Vehicle-to-grid
Encyclopedia
Vehicle-to-grid describes a system in which plug-in electric vehicle
s, such as electric cars (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), communicate with the power grid
to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.
Vehicle-to-grid can be used with such gridable vehicles, that is, plug-in electric vehicles (BEVs and PHEVs), with grid capacity. Since most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time, their batteries could be used to let electricity flow from the car to the power lines and back, with a value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.
One notable V2G project in the United States
is at the University of Delaware
, where a V2G team headed by Dr. Willett Kempton has been conducting on-going research. Their goals are to educate about the environmental and economic benefits of V2G and enhance the product market.
Other investigators are the Pacific Gas and Electric Company
, Xcel Energy
, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
, and, in the United Kingdom
, the University of Warwick
.
coined the term V2G for vehicle-to-grid.
new ways to provide regulation services (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide spinning reserves (meet sudden demands for power). In future development, it has been proposed that such use of electric vehicles could buffer renewable power sources such as wind power
, for example, by storing excess energy produced during windy periods and providing it back to the grid during high load periods, thus effectively stabilizing the intermittency
of wind power. Some see this application of vehicle-to-grid technology as a renewable energy approach that can penetrate the baseline electric market.
It has been proposed that public utilities would not have to build as many natural gas or coal-fired power plants to meet peak demand
or as an insurance policy against blackout
s Since demand can be measured locally by a simple frequency measurement, dynamic load leveling
can be provided as needed.
'. When the electric utility
would like to buy power from the V2G network, it holds an auction
. The car owners are able to define the parameters under which they will sell energy from their battery pack. Many factors would be considered when setting minimum sale price including the cost of the secondary fuel in a PHEV and battery cycle wear. When this minimum price is satisfied, it is deemed as meeting carbitrage.
s. As the New York Times explains:
However, at the present time many electric vehicle conversion
owners, whose battery of choice is still lead acid with limited cycle lives and capacity, would prefer to use them to power their cars rather than load-balance the electricity grid.
Future battery developments may change the economic equation, making it advantageous to use newer high capacity and longer-lived batteries in BEV/PHEVs and in grid load balancing and as a large energy cache for renewable grid resources. Even if cycled daily, such batteries would only require replacement/recycling every 55 years or so. Since BEVs can have up to 50 kWh worth of battery storage they represent somewhat more than the average home's daily energy demand. Even without a PHEV's gas generation capabilities such a vehicle could be used for emergency power for several days (for example, lighting, refrigerators etc. with combined load of 1 kW could be powered for 50 hours). This would be an example of V2H or Vehicle-to-home transmission. As such they may be seen as a complementary technology for intermittent renewable power resources such as wind or solar electric.
who are currently conducting research on the V2G technology, with Dr. Kempton being the lead on the project. Dr. Kempton has published a number of articles on the technology and the concept, many of which can be found on the V2G project page. The group is involved in researching the technology itself as well as its performance when used on the grid. In addition to the technical research, the team has worked with Dr. Meryl Gardner, a Marketing professor in the Alfred Lerner College of Business and Economic at the University of Delaware, to develop marketing strategies for both consumer and corporate fleet adoption
s Edison project, an abrevation for 'Electric vehicles in a Distributed and Integrated market using Sustainable energy and Open Networks' is an ongoing partially state funded research project on the island of Bornholm
in Eastern Denmark. The consortium of IBM
, Siemens
the hardware and software developer EURISCO, Denmark's largest energy company DONG Energy
, the regional energy company Østkraft, the Technical University of Denmark
and the Danish Energy Association, is currently exploring how to balance the unpredictable electricity loads generated by Denmarks many windfarms, currenly generating ~20% of the countrys total electricity production, by using electric vehicles (EV) and their accumulators. The aim of the project is to develop infrastructure that enables EVs to intelligently communicate with the grid to determine when charging, and ultimately discharging, can take place. At least one rebuild V2G capable Toyota Scion
will be used in the project. . The project is key in Denmarks ambitions to expand its windpower generation to 50% by 2020 . According to a source of British newspaper The Guardian 'It's never been tried at this scale' previously.
An Environmental Defense
representative stated: "It’s hard to take seriously the promises made for plug-in hybrids with 30 miles (48.3 km) all-electric range or any serious V2G application any time soon. It’s still in the science project stage (in 2007)."
The Vehicle-to-grid potential of Honda’s full hybrid vehicles is unexplored, but Honda is doubtful of using them to power homes. "We would not like to see stresses on the battery pack caused by putting it through cycles it wasn’t designed for," said a Honda spokesman. "Instead, they should buy a Honda generator that was made for that purpose."
Poor net efficiency. Charging a fairly efficient battery system from the grid is at best 70 to 80% efficient. Returning that energy from the battery to the grid, which includes "inverting" the DC power back to AC with efficiencies of about 90% yields 63 - 72% energy return to the system. This needs to be factored against potential cost savings as well as the additional wear and tear on the batteries (current batteries last a few thousand cycles at maximum) and especially increased emissions if the original source of power is fossil based.
Not all skepticism is warranted. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
er Jon Wellinghoff
points out that partial grid regulation (absorbing excess surges, but not supplying peak power) can be done without decreasing the life of the battery. This can be done "without affecting the charge whatsoever."
"Welcome to EV World, online since 1998. We invite you to explore the fascinating world of sustainable transportation technologies, the energy that powers it and the people who are making it happen." Company promoting v2G technology.
Related forums
Plug-in electric vehicle
A plug-in electric vehicle is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels...
s, such as electric cars (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs), communicate with the power grid
Grid (electricity)
An electrical grid is a vast, interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. It consists of three main components: 1) generating plants that produce electricity from combustible fuels or non-combustible fuels ; 2) transmission lines that carry electricity from power...
to sell demand response services by either delivering electricity into the grid or by throttling their charging rate.
Vehicle-to-grid can be used with such gridable vehicles, that is, plug-in electric vehicles (BEVs and PHEVs), with grid capacity. Since most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time, their batteries could be used to let electricity flow from the car to the power lines and back, with a value to the utilities of up to $4,000 per year per car.
One notable V2G project in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
is at the University of Delaware
University of Delaware
The university is organized into seven colleges:* College of Agriculture and Natural Resources* College of Arts and Sciences* Alfred Lerner College of Business and Economics* College of Earth, Ocean and Environment* College of Education and Human Development...
, where a V2G team headed by Dr. Willett Kempton has been conducting on-going research. Their goals are to educate about the environmental and economic benefits of V2G and enhance the product market.
Other investigators are the Pacific Gas and Electric Company
Pacific Gas and Electric Company
The Pacific Gas and Electric Company , commonly known as PG&E, is the utility that provides natural gas and electricity to most of the northern two-thirds of California, from Bakersfield almost to the Oregon border...
, Xcel Energy
Xcel Energy
Xcel Energy, Inc. is a public utility company based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, serving customers in Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Texas, and Wisconsin. Primary services are electricity and natural gas...
, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory , located in Golden, Colorado, is the United States' primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is a government-owned, contractor-operated facility; it is funded through...
, and, in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, the University of Warwick
University of Warwick
The University of Warwick is a public research university located in Coventry, United Kingdom...
.
History
The company AC Propulsion Inc.AC Propulsion
AC Propulsion is a San Dimas, California, USA company founded in 1992 by Alan Cocconi that specialises in alternating current-based drivetrain systems for electric vehicles. Tom Gage is currently the company's CEO. The company produces goods such as electric vehicle drive systems and their top of...
coined the term V2G for vehicle-to-grid.
Three versions
V2G is a version of battery-to-grid power applied to vehicles. There are three different versions of the vehicle-to-grid concept:- A hybrid or Fuel cell vehicleFuel cell vehicleA Fuel cell vehicle or Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle is a type of hydrogen vehicle which uses a fuel cell to produce electricity, powering its on-board electric motor...
, which generates power from storable fuel, uses its generator to produce power for a utility at peakEnergy demand managementEnergy demand management, also known as demand side management , is the modification of consumer demand for energy through various methods such as financial incentives and education...
electricity usage times. Here the vehicles serve as a distributed generationDistributed generationDistributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation, embedded generation, decentralized generation, decentralized energy or distributed energy, generates electricity from many small energy sources....
system, producing power from conventional fossil fuelFossil fuelFossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years...
s or hydrogen. - A battery-powered or plug-in hybrid vehicle which uses its excess rechargeable batteryRechargeable batteryA rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to...
capacity to provide power to the electric grid in response to peak load demands. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. Here the vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system to bufferBufferBuffer may refer to:*Buffer state, a country lying between two potentially hostile greater powers, thought to prevent conflict between them* Buffer zone, any area that keeps two or more other areas distant from one another, may be demilitarized...
power. - A solar vehicleSolar vehicleA solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy. Usually, photovoltaic cells contained in solar panels convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy. The term "solar vehicle" usually implies that solar energy is used to power all or part...
which uses its excess charging capacity to provide power to the electric grid when the battery is fully charged. Here the vehicle effectively becomes a small renewable energyRenewable energyRenewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable . About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from...
power station. Such systems have been in use since the 1990s and are routinely used in the case of large vehicles, especially solar-powered boatsElectric boatWhile a significant majority of water vessels are powered by diesel engines, with sail power and gasoline engines also remaining popular, boats powered by electricity have been used for over 120 years. Electric boats were very popular from the 1880s until the 1920s, when the internal combustion...
.
Peak load leveling
The concept allows V2G vehicles to provide power to help balance loads by "valley filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and "peak shaving" (sending power back to the grid when demand is high). It can enable utilitiesElectric utility
An electric utility is a company that engages in the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity for sale generally in a regulated market. The electrical utility industry is a major provider of energy in most countries. It is indispensable to factories, commercial establishments,...
new ways to provide regulation services (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide spinning reserves (meet sudden demands for power). In future development, it has been proposed that such use of electric vehicles could buffer renewable power sources such as wind power
Wind power
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships....
, for example, by storing excess energy produced during windy periods and providing it back to the grid during high load periods, thus effectively stabilizing the intermittency
Intermittent power source
An intermittent energy source is any source of energy that is not continuously available due to some factor outside direct control. The intermittent source may be quite predictable, for example, tidal power, but cannot be dispatched to meet the demand of a power system. Examples of intermittent...
of wind power. Some see this application of vehicle-to-grid technology as a renewable energy approach that can penetrate the baseline electric market.
It has been proposed that public utilities would not have to build as many natural gas or coal-fired power plants to meet peak demand
Peak demand
Peak demand is used to refer to a historically high point in the sales record of a particular product. In terms of energy use, peak demand describes a period of strong consumer demand.- Peak load :...
or as an insurance policy against blackout
Power outage
A power outage is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area.There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network...
s Since demand can be measured locally by a simple frequency measurement, dynamic load leveling
Dynamic demand (electric power)
Dynamic Demand is the name of a semi-passive technology for adjusting load demands on an electrical power grid. The concept is that by monitoring the frequency of the power grid, as well as their own...
can be provided as needed.
Related Terms
carbitrage: This is a fusion of 'car' and 'arbitrageArbitrage
In economics and finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more markets: striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the market prices...
'. When the electric utility
Electric utility
An electric utility is a company that engages in the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity for sale generally in a regulated market. The electrical utility industry is a major provider of energy in most countries. It is indispensable to factories, commercial establishments,...
would like to buy power from the V2G network, it holds an auction
Auction
An auction is a process of buying and selling goods or services by offering them up for bid, taking bids, and then selling the item to the highest bidder...
. The car owners are able to define the parameters under which they will sell energy from their battery pack. Many factors would be considered when setting minimum sale price including the cost of the secondary fuel in a PHEV and battery cycle wear. When this minimum price is satisfied, it is deemed as meeting carbitrage.
Backup power solutions
V2G could also be used as a buffer during power outagePower outage
A power outage is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area.There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network...
s. As the New York Times explains:
However, at the present time many electric vehicle conversion
Electric vehicle conversion
An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle.-Elements of a conversion:...
owners, whose battery of choice is still lead acid with limited cycle lives and capacity, would prefer to use them to power their cars rather than load-balance the electricity grid.
Future battery developments may change the economic equation, making it advantageous to use newer high capacity and longer-lived batteries in BEV/PHEVs and in grid load balancing and as a large energy cache for renewable grid resources. Even if cycled daily, such batteries would only require replacement/recycling every 55 years or so. Since BEVs can have up to 50 kWh worth of battery storage they represent somewhat more than the average home's daily energy demand. Even without a PHEV's gas generation capabilities such a vehicle could be used for emergency power for several days (for example, lighting, refrigerators etc. with combined load of 1 kW could be powered for 50 hours). This would be an example of V2H or Vehicle-to-home transmission. As such they may be seen as a complementary technology for intermittent renewable power resources such as wind or solar electric.
Utilities
These utilities currently have V2G technology trials:- PG&E, USA, converting a number of company-owned Toyota Prius to be V2G PHEVs at Google's campus
- Xcel EnergyXcel EnergyXcel Energy, Inc. is a public utility company based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, serving customers in Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Texas, and Wisconsin. Primary services are electricity and natural gas...
, USA, converting six Ford Escape Hybrids to PHEVs with V2G
University of Delaware
Dr. Willett Kempton, Dr. Suresh Advani, and Dr. Ajay Prasad are the researchers at University of DelawareUniversity of Delaware
The university is organized into seven colleges:* College of Agriculture and Natural Resources* College of Arts and Sciences* Alfred Lerner College of Business and Economics* College of Earth, Ocean and Environment* College of Education and Human Development...
who are currently conducting research on the V2G technology, with Dr. Kempton being the lead on the project. Dr. Kempton has published a number of articles on the technology and the concept, many of which can be found on the V2G project page. The group is involved in researching the technology itself as well as its performance when used on the grid. In addition to the technical research, the team has worked with Dr. Meryl Gardner, a Marketing professor in the Alfred Lerner College of Business and Economic at the University of Delaware, to develop marketing strategies for both consumer and corporate fleet adoption
Edison
DenmarkDenmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
s Edison project, an abrevation for 'Electric vehicles in a Distributed and Integrated market using Sustainable energy and Open Networks' is an ongoing partially state funded research project on the island of Bornholm
Bornholm
Bornholm is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea located to the east of the rest of Denmark, the south of Sweden, and the north of Poland. The main industries on the island include fishing, arts and crafts like glass making and pottery using locally worked clay, and dairy farming. Tourism is...
in Eastern Denmark. The consortium of IBM
IBM
International Business Machines Corporation or IBM is an American multinational technology and consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas...
, Siemens
Siemens
Siemens may refer toSiemens, a German family name carried by generations of telecommunications industrialists, including:* Werner von Siemens , inventor, founder of Siemens AG...
the hardware and software developer EURISCO, Denmark's largest energy company DONG Energy
DONG Energy
-History:The Danish state company Dansk Naturgas A/S was founded in 1972 to manage resources in the Danish sector of the North Sea. After some years, the company was renamed to Dansk Olie og Naturgas A/S . At the beginning of 2000s, DONG started to extend itself into the electricity market by...
, the regional energy company Østkraft, the Technical University of Denmark
Technical University of Denmark
The Technical University of Denmark , often simply referred to as DTU, is a university just north of Copenhagen, Denmark. It was founded in 1829 at the initiative of Hans Christian Ørsted as Denmark's first polytechnic, and is today ranked among Europe's leading engineering institutions, and the...
and the Danish Energy Association, is currently exploring how to balance the unpredictable electricity loads generated by Denmarks many windfarms, currenly generating ~20% of the countrys total electricity production, by using electric vehicles (EV) and their accumulators. The aim of the project is to develop infrastructure that enables EVs to intelligently communicate with the grid to determine when charging, and ultimately discharging, can take place. At least one rebuild V2G capable Toyota Scion
Scion xB
The Scion xB is a vehicle made by Toyota for the United States market and sold under their youth-oriented Scion brand. It is a box-shaped, 5-door compact hatchback.-First generation :...
will be used in the project. . The project is key in Denmarks ambitions to expand its windpower generation to 50% by 2020 . According to a source of British newspaper The Guardian 'It's never been tried at this scale' previously.
Skepticism
There is some skepticism among experts about the feasibility of V2G. As the New York Times states:An Environmental Defense
Environmental Defense
Environmental Defense Fund or EDF is a United States–based nonprofit environmental advocacy group. The group is known for its work on issues including global warming, ecosystem restoration, oceans, and human health...
representative stated: "It’s hard to take seriously the promises made for plug-in hybrids with 30 miles (48.3 km) all-electric range or any serious V2G application any time soon. It’s still in the science project stage (in 2007)."
The Vehicle-to-grid potential of Honda’s full hybrid vehicles is unexplored, but Honda is doubtful of using them to power homes. "We would not like to see stresses on the battery pack caused by putting it through cycles it wasn’t designed for," said a Honda spokesman. "Instead, they should buy a Honda generator that was made for that purpose."
Poor net efficiency. Charging a fairly efficient battery system from the grid is at best 70 to 80% efficient. Returning that energy from the battery to the grid, which includes "inverting" the DC power back to AC with efficiencies of about 90% yields 63 - 72% energy return to the system. This needs to be factored against potential cost savings as well as the additional wear and tear on the batteries (current batteries last a few thousand cycles at maximum) and especially increased emissions if the original source of power is fossil based.
Not all skepticism is warranted. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is the United States federal agency with jurisdiction over interstate electricity sales, wholesale electric rates, hydroelectric licensing, natural gas pricing, and oil pipeline rates...
er Jon Wellinghoff
Jon Wellinghoff
Jon Wellinghoff is an American attorney and energy expert who has been at the forefront of cutting-edge, energy issues such as renewable integration, plug-in electric vehicles, and the modernization of the nation’s electric grid...
points out that partial grid regulation (absorbing excess surges, but not supplying peak power) can be done without decreasing the life of the battery. This can be done "without affecting the charge whatsoever."
See also
- Charge ControlCharge ControlCharge Control is a technology that lets an electric utility control, in real time, the charging of a gridable vehicle, such as a Plug-in hybrid or a Battery electric vehicle . Through Charge Control, the utility is able to postpone charging of the vehicle during time of peak demand...
- Charging stationCharging stationAn electric vehicle charging station, also called EV charging station, electric recharging point, charging point and EVSE , is an element in an infrastructure that supplies electric energy for the recharging of electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric-gasoline vehicles) or semi-static and mobile...
- Distributed generationDistributed generationDistributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation, embedded generation, decentralized generation, decentralized energy or distributed energy, generates electricity from many small energy sources....
- ElectranetElectranetElectranet is a proposed smart electric grid which would allow people to sell electricity into the grid without any artificial caps. It was proposed in an op-ed article Al Gore wrote in a "My Turn" column for Newsweek in 2006....
- Electrical substationElectrical substationA substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions...
- Electricity meterElectricity meterAn electricity meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electric energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device....
- Energy demand managementEnergy demand managementEnergy demand management, also known as demand side management , is the modification of consumer demand for energy through various methods such as financial incentives and education...
- Feed-in TariffFeed-in TariffA feed-in tariff is a policy mechanism designed to accelerate investment in renewable energy technologies. It achieves this by offering long-term contracts to renewable energy producers, typically based on the cost of generation of each technology...
- Grid energy storageGrid energy storageGrid energy storage refers to the methods used to store electricity on a large scale within an electrical power grid. Electrical energy is stored during times when production exceeds consumption and the stores are used at times when consumption exceeds production...
- Grid-tied electrical systemGrid-tied electrical systemA grid-tied electrical system, also called tied to grid or grid tie system, is a semi-autonomous electrical generation or grid energy storage system which links to the mains to feed excess capacity back to the local mains electrical grid...
- Inverter (electrical)Inverter (electrical)An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current to alternating current ; the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits....
- Load profileLoad profileIn electrical engineering, a load profile is a graph of the variation in the electrical load versus time. A load profile will vary according to customer type , temperature and holiday seasons....
- Load balancing (electrical power)Load balancing (electrical power)Load balancing refers to the use of various techniques by electrical power stations to store excess electrical power during low demand periods for release as demand rises....
- Operating reserveOperating reserveIn electricity networks, the operating reserve is the generating capacity available to the system operator within a short interval of time to meet demand in case a generator goes down or there is another disruption to the supply...
- Peaking power plantPeaking power plantPeaking power plants, also known as peaker plants, and occasionally just "peakers," are power plants that generally run only when there is a high demand, known as peak demand, for electricity.-Peak hours:...
- Power outagePower outageA power outage is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area.There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network...
- RechargeITRechargeITRechargeIT is one of five initiatives within Google.org, the charitable arm of Google, created with the aim to reduce CO2 emissions, cut oil use, and stabilize the electrical grid by accelerating the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.-History:...
- Small is ProfitableSmall is ProfitableSmall is Profitable: The Hidden Economic Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size is a 2002 book by energy analyst Amory Lovins and others. The book describes 207 ways in which the size of "electrical resources"—devices that make, save, or store electricity—affects their economic value...
- Smart meterSmart meterA smart meter is usually an electrical meter that records consumption of electric energy in intervals of an hour or less and communicates that information at least daily back to the utility for monitoring and billing purposes. Smart meters enable two-way communication between the meter and the...
- Unified Smart GridUnified Smart GridUnified National Smart Grid is a proposal for a United States wide area grid that is a national interconnected network relying on a high capacity backbone of electric power transmission lines linking all the nation's local electrical networks that have been upgraded to smart grids...
External links
[PDF]"Welcome to EV World, online since 1998. We invite you to explore the fascinating world of sustainable transportation technologies, the energy that powers it and the people who are making it happen." Company promoting v2G technology.
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