements of a conversion:...
is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
vehicle (ICEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to electric
Electricity
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire...
propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle , plug-in hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid is a hybrid vehicle which utilizes rechargeable batteries, or another energy storage device, that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source...
.
There are several companies in the U.S. offering conversions. The most common conversions have been from hybrid electric cars to plug-in hybrid, but due to the different technology used in hybrids by each carmaker, the easiest conversions are for 2004–2009 Toyota Prius
Toyota Prius
The Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric mid-size hatchback, formerly a compact sedan developed and manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation...
and for the Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner Hybrid.
Lower operating and maintenance costs
Internal combustion engineInternal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
s are relatively inefficient at converting on-board fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat, and the rest while the engine is idling. Electric motor
Electric motor
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force...
s, on the other hand, are more efficient
Thermal efficiency
In thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency is a dimensionless performance measure of a device that uses thermal energy, such as an internal combustion engine, a boiler, a furnace, or a refrigerator for example.-Overview:...
at converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. Electric drive vehicles do not consume energy while at rest or coasting, and modern plug-in cars can capture and reused as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking through regenerative braking. Typically, conventional gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engine
Diesel engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber...
s can reach on-board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive vehicles typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80%.
In the United States, with a national average electricity rate of per kWh as of early 2010, the cost per mile for a plug-in electric vehicle operating in all-electric mode is estimated between $0.02 to $0.04, while the cost per mile of a standard automobile varies between $0.08 to $0.20, considering a gasoline price of $3.00 per gallon. As petroleum price is expected to increase in the future due to oil production decline
Peak oil
Peak oil is the point in time when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline. This concept is based on the observed production rates of individual oil wells, projected reserves and the combined production rate of a field...
and increases in global demand, the cost difference in favor of PEVs will be even more advantageous.
The operating cost of a conventional automobile with fuel economy
Fuel economy in automobiles
Fuel usage in automobiles refers to the fuel efficiency relationship between distance traveled by an automobile and the amount of fuel consumed....
of 25 miles per US gallon at $4.00 per gallon (reached in mid 2008) would be $0.16 per mile. In comparison, the all-electric Tesla Roadster
Tesla Roadster
The Tesla Roadster is a battery electric vehicle sports car produced by the electric car firm Tesla Motors in California. The Roadster was the first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production available in the United States. Since 2008 Tesla has sold 2,024 Roadsters in 30 countries...
has a cost of $0.022 per mile, the 2011 Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
plug-in hybrid is estimated to have an operating cost of $0.021 per mile, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid
The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid is a mid-size plug-in hybrid electric vehicle to be produced by Toyota Motor Corporation and scheduled to be released to the market beginning in January 2012...
cost is estimated at $0.03 per mile considering an electricity rate of $0.10 per kWh.
All-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles also have lower maintenance costs as compared to internal combustion vehicles, since electronic systems break down much less often than the mechanical systems in conventional vehicles, and the fewer mechanical systems on board last longer due to the better use of the electric engine. PEVs do not require oil changes and other routine maintenance checks.
The following table compares out-of-pocket fuel costs estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency according to the official ratings for fuel economy
Fuel economy in automobiles
Fuel usage in automobiles refers to the fuel efficiency relationship between distance traveled by an automobile and the amount of fuel consumed....
(miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent is a measure of the average distance traveled per unit of energy consumed. MPGe is used by the U.S...
in the case of PEVs) for three plug-in cars available in the U.S. in 2011, and the U.S. best selling gasoline-electric hybrid car
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
and gasoline only automobile for calendar year 2010.
| Comparison of fuel economics for three PEVs available in the U.S. market against the best selling hybrid electric vehicle and gasoline-powered automobile in the U.S. market in 2010 (Fuel economy and operating costs as displayed in the Monroney label and the U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's fueleconomy.gov website for model year 2011) |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | Model year |
Type of powertrain Powertrain In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant refers to the group of components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, and the final drive... |
Operating mode |
EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress... rated Combined fuel economy Fuel economy in automobiles Fuel usage in automobiles refers to the fuel efficiency relationship between distance traveled by an automobile and the amount of fuel consumed.... |
EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress... rated City fuel economy Fuel economy in automobiles Fuel usage in automobiles refers to the fuel efficiency relationship between distance traveled by an automobile and the amount of fuel consumed.... |
EPA rated Highway fuel economy Fuel economy in automobiles Fuel usage in automobiles refers to the fuel efficiency relationship between distance traveled by an automobile and the amount of fuel consumed.... |
Cost to drive 25 miles |
Annual Fuel Cost |
Notes |
| Nissan Leaf Nissan Leaf Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997. The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002, only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as... |
2011 | Electric car Electric car An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass... |
All-electric | 99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
106 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
92 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
$0.94 | $561 | See (1) |
| Smart ED Smart ED The Smart fortwo electric drive is a battery electric vehicle version of the Smart Fortwo micro car. This electric car was formerly known as Smart fortwo EV... |
2011 | Electric car Electric car An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass... |
All-electric | 87 mpg-e (39 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
94 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
79 mpg-e (43 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
$1.07 | $644 | See (1) |
| Chevrolet Volt Chevrolet Volt The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency... |
2011 | Plug-in hybrid | Electricity only | 93 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
95 mpg-e (35.7 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
90 mpg-e (37.4 kW-hrs/100 miles) |
$0.99 | $594 | See (1) |
| Gasoline only | 37 mpg | 35 mpg | 40 mpg | $2.72 | $1,632 | ||||
| Toyota Prius Toyota Prius (XW30) The Toyota Prius is a mid-size hatchback that has been produced by Toyota. Toyota debuted the third generation Prius at the January 2009 North American International Auto Show, and sales began in Japan on May 18, 2009. Replacing the XW20 series, the XW30 represents the third generation of the... |
2011 | Hybrid electric vehicle Hybrid electric vehicle A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional... |
Gasoline-electric hybrid Hybrid electric vehicle A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional... |
50 mpg | 51 mpg | 48 mpg | $1.90 | $1,137 | See (2) |
| Toyota Camry | 2011 | Manual gasoline-powered |
Gasoline only | 26 mpg | 22 mpg | 33 mpg | $3.64 | $2,189 | See (2) |
| Notes: All estimated fuel costs based on 15,000 miles annual driving, 45% highway and 55% city. (1) Electricity cost of $0.11/kw-hr and premium gasoline price of $3.31 per gallon (as of mid April 2011). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kW-hr. (2) Gasoline price of $3.79 per gallon (as of mid April 2011). |
|||||||||
Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions
Electric carElectric car
An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass...
s, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants
Motor vehicle emissions
Motor vehicle emissions are composed of the by-products that comes out of the exhaust systems or other emissions such as gasoline evaporation...
from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot
Soot
Soot is a general term that refers to impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolyzed fuel particles such as cenospheres,...
), volatile organic compound
Volatile organic compound
Volatile organic compounds are organic chemicals that have a high vapor pressure at ordinary, room-temperature conditions. Their high vapor pressure results from a low boiling point, which causes large numbers of molecules to evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid form of the compound and...
s, hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls....
s, carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide , also called carbonous oxide, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly lighter than air. It is highly toxic to humans and animals in higher quantities, although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities, and is thought to have some normal...
, ozone
Ozone
Ozone , or trioxygen, is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope...
, lead
Lead
Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed...
, and various oxides of nitrogen
NOx
NOx is a generic term for the mono-nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 . They are produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air during combustion, especially at high temperatures...
. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants. In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation
Electricity generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric energy from other forms of energy.The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday...
. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind
Wind power
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships....
, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power
Nuclear power
Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity...
for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions. On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal
Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...
-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
s. In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy
Fuel economy in automobiles
Fuel usage in automobiles refers to the fuel efficiency relationship between distance traveled by an automobile and the amount of fuel consumed....
.
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, where most energy comes from natural gas
Natural gas
Natural gas is a naturally occurring gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, typically with 0–20% higher hydrocarbons . It is found associated with other hydrocarbon fuel, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is an important fuel source and a major feedstock for fertilizers.Most natural...
, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas
Natural gas
Natural gas is a naturally occurring gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, typically with 0–20% higher hydrocarbons . It is found associated with other hydrocarbon fuel, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is an important fuel source and a major feedstock for fertilizers.Most natural...
plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, and the central regions of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal
Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...
. However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cites with chronic air pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere....
problems, such as Los Angeles
Los Ángeles
Los Ángeles is the capital of the province of Biobío, in the commune of the same name, in Region VIII , in the center-south of Chile. It is located between the Laja and Biobío rivers. The population is 123,445 inhabitants...
, México City
Mexico City
Mexico City is the Federal District , capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole...
, Santiago, Chile
Santiago, Chile
Santiago , also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile, and the center of its largest conurbation . It is located in the country's central valley, at an elevation of above mean sea level...
, São Paulo
São Paulo
São Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, the largest city in the southern hemisphere and South America, and the world's seventh largest city by population. The metropolis is anchor to the São Paulo metropolitan area, ranked as the second-most populous metropolitan area in the Americas and among...
, Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
, Bangkok
Bangkok
Bangkok is the capital and largest urban area city in Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep , meaning "city of angels." The full name of Bangkok is Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom...
and Katmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.
Carbon footprint during production
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo
Ricardo plc
Ricardo plc is a British publicly listed company named after its founder, Sir Harry Ricardo and founded on 30 June 1927 in Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex. The company is a leading global multi-industry engineering provider of technology, product innovation and strategic consulting...
in collaboration with experts from the UK’s Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint
Carbon footprint
A carbon footprint has historically been defined as "the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person.". However, calculating a carbon footprint which conforms to this definition is often impracticable due to the large amount of data required, which is...
over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size
Mid-size car
A mid-size car is the North American/Australian standard for an automobile with a size equal to or greater than that of a compact...
electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasoline internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel
Steel
Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten...
used in the vehicle glider
Vehicle glider
In automobiles, a glider is a vehicle without a powertrain . It is generally a brand new car, but a second-hand car can also be used...
. The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:
| Comparison of full life cycle assessment Life cycle assessment A life-cycle assessment is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess environmental impacts... (well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint Carbon footprint A carbon footprint has historically been defined as "the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person.". However, calculating a carbon footprint which conforms to this definition is often impracticable due to the large amount of data required, which is... during production for four different powertrain technologies |
|||
|---|---|---|---|
| Type of vehicle (powertrain Powertrain In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant refers to the group of components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, and the final drive... ) |
Estimated emissions in production (tonnes CO2e) |
Estimated lifecycle emissions (tonnes CO2e) |
Percentage of emissions during production |
| Standard gasoline vehicle | 5.6 | 24 | 23% |
| Hybrid electric vehicle Hybrid electric vehicle A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional... |
6.5 | 21 | 31% |
| Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle , plug-in hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid is a hybrid vehicle which utilizes rechargeable batteries, or another energy storage device, that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source... |
6.7 | 19 | 35% |
| Battery electric vehicle Battery electric vehicle A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or... |
8.8 | 19 | 46% |
| Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming 150000 km (93,205.9 mi) full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity. | |||
The study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.
Less dependence on imported oil
1973 oil crisis
The 1973 oil crisis started in October 1973, when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries or the OAPEC proclaimed an oil embargo. This was "in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during the Yom Kippur war. It lasted until March 1974. With the...
. For the United States, the other developed countries and emerging countries their dependence on foreign oil has revived concerns about their vulnerability to price shocks
Shock (economics)
In economics a shock is an unexpected or unpredictable event that affects an economy, either positively or negatively. Technically, it refers to an unpredictable change in exogenous factors—that is, factors unexplained by economics—which may have an impact on endogenous economic variables.The...
and supply
Supply (economics)
In economics, supply is the amount of some product producers are willing and able to sell at a given price all other factors being held constant. Usually, supply is plotted as a supply curve showing the relationship of price to the amount of product businesses are willing to sell.In economics the...
disruption
Energy security
Energy security is a term for an association between national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption. Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led...
. Also, there have been concerns about the uncertainty surrounding peak oil production
Peak oil
Peak oil is the point in time when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline. This concept is based on the observed production rates of individual oil wells, projected reserves and the combined production rate of a field...
and the higher cost of extracting unconventional oil. A third issue that has been raised is the threat to national security
National security
National security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the state through the use of economic, diplomacy, power projection and political power. The concept developed mostly in the United States of America after World War II...
because most proven oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few geographic locations, including some countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostile to U.S. interests. In addition, for many developing countries, and particularly for the poorest Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
n countries, high oil prices have an adverse impact on the government budget and deteriorate their terms of trade thus jeopardizing their balance of payments
Balance of payments
Balance of payments accounts are an accounting record of all monetary transactions between a country and the rest of the world.These transactions include payments for the country's exports and imports of goods, services, financial capital, and financial transfers...
, all leading to lower economic growth.
Through the gradual replacement of internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
vehicles for electric car
Electric car
An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass...
s and plug-in hybrids, electric drive vehicles can contribute significantly to lessen the dependence of the transport
Transport
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, cattle, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations...
sector on imported oil as well as contributing to the development of a more resilient energy supply.
Vehicle-to-grid
Plug-in electric vehicles offer users the opportunity to sell electricity stored in their batteries back to the power gridGrid (electricity)
An electrical grid is a vast, interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. It consists of three main components: 1) generating plants that produce electricity from combustible fuels or non-combustible fuels ; 2) transmission lines that carry electricity from power...
, thereby helping utilities to operate more efficiently in the management of their demand peaks. A vehicle-to-grid
Vehicle-to-grid
Vehicle-to-grid describes a system in which plug-in electric vehicles, such as electric cars and plug-in hybrids , communicate with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.Vehicle-to-grid can be used with...
(V2G) system would take advantage of the fact that most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time. During such idle times the electricity stored in the batteries could be transferred from the PEV to the power lines and back to the grid. In the U.S this transfer back to the grid have an estimated value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car. In a V2G system it would also be expected that battery electric
Battery electric vehicle
A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or...
(BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) would have the capability to communicate automatically with the power grid to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.
Cost of batteries
As of 2010 plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive as compared to conventional internal combustion engineInternal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
vehicles and hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
s due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council
United States National Research Council
The National Research Council of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academies, carrying out most of the studies done in their names.The National Academies include:* National Academy of Sciences...
, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack is about /kW·h of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle , plug-in hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid is a hybrid vehicle which utilizes rechargeable batteries, or another energy storage device, that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric power source...
-10 requires about 2.0 kW·h and a PHEV-40 about 8 kW·h, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around and it goes up to for a PHEV-40.
A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs
The Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs is a permanent research center located within the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. The center's current director is political scientist Graham T. Allison....
, Harvard University
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
, found that the gasoline costs savings of plug-in electric cars do not offset their higher purchase prices when comparing their lifetime net present value
Net present value
In finance, the net present value or net present worth of a time series of cash flows, both incoming and outgoing, is defined as the sum of the present values of the individual cash flows of the same entity...
of purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market at 2010 prices, and assuming no government subidies. According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicles is more expensive. These findings assumed a battery cost of per kWh, which means that the Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
battery pack cost around and the Nissan Leaf
Nissan Leaf
Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997. The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002, only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as...
pack costs . The study also assumed a gasoline price of per gallon (as of mid June 2011), that vehicles are driven 12000 miles (19,312.1 km) per year, an average price of electricity of per kWh, that the plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time, and that the owner of PEVs pay to install a Level II 220/240 volt charger at home.
The study also include hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
s in the comparison, and analyzed several scenarios to determine how the comparative net savings will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase, and also assuming higher fuel efficiency of conventional cars, among other scenarios. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars ( to cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in an scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. The reason for the different savings among PEVs is because BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines. The following table summarizes the results of four of the seven scenarios analyzed by the study.
| Comparison of net lifetime savings among conventional gasoline-powered cars, hybrids and plug-in electric cars for several scenarios (U.S. market at 2010 prices) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Description | Conventional ICE Internal combustion engine The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine... |
Hybrid electric Hybrid electric vehicle A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional... (HEV) |
Plug-in hybrid (PHEV) |
Battery electric Battery electric vehicle A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or... (BEV) |
| Scenario: 2010 costs (battery per kWh, gasoline per gallon, and electricity per kWh) |
||||
| Purchase price | ||||
| Total net present Net present value In finance, the net present value or net present worth of a time series of cash flows, both incoming and outgoing, is defined as the sum of the present values of the individual cash flows of the same entity... cost |
||||
| Cost differential with conventional car | ||||
| Scenario: Future Costs - Lower battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery per kWh, gasoline per gallon, and electricity per kWh) |
||||
| Total net present cost | ||||
| Cost differential with conventional car | ||||
| Scenario: Future Costs - Low battery cost and higher gasoline and electricity prices (battery per kWh, gasoline per gallon, and electricity per kWh) |
||||
| Total net present cost | ||||
| Cost differential with conventional car | ||||
| ( | ||||
| Scenario: Higher fuel efficiency ICEs:50 miles per US gallon (21.3 km/L) HEVs and PHEVs: 75 miles per US gallon (31.9 km/L) (battery per kWh, gasoline per gallon, and electricity per kWh) |
||||
| Total net present cost | ||||
| Cost differential with conventional car | ||||
| Note: Assumes vehicles are driven 12000 miles (19,312.1 km) per year and plug-in hybrid is driven in all-electric mode 85% of the time | ||||
Availability of recharging infrastructure
Despite the widespread assumption that plug-in recharging will take place overnight at home, residents of cities, apartments, dormitories, and townhouses do not have garages or driveways with available power outlets, and they might be less likely to buy plug-in electric vehicles unless recharging infrastructure is developed. Electrical outlets or charging stationCharging station
An electric vehicle charging station, also called EV charging station, electric recharging point, charging point and EVSE , is an element in an infrastructure that supplies electric energy for the recharging of electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric-gasoline vehicles) or semi-static and mobile...
s near their places of residence, in commercial or public parking lot
Parking lot
A parking lot , also known as car lot, is a cleared area that is intended for parking vehicles. Usually, the term refers to a dedicated area that has been provided with a durable or semi-durable surface....
s, streets and workplaces are required for these potential users to gain the full advantage of PHEVs, and in the case of EVs, to avoid the fear of the batteries running out energy before reaching their destination, commonly called range anxiety
Range anxiety
Range anxiety is the fear that a vehicle has insufficient range to reach its destination and would thus strand the vehicle's occupants.The term, which is primarily used in reference to electric vehicles, is considered to be one of the major barriers to large scale adoption of electric vehicles...
. Even house dwellers might need to charge at the office or to take advantage of opportunity charging at shopping centers. However, this infrastructure is not in place and it will require investments by both the private and public sectors.
Several cities in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
and Oregon
Oregon
Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern...
, and particularly San Francisco and other cities in the San Francisco Bay Area
San Francisco Bay Area
The San Francisco Bay Area, commonly known as the Bay Area, is a populated region that surrounds the San Francisco and San Pablo estuaries in Northern California. The region encompasses metropolitan areas of San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose, along with smaller urban and rural areas...
and Silicon Valley
Silicon Valley
Silicon Valley is a term which refers to the southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area in Northern California in the United States. The region is home to many of the world's largest technology corporations...
, already have deployed public charging station
Charging station
An electric vehicle charging station, also called EV charging station, electric recharging point, charging point and EVSE , is an element in an infrastructure that supplies electric energy for the recharging of electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric-gasoline vehicles) or semi-static and mobile...
s and have expansion plans to attend both plug-ins and all-electric car
Electric car
An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass...
s. Some local private firms such as Google
Google
Google Inc. is an American multinational public corporation invested in Internet search, cloud computing, and advertising technologies. Google hosts and develops a number of Internet-based services and products, and generates profit primarily from advertising through its AdWords program...
and Adobe Systems
Adobe Systems
Adobe Systems Incorporated is an American computer software company founded in 1982 and headquartered in San Jose, California, United States...
have also deployed charging infrastructure. In Google's case, its Mountain View
Mountain View, California
-Downtown:Mountain View has a pedestrian-friendly downtown centered on Castro Street. The downtown area consists of the seven blocks of Castro Street from the Downtown Mountain View Station transit center in the north to the intersection with El Camino Real in the south...
campus has 100 available charging stations for its share-use fleet of converted plug-ins available to its employees. Solar panels are used to generate the electricity, and this pilot program is being monitored on a daily basis and performance results are published on the RechargeIT
RechargeIT
RechargeIT is one of five initiatives within Google.org, the charitable arm of Google, created with the aim to reduce CO2 emissions, cut oil use, and stabilize the electrical grid by accelerating the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.-History:...
website.
Battery swapping
A different approach to resolve the problems of range anxietyRange anxiety
Range anxiety is the fear that a vehicle has insufficient range to reach its destination and would thus strand the vehicle's occupants.The term, which is primarily used in reference to electric vehicles, is considered to be one of the major barriers to large scale adoption of electric vehicles...
and lack of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles was developed by Better Place. Its business model considers that electric cars will be built and sold separately from the battery pack. As customers are not be allowed to purchase battery packs, instead, they must lease them from Better Place which will deploy a network of battery swapping stations thus expanding EVs range and allowing long distance trips. Subscribed users will pay a per-distance fee to cover battery pack leasing, charging and swap infrastructure, the cost of sustainable electricity
Sustainable energy
Sustainable energy is the provision of energy that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Sustainable energy sources include all renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, solar energy, wind energy, wave power, geothermal...
, and other costs. The firm has already tested battery-swap stations allowing drivers to exchange their car's depleted battery pack for a fully recharged one in less than a minute. Better Place has already signed agreement for deployment in Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
, Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, and Hawaii
Hawaii
Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...
.
Other charging solutions
The REVA NXR exhibited in the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show and the Nissan LeafNissan Leaf
Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997. The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002, only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as...
SV trim both have roof-mounted solar panels. These solar panels are designed to trickle charge
Trickle charging
Trickle charging, or float charging, means charging a battery at a similar rate as its self-discharging rate, thus maintaining a full capacity battery. Most rechargeable batteries, particularly nickel-cadmium batteries or nickel metal hydride batteries, have a moderate rate of self-discharge,...
the batteries when the car is moving or parked. Another proposed technology is REVive, by REVA
REVA
The REVAi, known as G-Wiz in the UK, is a small micro electric car, made by the Indian manufacturer REVA Electric Car Company since 2001...
. When the Reva NXR's batteries are running low or are fully depleted, the driver is able to send an SMS
SMS
SMS is a form of text messaging communication on phones and mobile phones. The terms SMS or sms may also refer to:- Computer hardware :...
to REVive and unlock a hidden reserve in the battery pack. REVA has not provided details on how the system will work.
Other upcoming plug-in vehicles to use solar panels to charge the batteries include the Ford Focus Electric
Ford Focus Electric
The Ford Focus Electric is a 5-door hatchback electric car being produced by Ford Motor Company. The Focus electric will be Ford's first full production, all-electric passenger vehicle. The initial U.S. market roll-out is scheduled to be limited to 19 regional markets, beginning with California and...
and the Fisker Karma
Fisker Karma
The Fisker Karma is a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at equivalent in all-electric mode, and at in...
.
Potential overload of the electrical grid
The existing electrical grid, and local transformerTransformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field...
s in particular, may not have enough capacity to handle the additional power
Electric power
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt.-Circuits:Electric power, like mechanical power, is represented by the letter P in electrical equations...
load that might be required in certain areas with high plug-in electric car concentrations. As recharging a single electric-drive car could consume three times as much electricity as a typical home, overloading problems may arise when several vehicles in the same neighborhood recharge at the same time, or during the normal summer peak loads. To avoid such problems, utility executives recommend owners to charge their vehicles overnight when the grid load is lower or to use smarter electric meters that help control demand. When market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles begins to reach significant levels, utilities will have to invest in improvements for local electrical grids in order to handle the additional loads related to recharging to avoid blackouts due to grid overload. Also, some experts have suggested that by implementing variable time-of-day rates, utilities can provide an incentive for plug-in owners to recharge mostly overnight, when rates are lower.
Risks associated with noise reduction
Electric car
An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass...
s and plug-in hybrids when operating in all-electric mode at low speeds produce less roadway noise
Roadway noise
Roadway noise is the collective sound energy emanating from motor vehicles. In the USA it contributes more to environmental noise exposure than any other noise source, and is constituted chiefly of engine, tire, aerodynamic and braking elements...
as compared to vehicles propelled by a internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine...
, thereby reducing harmful noise health effects
Noise health effects
Noise health effects are the health consequences of elevated sound levels. Elevated workplace or other noise can cause hearing impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, annoyance and sleep disturbance. Changes in the immune system and birth defects have been attributed to noise exposure...
. However, blind people or the visually impaired
Visual impairment
Visual impairment is vision loss to such a degree as to qualify as an additional support need through a significant limitation of visual capability resulting from either disease, trauma, or congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional means, such as refractive...
consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets, hence electric-drive cars and hybrid
Hybrid vehicle
A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the vehicle. The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles , which combine an internal combustion engine and one or more electric motors.-Power:...
s could pose an unexpected hazard when operating at low speeds. Several tests conducted in the U.S. have shown that this is a valid concern, as vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mile per hour for all types of road users and not only the visually impaired. At higher speeds the sound created by tire friction and the air displaced by the vehicle start to make sufficient audible noise.
Some carmakers announced they have decided to address this safety issue, and as a result, the new Nissan Leaf electric car and Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
plug-in hybrid, both launched in December 2010, as well as the Fisker Karma
Fisker Karma
The Fisker Karma is a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at equivalent in all-electric mode, and at in...
plug-in hybrid due in 2011, include manually-activated electric warning sounds
Electric vehicle warning sounds
Electric vehicle warning sounds are a series of sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles , plug-in hybrid electric vehicles , and all-electric vehicles travelling at low speeds...
to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence.
The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourismissued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles in January 2010. In the United States the Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives in December 2010. The act does not stipulate a specific speed for the simulated noise but requires the U.S. Department of Transportation to study and establish a motor vehicle safety standard that would set requirements for an alert sound that allows blind and other pedestrians to reasonably detect a nearby electric drive vehicles, and the ruling must be finalized within eighteen months.
Rare earth metals availability and supply security
Current technology for plug-ins and electric cars is based on the lithium-ion battery and an electric motorElectric motor
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force...
which uses rare earth element
Rare earth element
As defined by IUPAC, rare earth elements or rare earth metals are a set of seventeen chemical elements in the periodic table, specifically the fifteen lanthanides plus scandium and yttrium...
s. The demand for lithium
Lithium
Lithium is a soft, silver-white metal that belongs to the alkali metal group of chemical elements. It is represented by the symbol Li, and it has the atomic number 3. Under standard conditions it is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly...
, heavy metals and other rare elements (such as neodymium
Neodymium
Neodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60. It is a soft silvery metal that tarnishes in air. Neodymium was discovered in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. It is present in significant quantities in the ore minerals monazite and bastnäsite...
, boron
Boron
Boron is the chemical element with atomic number 5 and the chemical symbol B. Boron is a metalloid. Because boron is not produced by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is a low-abundance element in both the solar system and the Earth's crust. However, boron is concentrated on Earth by the...
and cobalt
Cobalt
Cobalt is a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. It is found naturally only in chemically combined form. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal....
) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the incoming market entrance of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term. The Toyota Prius
Toyota Prius
The Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric mid-size hatchback, formerly a compact sedan developed and manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation...
battery contains more than 20 pounds (9.1 kg) of the rare earth element lanthanum
Lanthanum
Lanthanum is a chemical element with the symbol La and atomic number 57.Lanthanum is a silvery white metallic element that belongs to group 3 of the periodic table and is the first element of the lanthanide series. It is found in some rare-earth minerals, usually in combination with cerium and...
, and its motor magnets use neodymium
Neodymium
Neodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60. It is a soft silvery metal that tarnishes in air. Neodymium was discovered in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. It is present in significant quantities in the ore minerals monazite and bastnäsite...
and dysprosium
Dysprosium
Dysprosium is a chemical element with the symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is a rare earth element with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though it is found in various minerals, such as xenotime...
.
Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to U.S. interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.
Lithium
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
and throughout the Andes
Andes
The Andes is the world's longest continental mountain range. It is a continual range of highlands along the western coast of South America. This range is about long, about to wide , and of an average height of about .Along its length, the Andes is split into several ranges, which are separated...
mountain chain in South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
. In 2008 Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
was the leading lithium metal producer with almost 30%, followed by China, Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
, and Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
. In the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
lithium is recovered from brine
Brine
Brine is water, saturated or nearly saturated with salt .Brine is used to preserve vegetables, fruit, fish, and meat, in a process known as brining . Brine is also commonly used to age Halloumi and Feta cheeses, or for pickling foodstuffs, as a means of preserving them...
pools in Nevada
Nevada
Nevada is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. With an area of and a population of about 2.7 million, it is the 7th-largest and 35th-most populous state. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in the Las Vegas metropolitan area, which contains its...
.
Nearly half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
, and according to the US Geological Survey, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni
Salar de Uyuni
Salar de Uyuni is the world's largest salt flat at . It is located in the Potosí and Oruro departments in southwest Bolivia, near the crest of the Andes, and is elevated above the mean sea level. The Salar was formed as a result of transformations between several prehistoric lakes...
desert has 5.4 million tons of lithium. Other important reserves are located in Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, and Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
. Since 2006 the Bolivian government have nationalized oil and gas projects and is keeping a tight control over mining its lithium reserves. Already the Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
ese and South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
n governments, as well as companies from these two countries and France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, have offered technical assistance to develop Bolivia's lithium reserves and are seeking to gain access to the lithium resources through a mining
Mining
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from an ore body, vein or seam. The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock...
and industrialization
Mineral industry
The mineral industry is the branch of industry responsible for the exploitation of minerals from soil deposits. This is achieved by mining , but also by processing plants. Products of mineral industry include various building materials, such as rocks The mineral industry is the branch of industry...
model suitable to Bolivian interests.
According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , is a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory conducting unclassified scientific research. It is located on the grounds of the University of California, Berkeley, in the Berkeley Hills above the central campus...
and the University of California Berkeley, currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles, as the study estimated that on the order of 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries for electric car could be built with current reserves, as estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey. Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
and Ford Motor Company
Ford Motor Company
Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker based in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. The automaker was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. In addition to the Ford and Lincoln brands, Ford also owns a small stake in Mazda in Japan and Aston Martin in the UK...
found that there are sufficient lithium resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required from the potential demand due to widespread use of electric vehicles, including hybrid electric
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
, plug-in hybrid electric and battery electric vehicle
Battery electric vehicle
A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or...
s. The study estimated global lithium reserves at 90 million tons and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed was estimated to be in the range of 12-20 million tons depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.
Rare earth elements
China has 48% of the world's reserves of rare earth elements, the United States has 13%, and Russia, Australia, and Canada have significant deposits. Until the 1980s, the U.S. led the world in rare earth production, but since the mid 1990's China controls the world market for these elements. The mines in Bayan Obo
Bayan Obo
Bayan Obo Mining District, , or Baiyun-Obo or Baiyun'ebo, is a mining town in the west of Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of Baotou City, more than to the south....
near Baotou
Baotou
Baotou is a mid-sized industrial city in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, its urban areas are home to a population of approximately 1.78 million, with a total population of over 2.65 million accounting for counties under...
, Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in the northern region of the country. Inner Mongolia shares an international border with the countries of Mongolia and the Russian Federation...
, are the greatest source of rare earth metals, providing 80% of China's rare earths production. In 2010 the country accounted for 97% of the global production of 17 rare earth elements. Since 2006 the Chinese government has been imposing export quotas reducing supply at a rate of 5% to 10% a year.
Prices of several rare earth elements increased sharply by mid 2010 as China imposed a 40% export reduction, citing environmental concerns as the reason for the export restrictions. These quotas have been interpreted as an attempt to control the supply of rare earths. However, the high prices have provided an incentive to begin or reactivate several rare earth mining projects around the world, including the United States, Australia, Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, and Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan , officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Ranked as the ninth largest country in the world, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of is greater than Western Europe...
.
In September 2010, China temporarily blocked all exports of rare elements to Japan in the midst of a diplomatic dispute between the two countries. These minerals are used in hybrid cars and other products such wind turbines and guided missiles, thereby augmenting the worries about the dependence on Chinese rare earth elements and the need for geographic diversity of supply. A December 2010 report published by the US DoE found that the American economy vulnerable to rare earth shortages and estimates that it could take 15 years to overcome dependence on Chinese supplies. China raised export taxes for some rare earths from 15 to 25%, and also extended taxes to exports of some rare earth alloys that were not taxed before. The Chinese government also announced further reductions on its export quotas for the first months of 2011, which represent a 35% reduction in tonnage as compared to exports during the first half of 2010.
On September 29, 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives approved the Rare Earths and Critical Materials Revitalization Act of 2010 (H.R.6160). The approved legislation is aimed at restoring the U.S. as a leading producer of rare earth elements, and would support activities in the U.S. Department of Energy (US DoE) to discover and develop rare earth sites inside of the U.S. in an effort to reduce the auto industry's near-complete dependence on China for the minerals. A similar bill, the Rare Earths Supply Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 (S. 3521), is being discussed in the U.S. Senate.
In order to avoid its dependence on rare earth minerals, Toyota Motor Corporation
Toyota Motor Corporation
, , , commonly known simply as Toyota and abbreviated as TMC, is a multinational automaker headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. In 2010, Toyota Motor Corporation employed 317,734 people worldwide, and was the world's largest automobile manufacturer by production.The company was founded by...
announced in January 2011 that is developing for future hybrid and electric cars an alternative motor does not need rare earth materials. Toyota engineers in Japan and the U.S. are developing an induction motor
Induction motor
An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. These motors are widely used in industrial drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are robust and have no brushes...
that is lighter and more efficient than the magnet-type motor used in the Prius, which uses two rare elements in its motor magnets. Other popular hybrids and plug-in electric cars in the market that use these rare earth elements are the Nissan Leaf
Nissan Leaf
Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997. The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002, only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as...
, the Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
and Honda Insight
Honda Insight
The Honda Insight is a hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by Honda and the first production vehicle to feature Honda's Integrated Motor Assist system. The first-generation Insight was produced from 1999 to 2006 as a three-door hatchback...
. For its second generation RAV4 EV due in 2012, Toyota will use an induction motor supplied by Tesla Motors
Tesla Motors
Tesla Motors, Inc. is a Silicon Valley-based company that designs, manufactures and sells electric cars and electric vehicle powertrain components. It was the only automaker building and selling a zero-emission sports car, the Tesla Roadster, in serial production...
that does not use rare earth materials. The Tesla Roadster
Tesla Roadster
The Tesla Roadster is a battery electric vehicle sports car produced by the electric car firm Tesla Motors in California. The Roadster was the first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production available in the United States. Since 2008 Tesla has sold 2,024 Roadsters in 30 countries...
and future Tesla Model S
Tesla Model S
The Tesla Model S is a full-sized battery electric sedan developed by Tesla Motors. It is an electric car that was initially codenamed WhiteStar during research and preliminary development. Model S was announced in a press release on June 30, 2008...
use a similar motor.
Government incentives
Several national and local governments around the world have established tax credits, grants and other financial and non-financial incentives for consumers to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle as a policy to promote the introduction and mass market adoption of this type of vehicles.Asia
JapanIn May 2009 the Japanese Diet passed the "Green Vehicle Purchasing Promotion Measure" that went into effect on June 19, 2009, but retroactive to April 10, 2009. The program established tax deductions and exemptions for environmentally friendly
Green vehicles
Green vehicles may refer to:* Green Vehicles Inc., maker of the Triac * Green vehicle...
and fuel efficient vehicles, according to a set of stipulated environmental performance criteria, and the requirements are applied equally to both foreign and domestically produced vehicles. The program provides purchasing subsidies for two type of cases, consumers purchasing a new passenger car without trade-in (non-replacement program), and for those consumers buying a new car trading an used car registered 13 years ago or earlier (scrappage program
Scrappage program
A scrappage program is a government budget program to promote the replacement of old vehicles with modern vehicles. Scrappage programs generally have the dual aim of stimulating the automobile industry and removing inefficient, high emissions vehicles from the road...
).
China
On June 1, 2010, The Chinese
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
government announced a trial program to provide incentives up to 60,000 yuan
Chinese yuan
The yuan is the base unit of a number of modern Chinese currencies. The yuan is the primary unit of account of the Renminbi.A yuán is also known colloquially as a kuài . One yuán is divided into 10 jiǎo or colloquially máo...
(~US$8,785) for private purchase of new battery electric vehicle
Battery electric vehicle
A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or...
s and 50,000 yuan (~US$7,320) for plug-in hybrids in five cities.
Europe
As of April 2010, the Czech RepublicCzech Republic
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the northeast, Slovakia to the east, Austria to the south, and Germany to the west and northwest....
, Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, and 15 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of PEVs and hybrid vehicles. In the U.K. the Plug-in Car Grant Program provides a 25% incentive towards the cost of new plug-in electric cars that qualify as ultra-low carbon vehicles, but the benefit is capped at . Both private and business fleet buyers are eligible for the government grant.
North America
United StatesIn the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric vehicles. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, abbreviated ARRA and commonly referred to as the Stimulus or The Recovery Act, is an economic stimulus package enacted by the 111th United States Congress in February 2009 and signed into law on February 17, 2009, by President Barack Obama.To...
(ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.
The federal tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kWh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed $5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit allowed for a new PEV is $7,500. Several states have established incentives and tax exemptions for BEV
Battery electric vehicle
A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or...
s and PHEV, and other non-monetary incentives.
Two separate initiatives are being pursued in 2011 to transform the tax credit into into a cash rebate worth up to $7,500. The initiatives by Senator Debbie Stabenow
Debbie Stabenow
Deborah Ann Greer "Debbie" Stabenow is the junior United States Senator from Michigan and a member of the Democratic Party. Before her election to the U.S. Senate, she was a member of the United States House of Representatives, representing Michigan's 8th congressional district from 1997 to 2001...
and the Obama Administration seek to make new qualifying plug-in electric cars more accessible to buyers by making the incentive more effective. The rebate will be available at the point of sale allowing consumers to avoid a wait of up to a year to apply the tax credit against income tax returns. Another change to the rules governing the tax credit was introduced by Senator Carl Levin
Carl Levin
Carl Milton Levin is a Jewish-American United States Senator from Michigan, serving since 1979. He is the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Armed Services. He is a member of the Democratic Party....
and Representative Sander Levin who are proposing to raise the existing cap on the number of plug-in vehicles eligible for the tax credit. The proposal raises that limit from the existing 200,000 PEVs per manufacturer to 500,000 units.
Canada
Ontario
Ontario
Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....
established a rebate between to (~ to ), depending on battery size, for purchasing or leasing a new plug-in electric vehicle after July 1, 2010. The rebates will be available to the first 10,000 applicants who qualify.
Production plug-in electric vehicles available
During the 1990s several plug-in electric cars were produced in limited quantities, all were battery electric vehicleBattery electric vehicle
A battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of, or in addition to, internal combustion engines for propulsion.A battery-only electric vehicle or...
s, and they were available through leasing mainly in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
. Popular models included the General Motors EV1
General Motors EV1
The General Motors EV1 was an electric car produced and leased by the General Motors Corporation from 1996 to 1999. It was the first mass-produced and purpose-designed electric vehicle of the modern era from a major automaker, and the first GM car designed to be an electric vehicle from the...
, the Ford TH!NK City
Ford TH!NK
The Ford TH!NK was a line of electric vehicles produced by the TH!NK Mobility, then an enterprise of Ford Motor Company. The short-lived line included four models: the TH!NK Neighbor and the TH!NK City, small electric automobiles, and the TH!NK Bike Traveler and the TH!NK Bike Fun, electric-powered...
, and the Toyota RAV4 EV
Toyota RAV4 EV
The RAV4 EV was an all-electric version of the popular RAV4 SUV produced by Toyota. It was leased from 1997 to 2003, and at the lessees request, many units were sold after the vehicle was discontinued. A total of 1,485 were leased and/or sold in California to meet the state’s mandate for...
. Some of the latter were sold to the public and are in use still today.
After the mid 2000s a new wave of mass production
Mass production
Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
plug-in electric cars, motorcycles and light trucks were developed and are available in several countries and regions. Popular models include the Tesla Roadster
Tesla Roadster
The Tesla Roadster is a battery electric vehicle sports car produced by the electric car firm Tesla Motors in California. The Roadster was the first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production available in the United States. Since 2008 Tesla has sold 2,024 Roadsters in 30 countries...
electric car
Electric car
An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass...
, available in the US, Europe, Asia, and Australia; the BYD F3DM
BYD F3DM
The BYD F3DM is a plug-in hybrid compact sedan manufactured by BYD Auto with an all-electric range of and a hybrid electric powertrain that can extend the range an additional . The F3DM is the world's first mass produced plug-in hybrid automobile and went on sale to government agencies and...
plug-in hybrid and BYD e6
BYD e6
BYD e6 is an all-electric crossover car manufactured by BYD Auto with a range of according to the carmaker. Field testing began in China in May 2010 with 40 units operating as taxis in the city of Shenzhen...
electric car available in China; the Th!nk City
Th!nk City
The Th!nk City is a small two-seater or 2+2-seater highway capable electric car produced by Think Global and production partner Valmet Automotive, with a top speed of and an all-electric range of on a full charge....
was available in several European countries and the US; the Mitsubishi i MiEV
Mitsubishi i MiEV
The Mitsubishi i-MiEV is a five-door hatchback electric car produced by Mitsubishi Motors, and is the electric version of the Mitsubishi i. According to the manufacturer, the i-MiEV all-electric range is on the Japanese test cycle...
is available in Japan, Hong Kong, Australia, the UK, Costa Rica, Chile, and several European countries; the Nissan Leaf
Nissan Leaf
Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997. The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002, only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as...
is available in Japan, the US, Canada, the UK and several other European countries; the Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
plug-in hybrid is available in selected markets in the U.S. and Canada. The Fisker Karma
Fisker Karma
The Fisker Karma is a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at equivalent in all-electric mode, and at in...
plug-in hybrid and the Smart ED
Smart ED
The Smart fortwo electric drive is a battery electric vehicle version of the Smart Fortwo micro car. This electric car was formerly known as Smart fortwo EV...
and Wheego Whip
Wheego Whip
The Wheego Whip is an all-electric city car originally developed as the electric version of the Chinese Noble by Shuanghuan Automobile and RTEV . The production version, called Wheego Whip LiFe, was presented at the 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show and is sold in the United States at a price of before...
electric cars are available in selected U.S. markets. The Mia electric
Mia electric
The Mia electric is a city electric car produced by the Franco-German company Mia Electric in Cerizay, France. The standard Mia has a electric motor with a 8 kWh lithium iron phosphate battery pack supplied by EVida that delivers a range of , and a maximum speed of .Production began in June 2011...
is available in France and Germany. Other models undergoing field testing include the Mini E
Mini E
The Mini E is a demonstration electric car developed by BMW as a conversion of its Mini Cooper car. The MINI E was developed for field trials and deployed in several countries, including the United States, Germany, UK, France, Japan and China...
, the Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid; the Prius Plug-in Hybrid; and the Ford Focus Electric
Ford Focus Electric
The Ford Focus Electric is a 5-door hatchback electric car being produced by Ford Motor Company. The Focus electric will be Ford's first full production, all-electric passenger vehicle. The initial U.S. market roll-out is scheduled to be limited to 19 regional markets, beginning with California and...
.
Commercial plug in motorcycles include the Brammo Enertia
Brammo Enertia
The Enertia is an electric motorcycle designed and sold by Brammo, Inc. It uses a Lithium iron phosphate battery, and is intended as a commuter vehicle. Enertia motorcycles first went on sale in late July 2009, and began selling at Best Buy in August 2009....
, the Yamaha EC-03, and the Zero X
Zero X
The Zero X is an electric motorcycle manufactured by Zero Motorcycles.-Specifications:The wheels are driven by hardened steel 420 chain and direct drive gearing.Braking is performed by six-piston calipers per axle, with front rotor....
. Plug-in electric light trucks include the Azure Transit Connect Electric
Azure Transit Connect Electric
The Azure Transit Connect Electric is an all-electric van developed as a collaboration between Azure Dynamics and Ford Motor Company, but Azure is the official manufacturer of record...
, Cleanova
Cleanova
Cleanova are a set of plug-in hybrid vehicles by the Société de Véhicules Electriques , a joint venture between Dassault and Heuliez. Cleanova II is based on Renault Kangoo....
, Bright IDEA plug-in hybrid
Bright Automotive
Bright Automotive is a startup company based in Anderson, Indiana that is focused on creating a fuel-efficient line of plug-in electric vehicles. The company was started in 2008 with a team of employees from companies such as Google.org and Alcoa and has since designed its first vehicle, the IDEA...
, and Miles Electric Vehicles
Miles Electric Vehicles
Miles Electric Vehicles is a manufacturer and distributor of all-electric vehicles manufactured by FAW Tianjin in China to meet international car safety standards...
.
Sales and main markets
Motorised quadricycle
Quadricycles are European categories of small four-wheeled motorised vehicles defined by limitations in terms of weight, power and speed.Two categories are defined:*Light quadricycles, category L6e,*and quadricycles, category L7e....
s and 796 utility vehicles. During the first half of 2011, a total of 5,222 electric cars were sold in the 15 EU markets, led by Germany (1,020), France (953) and Norway (850).
As of December 2010, the Global Electric Motorcars
Global Electric Motorcars
Global Electric Motorcars , a wholly owned subsidiary of Polaris Industries, is a U.S. manufacturer in the low-speed vehicle category, producing neighborhood electric vehicles since 1998 and has sold more than 45,000 GEM battery-electric vehicles worldwide as of December 2010.Until June 2011, GEM...
neighborhood electric vehicle
Neighborhood electric vehicle
A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle is a U.S. denomination for battery electric vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits as high as depending on the particular laws of the state, usually are built to have a top speed of , and have a maximum loaded weight of 3,000 lbs...
, with global sales of 45,000 units, is the world's most sold plug-in electric vehicle. With worldwide cumulative sales by October 2011 of more than 16,000 units each, the Leaf and the i MiEV rank as the top selling highway-capable plug-in electric cars in the world. The following table presents key features and sales of highway-capable and city plug-in cars available by October 2011:
| Key features and sales of popular PEVs available for retail sales or leasing (as of October 2011) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model | Type of PEV |
All-electric range |
Market launch |
Production/Sales |
| Global Electric Motorcars Global Electric Motorcars Global Electric Motorcars , a wholly owned subsidiary of Polaris Industries, is a U.S. manufacturer in the low-speed vehicle category, producing neighborhood electric vehicles since 1998 and has sold more than 45,000 GEM battery-electric vehicles worldwide as of December 2010.Until June 2011, GEM... |
Neighborhood electric vehicle Neighborhood electric vehicle A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle is a U.S. denomination for battery electric vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits as high as depending on the particular laws of the state, usually are built to have a top speed of , and have a maximum loaded weight of 3,000 lbs... |
Up to 30 mi (48.3 km) | 1998 | 45,000 GEMs sold worldwide as of December 2010. |
| REVAi/G-Wiz i REVA L-ion |
Electric car | 48 mi (77.2 km) 75 mi (120.7 km) (L-ion) |
2001 | More than 4,000 cars sold worldwide as of mid March 2011. |
| Tesla Roadster Tesla Roadster The Tesla Roadster is a battery electric vehicle sports car produced by the electric car firm Tesla Motors in California. The Roadster was the first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production available in the United States. Since 2008 Tesla has sold 2,024 Roadsters in 30 countries... |
Electric car | 245 mi (394.3 km) | March 2008 | 2,024 units sold in 30 countries through September 2011. |
| BYD F3DM BYD F3DM The BYD F3DM is a plug-in hybrid compact sedan manufactured by BYD Auto with an all-electric range of and a hybrid electric powertrain that can extend the range an additional . The F3DM is the world's first mass produced plug-in hybrid automobile and went on sale to government agencies and... |
Plug-in hybrid | 60 mi (96.6 km) | December 2008 | 465 units sold in China until December 2010. |
| Th!nk City Th!nk City The Th!nk City is a small two-seater or 2+2-seater highway capable electric car produced by Think Global and production partner Valmet Automotive, with a top speed of and an all-electric range of on a full charge.... |
Electric car | 100 mi (160.9 km) | December 2008 /December 2009 |
1,045 units sold in Europe and the U.S. by March 2011. Production in Finland and the U.S. was halted as a result of Think Global filing for bankruptcy in June 2011. The firm was bought in July 2011 and production is scheduled to restart in early 2012 with a refined Think City. |
| Mitsubishi i MiEV Mitsubishi i MiEV The Mitsubishi i-MiEV is a five-door hatchback electric car produced by Mitsubishi Motors, and is the electric version of the Mitsubishi i. According to the manufacturer, the i-MiEV all-electric range is on the Japanese test cycle... |
Electric car Electric car An electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass... |
Japan: 100 mi (160.9 km) EPA: 62 miles (99.8 km) |
July 2009 | 16,000 units sold worldwide by October 2011, including 4,000 units rebadged as Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-ZERO Citroën C-ZERO The Citroën C-Zero is a electric supermini/city car produced by Citroën. It was developed in collaboration with Mitsubishi Motors Corporation. Its sister will be marketed by Peugeot as the Peugeot iOn... in France as of September 2011. By July 2011 around 4,000 units had been sold in Japan. |
| Nissan Leaf Nissan Leaf Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997. The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002, only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as... |
Electric car | EPA: 73 mi (117.5 km) NEDC New European Driving Cycle The New European Driving Cycle is a driving cycle consisting of four repeated ECE-15 driving cycles and an Extra-Urban driving cycle . The NEDC is supposed to represent the typical usage of a car in Europe, and is used, among other things, to assess the emission levels of car engines... : 175 km (108.7 mi) |
December 2010 | 16,600 units sold worldwide by October 2011. More than 6,000 Leafs had been delivered in Japan by July 2011. More than 700 Leafs have been sold in the UK as of August 2011. Sales in the U.S. reached 8,066 units through October 2011. |
| Chevrolet Volt Chevrolet Volt The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency... |
Plug-in hybrid | 35 mi (56.3 km) | December 2010 | 5,329 units sold in the U.S. through October 2011. Deliveries began in Canada in September 2011. |
| Azure Transit Connect Electric Azure Transit Connect Electric The Azure Transit Connect Electric is an all-electric van developed as a collaboration between Azure Dynamics and Ford Motor Company, but Azure is the official manufacturer of record... |
Electric van Van A van is a kind of vehicle used for transporting goods or groups of people.In British English usage, it can be either specially designed or based on a saloon or sedan car, the latter type often including derivatives with open backs... |
56 mi (90.1 km) | December 2010 | 460 units sold worldwide as of October 2011. |
| Smart ED Smart ED The Smart fortwo electric drive is a battery electric vehicle version of the Smart Fortwo micro car. This electric car was formerly known as Smart fortwo EV... |
Electric car | 63 mi (101.4 km) | January 2011 | 105 units leased in the U.S. through October 2011. |
| Fisker Karma Fisker Karma The Fisker Karma is a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at equivalent in all-electric mode, and at in... |
Plug-in hybrid | 32 mi (51.5 km) | July 2011 | Initial production is limited to 5 cars a week, and Fisk expects to rise production to 300 cars a week by November 2011. |
| BYD e6 BYD e6 BYD e6 is an all-electric crossover car manufactured by BYD Auto with a range of according to the carmaker. Field testing began in China in May 2010 with 40 units operating as taxis in the city of Shenzhen... |
Electric car | 190 mi (305.8 km) | October 2011 | Sales to the general public limited to Shenzhen, China. |
See also
- All-electric vehicle (EV) or battery electric vehicle (BEV)
- Electric carElectric carAn electric car is an automobile which is propelled by electric motor, using electrical energy stored in batteries or another energy storage device. Electric cars were popular in the late-19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engine technology and mass...
- Electric vehicle batteryElectric vehicle batteryAn electric vehicle battery or traction battery is a rechargeable battery used for propulsion of battery electric vehicles...
- Electric vehicle warning soundsElectric vehicle warning soundsElectric vehicle warning sounds are a series of sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles , plug-in hybrid electric vehicles , and all-electric vehicles travelling at low speeds...
- Hybrid tax creditHybrid tax creditThe U.S. Energy Policy Act of 2005 established a federal income tax credit of up to $3,400 for the purchase of new hybrid vehicles, purchased or placed into service after December 31, 2005. Vehicles purchased after December 31, 2010 are not eligible for this credit...
(U.S.) - List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
- Neighborhood electric car
- Plug In AmericaPlug In AmericaPlug In America is a 501 non-profit educational organization that promotes and advocates the use of plug-in cars, trucks and sports utlilty vehicles powered by domestic and renewable electricity which it claims will help reduce dependence on fossil fuels, improve the global environment and...
- Plug-in hybrid vehicle, (PHEV)
- RechargeITRechargeITRechargeIT is one of five initiatives within Google.org, the charitable arm of Google, created with the aim to reduce CO2 emissions, cut oil use, and stabilize the electrical grid by accelerating the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.-History:...
(Google.orgGoogle.orgGoogle.org is the charitable arm of Internet search engine company Google.The organization has committed over $100 million in investments and grants as of May 2010. To fund the organization, Google granted them 3 million shares during their initial public offering. As of August 2011, Google.org's 3...
PHEV program)
External links
- Clean Vehicle Rebate Project website
- Overview of Tax Incentives for Electrically Chargeable Vehicles in the E.U.
- U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws
- U.S. State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations
- US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars
- New Energy Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles purchased in 2009
- RechargeIT plug-in driving experiment (Google.org)
- PEVs Frequently Asked Questions
- Plugging In: A Consumer’s Guide to the Electric Vehicle Electric Power Research InstituteElectric Power Research InstituteThe Electric Power Research Institute conducts research on issues related to the electric power industry in USA. EPRI is a nonprofit organization funded by the electric utility industry. EPRI is primarily a US based organization, receives international participation...
- Plug-in America website
- Plug-in Cars website
- Plug-in Tracker: A comprehensive list of highway-capable PEVs (cars and trucks, 2- and 3-wheeled and commercial vehicles)
- Plug-in List of Registered Charging Stations in the USA
- http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/Lee%20Lovellette%20Electric%20Vehicles%20DP%202011%20web.pdfWill Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market? Belfer CenterBelfer Center for Science and International AffairsThe Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs is a permanent research center located within the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. The center's current director is political scientist Graham T. Allison....
, Harvard University]