Bulgaria during World War I - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Kingdom of Bulgaria

The Kingdom of Bulgaria was established as an independent state when the Principality of Bulgaria, an Ottoman vassal, officially proclaimed itself independent on October 5, 1908 . This move also formalised the annexation of the Ottoman province of Eastern Rumelia, which had been under the control...

participated in World War I

World War I

World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...

on the side of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

between 15 October 1915, when the country declared war on Serbia

Kingdom of Serbia

The Kingdom of Serbia was created when Prince Milan Obrenović, ruler of the Principality of Serbia, was crowned King in 1882. The Principality of Serbia was ruled by the Karađorđevic dynasty from 1817 onwards . The Principality, suzerain to the Porte, had expelled all Ottoman troops by 1867, de...

, until 29 September 1918, when the Armistice of Thessalonica

Armistice with Bulgaria

The Armistice with Bulgaria was signed on September 29, 1918 at the Bulgaria Armistice Convention in Thessaloniki, Greece, between the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the Allied Powers. The convention followed from a request of the Bulgarian government on September 24, asking for a ceasefire...

was signed.

In the aftermath of the Balkan wars

Balkan Wars

The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913.By the early 20th century, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia, the countries of the Balkan League, had achieved their independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic...

Bulgaria

Kingdom of Bulgaria

found itself isolated on the international scene, surrounded by hostile neighbors and deprived of the support of the Great Powers. Anti-Bulgarian sentiments were especially strong in France and Russia

Russian Empire

The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...

, whose political circles blamed the country for the dissolution of the Balkan League

Balkan League

The Balkan League was an alliance formed by a series of bilateral treaties concluded in 1912 between the Balkan states of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia, and directed against the Ottoman Empire, which at the time still controlled much of the Balkan peninsula...

. This and the failure of Bulgarian foreign policy turned revanchism

Revanchism

Revanchism is a term used since the 1870s to describe a political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial losses incurred by a country, often following a war or social movement. Revanchism draws its strength from patriotic and retributionist thought and is often motivated by economic or...

in a focal point for the country's external relations.

When the First World War erupted in August 1914 Bulgaria was still recovering from the negative economic and demographic impact of the recent wars and avoided direct involvement in the new conflict by declaring neutrality. The strategic geographic location and strong military made the country a desired ally by both warring sides but Bulgarian aspirations were difficult to satisfy because they included territorial claims against four Balkan countries. As the war progressed the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

found themselves in a better position to fulfill Bulgarian demands and persuaded the country to join their cause in September 1915.

Despite being the smallest member of the alliance in area and population Bulgaria made vital contributions to the common war effort. Its entry to the war was the death knell to Serbia and Romania, and ensured the continuous Ottoman war effort by opening the way for much needed German material assistance.

Despite that initially the war was characterized with highly successful campaigns of rapid movements in 1915 and 1916, once most Bulgarian territorial aspirations had been satisfied it degraded into a state of trench attrition on both the Northern and the Southern Front

Macedonian front (World War I)

The Macedonian Front resulted from an attempt by the Allied Powers to aid Serbia, in the autumn of 1915, against the combined attack of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. The expedition came too late and in insufficient force to prevent the fall of Serbia, and was complicated by the internal...

This prolonged period substantially weakened the economy, created various supply problems and reduced the health and morale of the troops on the front lines. Under these circumstances the Allied armies in Greece

Greece

Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....

, composed of contingents from almost all Entente

Allies of World War I

The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...

countries, managed to break the Macedonian Front

Macedonian front (World War I)

and cause the rapid collapse of part of the Bulgarian Army, which took the form of an open military rebellion and proclamation of a republic by the rebellious troops at Radomir. Bulgaria was forced to seek and accept armistice on 29 September 1918. For a second time in half a decade the country had been led to a national catastrophe for which Tsar

Tsar

Tsar is a title used to designate certain European Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government in the Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire, it is known as Tsarist autocracy, or Tsarism...

Ferdinand I assumed responsibility, abdicated and left Bulgaria to his heir

Boris III of Bulgaria

Boris III the Unifier, Tsar of Bulgaria , originally Boris Klemens Robert Maria Pius Ludwig Stanislaus Xaver , son of Ferdinand I, came to the throne in 1918 upon the abdication of his father, following the defeat of the Kingdom of Bulgaria during World War I...

on 3 of October. 1918

The formal conclusion of Bulgaria's participation in World War I

World War I

was marked by the signing of the Treaty of Neuilly

Treaty of Neuilly

The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, dealing with Bulgaria for its role as one of the Central Powers in World War I, was signed on 27 November 1919 at Neuilly-sur-Seine, France....

in 1919, according to which the country had to return all occupied territories, cede even more of its land and pay heavy reparations.

The Balkan Wars

When Bulgaria proclaimed its independence from the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

on 22 September 1908, its status was promoted to that of a kingdom and Knyaz

Knyaz

Kniaz, knyaz or knez is a Slavic title found in most Slavic languages, denoting a royal nobility rank. It is usually translated into English as either Prince or less commonly as Duke....

Ferdinand I assumed the title of tsar

Tsar

. The country was now able to focus on completing its national unification by turning its attention towards the lands populated by Bulgarians that remained under Ottoman control.

To achieve its goals, the Bulgarian government, under prime minister

Prime minister

A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...

Geshov

Ivan Evstratiev Geshov

Ivan Evstratiev Geshov was a Bulgarian politician who served as Prime Minister.Born in Plovdiv to a family originally from Karlovo, Geshov was educated at various Greek and Protestant institutions, as well as Owens College in Manchester...

, approached the governments of the other Balkan countries hoping to create an alliance directed against the Ottomans. His efforts culminated in a series of bilateral treaties concluded in 1912 and the formation of the Balkan League

Balkan League

. By summer of the same year Ottoman grip on their Balkan provinces had deteriorated rapidly in Albania and Macedonia, where an open rebellion had erupted. The Allies decided to use the vulnerable state of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

and declared war on it in October 1912.

The opening stages of the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

The First Balkan War, which lasted from October 1912 to May 1913, pitted the Balkan League against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success...

began with decisive Allied victories in both Thrace

Thrace

Thrace is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. As a geographical concept, Thrace designates a region bounded by the Balkan Mountains on the north, Rhodope Mountains and the Aegean Sea on the south, and by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara on the east...

and Macedonia

Macedonia (region)

Macedonia is a geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time, but nowadays the region is considered to include parts of five Balkan countries: Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, as...

. Within a month the Ottomans found themselves driven back by the Bulgarians to within 40 kilometers from Constantinople

Istanbul

Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...

and badly beaten by the Serbians and the Greeks. A relatively short armistice brought no conclusion to the conflict and fighting once again broke out in January 1913. A major Ottoman counter offensive was defeated by the Bulgarians, who also seized the fortress of Adrianople in March and finally forced the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

to admit defeat and return to the peace table. While the Bulgarian Army was still fighting a new challenge arose from the north - Romania demanded territorial compensations from Bulgaria for its neutrality during the war. A conference, which was held in Sankt Peterburg, sought to resolve the dispute by rewarding Romania the Bulgarian town of Silistra

Silistra

Silistra is a port city of northeastern Bulgaria, lying on the southern bank of the lower Danube at the country's border with Romania. Silistra is the administrative centre of Silistra Province and one of the important cities of the historical region of Southern Dobrudzha...

but this decision greatly antagonized both countries and sowed the seed of further enmity between them.

The formal ending of the war was marked by the signing of the London Peace Treaty which bestowed to the allies all Ottoman territory to the west of the Midia-Enos

Enos

Enos or Enosh, may refer to:-People in religious scripture:* Enos , a genealogical figure in the Bible.* The Book of Enos, one of the books that make up The Book of Mormon...

line with the exception of Albania

Albania

Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...

.

The treaty failed to divide the territories between the victors and brought about the dissolution of the Balkan League

Balkan League

. Foreseeing the outcome of these events and the collapse of all his efforts Geshov resigned from his post and was replaced by the hard-liner Stoyan Danev

Stoyan Danev

Stoyan Petrov Danev was a leading Bulgarian liberal politician and twice Prime Minister.A legal graduate of both the University of Heidelberg and the University of Paris, Danev served in a number of Ministerial roles, including Foreign Minister, and became known as a strong supporter of Imperial...

. The new government was not willing to compromise with Bulgarian claims in Macedonia, neither were Serbia and Greece whose interest were frustrated by the creation of an Albanian state. Russia, which was viewed as the patron of the Balkan League

Balkan League

, was unable to control the situation and settle the disputes between the allies. The failure of Russian diplomacy, and the Entente

Allies of World War I

which stood behind it, was a victory for Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...

which sought to undermine the unity between the Balkan countries.In June the new Bulgarian government was asked by the Bulgarian General Staff to either take aggressive action or order demobilization within 10 days. The senior Bulgarian commanders were concerned by the new alliance between Serbia and Greece, and the growing restlessness in the army which had been in the field since September 1912. Danev was preparing to leave for Russia where a new attempt to solve the problem was to made Tsar Ferdinand and General Savov

Mihail Savov

Mihail Savov was a Bulgarian general, twice Minister of Defence , second in command of the Bulgarian army during the Balkan Wars....

decided to make a demonstration to Serbia, Greece and the Entente diplomacy by ordering two of the Bulgarian armies to attack and consolidate their positions in Macedonia on 16 of June. Mote than a day later Danev ordered Savov to stop the fighting and the latter obeyed, despite orders for the continuation of the attack given to him by the tsar. The Serbians and Greeks however were not willing to miss this opportunity and declared war on Bulgaria. Perceiving an opportunity to acquire Southern Dobrudja Romania also invaded Bulgaria, meeting virtually no resistance and was soon followed by the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

which restored its control over Eastern Thrace.
The eruption of the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

The Second Balkan War was a conflict which broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on 29 June 1913. Bulgaria had a prewar agreement about the division of region of Macedonia...

tore a rift in the relations between Bulgaria and Russia and led to the downfall of the Danev government amids the news of Bulgarian defeats in the field. A new liberal coalition government under Vasil Radoslavov

Vasil Radoslavov

Vasil Radoslavov was a leading Bulgarian liberal politician who twice served as Prime Minister. He was Premier of the country throughout most of World War I....

took control and immediately began seeking a diplomatic solution to the developing crisis, looking primarily towards Germany and Austria-Hungary for help. Direct negotiations with Serbia and Greece proved inconclusive but following Bulgaria's offer to cede Southern Dobrudja to Romania both sides agreed to begin peace talks in Bucharest

Bucharest

Bucharest is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at , and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River....

. At the same time the Bulgarian Army managed to stabilize the Serbian and Greek fronts and even go on the offensive, threatening to completely encircle the Greek Army but with the Romanians only a few kilometers from Sofia

Sofia

Sofia is the capital and largest city of Bulgaria and the 12th largest city in the European Union with a population of 1.27 million people. It is located in western Bulgaria, at the foot of Mount Vitosha and approximately at the centre of the Balkan Peninsula.Prehistoric settlements were excavated...

and the Ottomans in good position to invade the whole of Southeastern Bulgaria the warring countries concluded an armistice on 18/31 July 1913.

Following the cessation of hostilities the peace talks in Bucharest resumed. The Bulgarian delegation found itself in almost complete isolation, with only the partial and faint support of Russia

Russia

Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...

and Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary

, which forced it to accept the dictate-like conditions of its opponents and sign the Treaty of Bucharest. According to it besides ceding Southern Dobrudja, Bulgaria also had to give up most of Macedonia including the "uncontested zone", that had previously been bestowed to it by the 1912 treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia, and the town of Kavala. Its territory was increased by about 16% and its population by only 8%.

The peace treaty with the Ottomans had to be dealt on a bilateral basis. Initially the Bulgarian diplomacy maintained the position that the question about the possession of Adrianople and Eastern Thrace was an international matter resolved with the London Peace Treaty but this line soon had to be abandoned due to the lack of support by the Great Powers and their unwillingness to pressure the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

. The resulting Treaty of Constantinople

Treaty of Constantinople (1913)

The Treaty of Constantinople was a treaty between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria signed on 29 September 1913 after the Second Balkan War at the Ottoman capital İstanbul.- Background :...

restored to the Ottomans most of the lands they had reoccupied during the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

. During the talks the Radoslavov government for the first time sought to recover and strengthen the relations with the Ottomans by discussing an alliance directed against Serbia and Greece but no concrete results were achieved at that point.

Bulgaria in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars

The outcome of the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

negated almost all of the gains made by Bulgaria during the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

and what was left was far outweighed by the losses of the wars. The failed national unification led to a massive influx of over 120,000 Bulgarian refugee

Refugee

A refugee is a person who outside her country of origin or habitual residence because she has suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or because she is a member of a persecuted 'social group'. Such a person may be referred to as an 'asylum seeker' until...

s from Eastern Thrace and the parts of Macedonia

Republic of Macedonia

Macedonia , officially the Republic of Macedonia , is a country located in the central Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. It is one of the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, from which it declared independence in 1991...

that remained under Serbian and Greek rule. The Radoslavov government faced the uneasy task of integrating the new population and the acquired territories, as well as rebuilding the economy and the military potential of the country.

Internal bickering within the People's Liberal Party(one of the three governing coalition parties) and the lack of a majority in parliament forced the dissolution of the legislative body. General election were called for the prewar boarders of Bulgaria in November 1913 and held for the first time under nationwide proportional representation. The government parties gained only 97 seats as compared to the 107 seats of their opponents which prompted a new resignation of the government in December. Tsar Ferdinand held consultations with several important politicians but once again preferred to appoint a government with Radoslavov as prime minister

Prime minister

and dissolve the newly elected parliament. When the next elections were held in March 1914 the population of the new territories was allowed to participate despite that many people hadn't received Bulgarian citizenship yet. During the campaign the spokesmen of opposition parties were practically prevented from campaigning in these lands on the grounds of the alleged threat to their safety. Ottoman officials however were allowed to visit the local Muslim population and urge it to vote for the government. Despite these and other extreme measures the liberal parties gained 116 seats, as many as their opponents, which were increased with another 16 following the completion of the verification process. The government was finally able to focus its attention to more pressing internal and external matters. Radoslavov however remained handicapped by this fragile majority and was often forced to compromise with his coalition partners, falsify election results or simply neglect parliament.

Economic situation

Bulgarian participation in the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

disrupted the upward trend in the Bulgarian economy and proved crippling for public finances, with the financial cost of the war against the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

alone at over 1,3 billion francs.

Agriculture, which was the leading sector of the economy, was badly affected and overall production was reduced by about 9% compared to 1911 but still the country avoided a large food crisis. Thousands of peasant workers engaged in agricultural activities became casualties during the wars. The number of available horses, sheep, cattle and livestock in general was between 20% and 40% lower. The single most damaging event however was the loss of Southern Dobrudja which had accounted for 20% of Bulgarian grain production prior the wars and had the largest and most developed Bulgarian farming communities. This combined with the bad weather held the harvest of all crops to 79% of the prewar level in 1914.

Unlike the agriculture, Bulgarian industry was less affected, even though problems occurred due to its complete dependence on foreign imports of machinery and spare parts, production registered a modest decline and was able to maintain constant level of capital investment which led to recovery of the sector as early as 1914.

External trade fell drastically in 1913 with exports reduced by 40% and imports by 11% which led to a soaring trade deficit of over 87 million levs

Bulgarian lev

The lev is the currency of Bulgaria. It is divided in 100 stotinki . In archaic Bulgarian the word "lev" meant "lion".It is speculated that Bulgaria, as a member of the European Union will adopt the Euro in 2015 .- First lev, 1881–1952 :...

by 1914. Prior the war grain had been a leading Bulgarian export commodity with the most productive are being Dobrudja. The state took special care for the development of the region - it build railways to carry grain and other exports to the port of Varna

Varna

Varna is the largest city and seaside resort on the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast and third-largest in Bulgaria after Sofia and Plovdiv, with a population of 334,870 inhabitants according to Census 2011...

, whose facilities had been developed at great cost so that in 1912 it handled more goods than Salonika. Following the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

these advantages were lost because the port was deprived of its hinterland

Hinterland

The hinterland is the land or district behind a coast or the shoreline of a river. Specifically, by the doctrine of the hinterland, the word is applied to the inland region lying behind a port, claimed by the state that owns the coast. The area from which products are delivered to a port for...

and the Romanian border now ran only 15 kilometers away. The new lands gained in the south were of mountainous character, much poorer and despite they provided an outlet to the Aegean Sea

Aegean Sea

The Aegean Sea[p] is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus...

at the port of Dedeagach the railway to it passed through Ottoman

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

territory. Still Western Thrace

Western Thrace

Western Thrace or simply Thrace is a geographic and historical region of Greece, located between the Nestos and Evros rivers in the northeast of the country. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Epirus, it is often referred to informally as northern Greece...

in particular was famed with the production of high quality tobacco

Tobacco

Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as a pesticide and, in the form of nicotine tartrate, used in some medicines...

that proved to be a valuable asset.

Foreign policy

Dealing with the international isolation that had befallen Bulgaria was a major priority of the Radoslavov government. This included the reestablishing of diplomatic relations with Bulgaria's neighbors which was soon achieved, first with the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

in September 1913, then with Serbia

Serbia

Serbia , officially the Republic of Serbia , is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans...

in December of the same year and finally with Greece

Greece

Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....

in March 1914. Nevertheless relations with the Balkan states remained strained due to their fear of Bulgarian revisionism

Revisionism

Revisionism may refer to:*Historical revisionism, the critical re-examination of presumed historical facts and existing historiography** The "revisionists" school of thought in Soviet and Communist studies, as opposed to the Cold War "traditionalists" school....

and the Bulgarian public's negative opinion of the country's former allies. A friendly gesture was also made when Mihail Madzharov, Dimitar Stanchov

Dimitar Stanchov

Dimitar Yanev Stanchov, sometimes transliterated as Stancioff, was a Bulgarian diplomat and politician who served as acting Prime Minister from 12–16 March 1907 following the assassination of Dimitar Petkov...

and Radko Dimitriev

Radko Dimitriev

Radko Dimitriev was a Bulgarian General, Head of the General Staff of the Bulgarian Army from 1 January 1904 to 28 March 1907.-Biography:...

(who were well known for their pro-Entente

Allies of World War I

attitude) were appointed ambassadors to London

London

London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...

, Paris

Paris

Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...

and Sankt Peterburg. This showed that the liberal government was not ready to burn its bridges to the Entente powers. The Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

on the other hand were not yet willing to step in an open alliance with Bulgaria as this would have alienated the other Balkan countries that Germany and Austria Hungary had interest in, particularly Romania and Greece.

The most active Entente

Allies of World War I

power in the Balkans

Balkans

The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...

was Russia, which sought to limit Austro-Hungarian influence in the area by creating a new Balkan League

Balkan League

that was to include Serbia, Montenegro and possibly Romania and Bulgaria. The latter was not in the center of these plans and though its participation was viewed as attractive enough, Russian diplomacy spent much more time and effort courting Romania, which achieved little practical results but stirred negative emotions and alienated Bulgaria even further. Hints towards Serbia that it should make at least minor concessions to Bulgaria but only met its stubborn resistance, which was also supported by Greece. In the Foreign Minister

Foreign minister

A Minister of Foreign Affairs, or foreign minister, is a cabinet minister who helps form the foreign policy of a sovereign state. The foreign minister is often regarded as the most senior ministerial position below that of the head of government . It is often granted to the deputy prime minister in...

Sazonov

Sergey Sazonov

Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov GCB was a Russian statesman who served as Foreign Minister from September 1910 to June 1916...

decided that the only way to influence Bulgaria without harming Russian relations with its neighbors was through financial pressure on the Radoslavov government and its deposition by a pro-Entente government.

For the moment France and the United Kingdom were willing to let Russia deal with Bulgaria and preferred not to intervene directly. Prime Minister

Prime minister

Radoslavov on the other hand partially sought the support of the UK through the Bulgarian representative in Sankt Peterburg General Dimitriev, who asked the British ambassador to the empire to mediate the relationship between Bulgaria and Russia. George Buchanan

George Buchanan (diplomat)

Sir George William Buchanan GCB GCMG GCVO PC was a British diplomat. Born in Copenhagen, Denmark, he was the son of British Ambassador Sir Andrew Buchanan, Bt.....

politely refused any involvement but hinted to Sazonov that he should not risk curtailing Entente influence in Sofia

Sofia

by assuming a hard line towards Bulgaria.

The most important task that faced the Radoslavov government in its foreign policy following the Treaty of Bucharest was to secure a loan that could provide the funds needed to pay the financial coast of the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

, develop the new territories and continue paying a government debt of over over 700 million golden leva

Bulgarian lev

. The difficult task was entrusted to the Foreign Minister

Foreign minister

Nikola Genadiev and the Finance Minister

Finance minister

The finance minister is a cabinet position in a government.A minister of finance has many different jobs in a government. He or she helps form the government budget, stimulate the economy, and control finances...

Dimitar Tonchev who were first dispatched to France, which held a considerable chunk of the Bulgarian public debt and from which Bulgaria had usually obtained loans prior the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

. The French refused due to Russian pressure, despite that the Bulgarian representatives were ready to accept certain unfavorable conditions and that French banks were simultaneously granting loans to Serbia, Greece, Romania and the Ottoman Empire. In October Tonchev managed to secure a short-term loan of 30 million leva from Austria

Austria

Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...

n banks but the sum was far from sufficient. In February the Bulgarians again turned to France but were met with unacceptable conditions.

In early 1914 Tonchev, assisted by the German and Austro-Hungarian representatives in Sofia

Sofia

Gustav Michahelles and Count Adam Tarnowski von Tarnow

Count Adam Tarnowski von Tarnów

Adam Graf Tarnowski von Tarnów , was an Austro-Hungarian diplomat of Polish origin during World War I.- Life :Born in Cracow on 4 March 1866 into an old family of the Polish aristocracy...

, opened negotiations with the German Disconto-Gesellschaft bank

Bank

A bank is a financial institution that serves as a financial intermediary. The term "bank" may refer to one of several related types of entities:...

. Both Russia and France were aware of the talks but initially dismissed the possibility of their successful conclusion. It was only in April, when the Bulgarian and German representatives had reached an understanding on the basic points of the loan, that the Entente realized that through its hard line it had pushed Bulgaria towards a serious commitment to the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

. The Russian ambassador to Sofia, Savinsky, urged the Bulgarian parliamentary opposition to resist the Radoslavov government's intention and personally met with Tsar Ferdinand, whom he promised a French loan in exchange for the removal of Radoslavov. An offer for a 500 million from the French Banque Perier was also made. Entente

Allies of World War I

efforts, however, came too late and failed to change Bulgarian intentions.

In July 1914 a consortium of German banks led by the Disconto-Gesellschaft granted the 500 million golden leva loan to Bulgaria under harsh conditions. The sum would be received in two installments of 250 million each and had to be repaid within 50 years with an annual interest of 5%. The Bulgarians were obliged to grant the German consortium the contract for the construction of a new port

Port

A port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land....

in Porto Lagos

Lagos, Greece

Lagos is a settlement in the Xanthi peripheral unit of Greece. It is part of the community Nea Kessani. It is situated on the bar separating Lake Vistonida from the Aegean Sea. In 1991, the settlement contained 371 inhabitants.-External links:**...

and a railway leading to it; the Germans were also to take over the running of the state mines in Pernik

Pernik

Pernik is a city in western Bulgaria with a population of 81,052 . It is the main city of Pernik Province and lies on both banks of the Struma River in the Pernik Valley between the Viskyar, Vitosha and Golo Bardo mountains.Originally the site of a Thracian fortress founded in the 4th century BC,...

and Bobov Dol

Bobov Dol

Bobov Dol is a town in southwestern Bulgaria, part of Kyustendil Province. Bovov Dol lies near the geographic centre of the Balkan Peninsula and is known for its coal mines and thermal power plant...

. The government managed to pass the loan through a vote in parliament despite furious opposition. The debate took place among numerous fist fights, the prime minister was seen to wave a revolver above his head but in the government claimed the loan had been approved by show of hands.

The loan agreement was a heavy defeat for Russian and French diplomacy, whose attention was also diverted by the July Crisis, at this point however it did not yield a firm commitment by Tsar Ferdinand and Bulgaria to the cause of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

Bulgaria at the beginning of the First World War

On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip

Gavrilo Princip

Gavrilo Princip was the Bosnian Serb who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914...

, a Bosnian-Serb student and member of Young Bosnia

Young Bosnia

Young Bosnia was a revolutionary movement active before World War I, the members were predominantly school students who were ethnic Serbs, but included Bosniaks...

, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria

Franz Ferdinand was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Austro-Hungarian and Royal Prince of Hungary and of Bohemia, and from 1889 until his death, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. His assassination in Sarajevo precipitated Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia...

in Sarajevo

Sarajevo

Sarajevo |Bosnia]], surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans....

, Bosnia. This began a period of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain called the July Crisis. Wanting to end Serbian interference in Bosnia conclusively, Austria-Hungary delivered the July Ultimatum

July Ultimatum

The July Crisis was a diplomatic crisis among the major powers of Europe in the summer of 1914 that led to the First World War...

to Serbia, a series of ten demands which were intentionally unacceptable, made with the intention of deliberately initiating a war with Serbia. When Serbia acceded to only eight of the ten demands levied against it in the ultimatum, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914. Within days the conflict spread to most of Europe

Europe

Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...

and encompassed all of the major Great Powers. Many other European countries however, including the likes of Italy and Romania who had previously been affiliated with one of the major war alliances, preferred to stay neutral. The exports of important agricultural products like wheat, barley, wool and others was forbidden.

Neutrality

Immediately following the outbreak of hostilities the Bulgarian tsar

Tsar

and prime minister

Prime minister

decided to declare a policy of "strict and loyal" neutrality, a stance which was popular with both ruling and opposition parties. Radoslavov also realized that the lack of proper diplomatic preparation and support from some of the Great Powers had been a major cause for the Bulgarian defeat in 1913 and he intended not to repeat the same mistakes. In order to adjust to the new reality of war the government managed to pass, in parliament, a bill for the declaration of martial law and a bill for an internal loan of 50 million leva for the needs of the army.

The news of Bulgarian neutrality was received well in Entente

Allies of World War I

capitals, even if their approach towards the country differed. Initially these powers thought the war would be short and Bulgaria was not given an important role in their plans as its diplomatic isolation and hostile neighbors was viewed as weakness. Romania with its large population and strategic position, on the flank of Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary

, was reckoned a more attractive ally. This was especially the case in France whose ambassador in Bucharest

Bucharest

was heavily engaged in fighting German and Austrian influence in the country. The UK also hoped that a Romanian entry into the war on its side would force Bulgaria and even the Ottoman Empire to at least remain neutral while Greece might brave itself to openly support Serbia. The mood in Sankt Peterburg however was far less optimistic as the Russians were aware that the price tag of Romania's entry into the war would include Bessarabia

Bessarabia

Bessarabia is a historical term for the geographic region in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the east and the Prut River on the west....

and also feared that its intervention would only extend the already huge Eastern Front

Eastern Front (World War I)

The Eastern Front was a theatre of war during World War I in Central and, primarily, Eastern Europe. The term is in contrast to the Western Front. Despite the geographical separation, the events in the two theatres strongly influenced each other...

.

The Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

's initial reaction to the declaration of neutrality was similar to that of the Entente. However Berlin and Vienna

Vienna

Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...

in particular, were weighing immediate Bulgarian intervention against Serbia because the neutrality of Italy and Romania, countries that had been their allies prior the outbreak of the war, was a major defeat for German and Austrian diplomacy.
Radoslavov, who was generally pro-German, engaged in talks with the German and Austro-Hungarian ambassador as early as July 1914 but in the end he preferred to reaffirm Bulgaria's neutrality. On other diplomatic fronts however the prime minister achieved greater results with the signing of a secret treaty between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

on 6 of August 1914. This was a mutual defense pact which came into effect if either party was attacked by another Balkan power. Both countries pledged not to attack other Balkan countries without consultation with each other. In the absence of such consultation, the parties pledged benevolent neutrality in such a conflict. Bulgaria additionally agreed to notify the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

of any impending military mobilization. The treaty was kept in deep secret and it remained unknown to most other powers, Germany itself was made aware of its existence only in December 1914. Thus when the Ottomans entered the war on the side of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

in October 1914 Bulgaria reaffirmed its neutrality.

Foreign diplomatic activity in Bulgaria

German and Austro-Hungarian diplomacy began probing the Bulgarian government's intention immediately following the initial declaration of neutrality. Both presented tsar Ferdinand with a draft of a military agreement between the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

and Bulgaria. The German ambassador Michahelles also initiated negotiations for a military agreement with prime minister

Prime minister

Radoslavov in August 1914. These steps did not lead to any concrete commitments by the Bulgarian government which realized the country was not yet ready for a war. The Austrian defeat in the Battle of Cer

Battle of Cer

The Battle of Cer also known as Battle of Jadar was one of the first battles of World War I, it also marked the first Allied victory in the war. The battle was fought between the Austro-Hungarian Army and Serbian forces. The results improved Serbian standing in the Alliance...

also undermined the Dual Monarchy's attempts to secure Bulgaria openly on its side. In early September Bulgaria was visited by Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg

Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg

Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg was a member of the House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin who served as the regent of two states of the German Empire...

, as personal representative of the German Emperor

German Emperor

This article is about the emperors of the German Empire. For full list of German monarchs before 1871, see List of German monarchs.The German Emperor was the official title of the Head of State and ruler of the German Empire, beginning with the proclamation of Wilhelm I as emperor during the...

, but he too failed to sway the firm position of the Bulgarian government.

The Entente diplomacy did not sit idly by either. The Russian government was still trying to build a new Balkan League

Balkan League

that would include Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria. On 31 of July Sazonov asked the Serbian government to determine what territory it would be willing to give to Bulgaria in exchange for its neutrality or military cooperation but instead received no reaction from the Serbian prime minister

Prime minister

. A few days later he suggest that Serbia should cede parts of the uncontested zone to gain Bulgaria for the war with Austria Hungary and eventually cede the entire zone if the war ended in Entente favor. Though the Serbians were not willing to antagonize their Russian patron

Patrón

Patrón is a luxury brand of tequila produced in Mexico and sold in hand-blown, individually numbered bottles.Made entirely from Blue Agave "piñas" , Patrón comes in five varieties: Silver, Añejo, Reposado, Gran Patrón Platinum and Gran Patrón Burdeos. Patrón also sells a tequila-coffee blend known...

s they decided not to yield and make any concessions. Serbian policy on this matter was not led by ethnographic motives but by a geopolitical theory awarding the dominant position in the Balkan Peninsula to the country that controlled the valleys of the rivers Morava

Morava

Morava is a Slavic river name. It may refer to:Rivers:* Great Morava in central Serbia** South Morava , tributary of the Great Morava** West Morava , tributary of the Great Morava...

and Vardar

Vardar

The Vardar or Axios is the longest and major river in the Republic of Macedonia and also a major river of Greece. It is long, and drains an area of around . The maximum depth of river is ....

. Thus the Serbians preferred to face the Austro-Hungarians on their own in exchange for a benevolent Bulgarian neutrality for which they offered to cede about a quarter of the uncontested zone but keep total control of the Vardar

Vardar

The Vardar or Axios is the longest and major river in the Republic of Macedonia and also a major river of Greece. It is long, and drains an area of around . The maximum depth of river is ....

. This however did not deter Sazonov from ordering Savinsky to offer vague territorial acquisitions to Ferdinand and Radoslavov in exchange for their cooperation.

The Russians were also restrained in their activity due to their allies, especially France which preferred the cooperation of Romania rather than Bulgaria. The appointment of Théophile Delcassé

Théophile Delcassé

Théophile Delcassé was a French statesman.-Biography:He was born at Pamiers, in the Ariège département...

, a diplomat with extensive experience regarding the Balkan matters, for French foreign minister

Foreign minister

and the behavior of the still neutral Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

was expected to breathe new life into French diplomatic activities in Sofia

Sofia

. French diplomacy also toyed with the idea of a new Balkan League

Balkan League

directed against the Ottoman and believed that Bulgaria could be offered Eastern Thrace up to the Midia-Enos

Enos

Enos or Enosh, may refer to:-People in religious scripture:* Enos , a genealogical figure in the Bible.* The Book of Enos, one of the books that make up The Book of Mormon...

line. Still its prestige and influence were greatly reduced in Bulgaria, due to France's behavior during the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

. This forced the French to admit the leading role of Russia in all attempts of gaining Bulgarian support and limit themselves with cautious support of Russian proposals.

The British government thought it best to avoid any complications in the Balkans

Balkans

The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...

. It thought that a Balkan alliance of neutral countries was better suited to its interest which conflicted with Russian ideas of Bulgarian military support in exchange for territorial concessions by it neighbors. Thus the UK was also unwilling to pressure these countries to satisfy Bulgarian territorial demands. In order to further Entente ideas of a Balkan League

Balkan League

in Sofia the British government dispatched the Liberal MPs Noel and Charles Buxton

Charles Roden Buxton

Charles Roden Buxton was an English philanthropist and politician.He was born in London, the third son of Sir Thomas Buxton, 3rd Baronet...

to meet unofficially with leading Bulgarian statesmen. When they arrived in Bulgaria the brothers were greeted warmly and first met in September with Tsar Ferdinand, Prime Minister

Prime minister

Radoslavov and minister Tonchev from whom they received firm assurances of Bulgaria's strict neutrality. After that they turned their attention to the Bulgarian opposition leaders and met with Stamboliyski

Aleksandar Stamboliyski

Aleksandar Stamboliyski was the prime minister of Bulgaria from 1919 until 1923. Stamboliyski was a member of the Agrarian Union, an agrarian peasant movement which was not allied to the monarchy, and edited their newspaper...

, Geshov, Sakazov

Yanko Sakazov

Yanko Ivanov Sakazov was a Bulgarian socialist politician.A native of the northeastern city of Shumen, Sakazov went abroad for studies during his youth, studying in Western Europe and Russia. He was a student of natural sciences, philosophy and history in Germany, biology in England and literature...

and others. During their stay in the country the Buxtons found out the Bulgarians, even the pro-Entente ones, to be very cautious when it came to aligning the country to Britain. The unofficial character of the visit also made it look like it was a private enterprise rather than one backed by serious British intentions. The brothers however continued their work in Bulgaria and advocated a declaration by the Entente powers promising support for Bulgaria’s claim to the uncontested zone in return for its benevolent neutrality towards Romania and Serbia. Despite having the support of all Allied representatives in Sofia

Sofia

the Buxtons were unable to impress the British Prime Minister

Prime minister

Asquith, who considered forcing Serbia to cede land out of the question. Shortly after Noel Buxton was shot and seriously wounded by a Turkish assassin while visiting Bucharest

Bucharest

which forced him and his brother to temporarily cease their diplomatic activities.

In October 1914 the entry of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

into the war on the side of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

considerably altered the political and military situation in the Balkans

Balkans

The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...

. Radoslavov realized that the Bulgaria's value as a potential ally of either of the warring sides had now increased substantially due to its strategic geographic position and considerable military potential. The new status quo

Status quo

Statu quo, a commonly used form of the original Latin "statu quo" – literally "the state in which" – is a Latin term meaning the current or existing state of affairs. To maintain the status quo is to keep the things the way they presently are...

also increased the bargaining power of Berlin

Berlin

Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...

and Vienna

Vienna

in the remaining neutral Balkan capitals

Capital City

Capital City was a television show produced by Euston Films which focused on the lives of investment bankers in London living and working on the corporate trading floor for the fictional international bank Shane-Longman....

but it did not enhance the Entente

Allies of World War I

's cause in its negotiations with Bulgaria. All the Allies could do was hand a note to Radoslavov promising territorial gains in exchange of strict neutrality and further gains if Bulgaria joined the war against the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

. The Bulgarian prime minister

Prime minister

could not accept such a vague offer in the face of continuous determination by Serbia not to cede lands to Bulgaria. On 9 of December the Allies,who realized their previous mistake, handed a new declaration promising Bulgaria Ottoman Eastern Thrace up to the Midia-Enos

Enos

Enos or Enosh, may refer to:-People in religious scripture:* Enos , a genealogical figure in the Bible.* The Book of Enos, one of the books that make up The Book of Mormon...

line and "fair" territorial gains in Macedonia

Republic of Macedonia

in exchange for its neutrality. Radoslavov again refused to make any commitments and confirmed his intention to keep Bulgaria on the already established course.

The end of neutrality

As 1914 came to an end Bulgaria remained on the sidelines of the Great European War

World War I

. The popular opinion lacked enthusiasm for entering the conflict and supported the country's stance of neutrality. At this point the government couldn't afford to take needless risks so the Prime Minister

Prime minister

Radoslavov adopted a "wait and see policy" while at the same time he successful probed the abilities of the warring alliances to satisfy Bulgarian territorial ambitions. A final commitment could be made only when one of the sides had gained a decisive military advantage and had firmly guaranteed the fulfillment of Bulgarian national ideals.

The situation in early 1915

On the battlefields the war had entered a long period of stalemate

Stalemate

Stalemate is a situation in chess where the player whose turn it is to move is not in check but has no legal moves. A stalemate ends the game in a draw. Stalemate is covered in the rules of chess....

with no side appearing to gain the upper hand. On the Western Front

Western Front (World War I)

Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne...

in February the French

France

The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...

failed to break the German

Germany

Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...

lines in Champagne

First Battle of Champagne

The First Battle of Champagne was fought early in World War I in the Champagne region of France, between the French and German Empire armies. It was effectively the first significant attack by the Allies against the Germans since the construction of trenches following the so-called 'Race to the...

, further attempts in Artois

Second Battle of Artois

The Second Battle of Artois, of which the British contribution was the Battle of Aubers Ridge, was a battle on the Western Front of the First World War, it was fought at the same time as the Second Battle of Ypres. Even though the French under General Philippe Pétain gained some initial victories,...

during May also came to an unsuccessful conclusion. The Germans had decided to focus their efforts on the Eastern Front

Eastern Front (World War I)

where they had considerable success against the Russians in the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes

Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes

The Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, also known as the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes, was the northern part of the Central Powers' offensive on the Eastern Front in the winter of 1915...

but there gains were largely negated by the fall of Przemyśl

Siege of Przemysl

The Siege of Przemyśl was one of the greatest sieges of the First World War, and a crushing defeat for Austria-Hungary. The investment of Przemyśl began on September 24, 1914 and was briefly suspended on October 11 due to an Austro-Hungarian offensive...

in March. The Germans and Austrians than undertook new counterattacks to restore their positions and finally in May Italy entered the war on the Entente

Allies of World War I

side. Under these circumstances the military and political value of the neutral Balkan countries increased significantly.

The military successes of each warring side were often a major asset in the diplomatic struggle for Bulgaria. Thus when Przemyśl

Siege of Przemysl

fell and the Anglo-French landed in the Dardanelles

Dardanelles

The Dardanelles , formerly known as the Hellespont, is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with its counterpart the Bosphorus. It is located at approximately...

Radoslavov expressed greater interest in negotiations with the Entente. The leading role of Britain in the Gallipoli Campaign made it a natural driving force behind the revival of Entente attempts to acquire Bulgaria as an ally. The British realized that the key to winning Bulgaria was in Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

and suggested to Sazonov that Serbia should be prepared to cede the uncontested zone in exchange for Austrian territory. The Russian foreign minister decided to stand behind this proposition, despite that he found it rather vague, as long as it could turn Bulgaria against the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

. Serbia however remained adamant and its crown prince

Crown Prince

A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....

even declared that it would rather give up Bosnia

Bosnia (region)

Bosnia is a eponomous region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It lies mainly in the Dinaric Alps, ranging to the southern borders of the Pannonian plain, with the rivers Sava and Drina marking its northern and eastern borders. The other eponomous region, the southern, other half of the country is...

, than hand Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

to Bulgaria.

At the same time Germany hoped in vain to use the payment of a 150 million installment of the 1914 loan as means of exerting influence on the Bulgarian government. Radoslavov meanwhile had turned his attention to an unexpected direction by sending Genadiev to Rome

Rome

Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...

. The purpose of this move was unclear to foreign observers and soon speculations arose that Radoslavov was only trying to remove a potent contender for his post. Whatever the reason during his two month stay in the Italian capital Genadiev became convinced that Italy was preparing to throw in its lot with the Entente

Allies of World War I

. Radoslavov was not pleased by this news and thought that his coalition partner might undermine the ruling government coalition had he read the report on his foreign visit to the Council of Ministers

Council of Ministers of Bulgaria

The Council of Ministers is the main authority of the executive power in the Republic of Bulgaria. It consists of the Prime Minister of Bulgaria and all the specialized ministers....

. To prevent this the prime minister

Prime minister

made sure Genadiev wouldn't be able to share his impressions with his colleagues and most minister were left completely unaware of his report. The foreign minister's prediction became reality in May 1915 but it also presented an unforeseen complication for the Allied diplomacy as Italy and Serbia both had claims in Dalmatia

Dalmatia

Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....

, which made the later even more uncompromising when asked to make concession to Bulgaria.

On 29 of May, not long after Italy's entry into the war, the Allied representatives in Sofia

Sofia

presented independently an identical note

Identical Note

An identical note is a term used in diplomacy to denote terms agreed upon by two powers to coerce a third.-External links:* of the term related to a circular diplomatic note.* * of an identical note sent by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt...

proposing an alliance in exchange for Bulgaria's immediate attack on the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

. In return Bulgaria would receive Eastern Thrace to the Enos-Midia line and the uncontested zone in Macedonia. Bulgaria could occupy Thrace at its earliest convenience and the gains in Macedonia were contingent upon Serbia receiving land in Bosnia and an outlet on the Adriatic coast. The Allies also promised substantial financial assistance and full support in pressuring Greece to cede Kavalla, and Romania to return the Southern Dobrudja. In many respects this proposal represented a turning point in the relationship between the Entente and Bulgaria as it offered for the first time a reward close to satisfying all Bulgarian demands. The Allied proposals however had not been coordinated with neither Serbia nor Greece and provoked fierce protests from those countries which naturally left the Bulgarians with serious doubts about Allied intentions. Radoslavov's reply was received only on 15 of June and although friendly it asked for further clarifications and no commitments at all. In addition the changing military situation also affected Bulgarian opinions as Italy's entry into the war failed to break Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary

, the Russians suffered reverses in Galicia and the Allied landings in the Dardanelles proved less successful than expected.

The Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

were aware of the Allied overtures to Bulgaria and only a few days before the Allied proposal of 29 of May came up with an offer of their own. The Austrian and Germans could guarantee both the contested and uncontested zones of Macedonia in exchange for Bulgarian neutrality and if latter war with Greece and Romania resulted, then Bulgaria could expect the lands that it had lost in 1913. Tsar Ferdinand issued a speedy reply but at this point he too proffered not to commit the country to the war.

The Allies struggled to give a unified reply to Radoslavov's questions as their positions began to diverge. Britain's foreign minister Edward Grey had doubts about the true Bulgarian intentions and minister wished to scale down the promises made to Bulgaria. His view however were met with disapproval even in his own cabinet, Lloyd George

David Lloyd George

David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman...

and Churchill thought that a high price, mostly at Greek expense, was worth paying. Paris

Paris

Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...

and Sankt Peterburg, where it was feared that Grey's ideas might push further away Ferdinand and Radoslavov, also disagreed. Unlike their British colleague both Sazanov and Delcassé were also willing to exert greater pressure on Greece to make appropriate concessions in exchange for future compensations in Asia Minor

Asia Minor

Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...

. The Russians wanted to put a time-limit for Bulgarian acceptance because its military intervention would be most useful before the autumn mud put an end to the heavy fighting on the Eastern Front

Eastern Front (World War I)

. As the spring of 1915 passed the Allies missed the most promising opportunity of winning Bulgaria for their cause.

"The Bulgarian Summer" of 1915

The summer months of 1915 saw the decisive clash between the diplomacy of the Entente

Allies of World War I

and the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

take place. A young French historian, a reporter for the French press

News media

The news media are those elements of the mass media that focus on delivering news to the general public or a target public.These include print media , broadcast news , and more recently the Internet .-Etymology:A medium is a carrier of something...

and witness of the critical events named Marcel Dunan summarized the importance of this period for the entire course of the war by simply naming it the "Bulgarian Summer" of 1915. Bulgaria's strategic geographic position and strong army now more than ever could provide a decisive advantage to the side that managed to win its support. For the Allies, Bulgaria could provide needed support to Serbia, shore up Russia’s defenses, and effectively neutralize the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

while for the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

it could ensure the defeat of Serbia, cut off Russia from its allies and open the way to Constantinople

Constantinople

Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...

, thus securing the continuous Ottoman

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

war effort. Both sides had promised more or less the fulfillment of Bulgaria's national aspirations and the only problem facing the Bulgarian prime minister was how to secure maximum gains in exchange for minimum commitments.

During this time many Entente and Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

dignitaries were sent to Sofia

Sofia

in an effort to secure Bulgaria's friendship and support. Allied representatives met with the leaders of the Bulgarian opposition parties, they also provided generous financial support for opposition news papers and even attempted to bribe high ranking government officials. Berlin

Berlin

and Vienna

Vienna

were not willing to remain on the sidelines and dispatched to Bulgaria the Duke of Mecklenburg

Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg

Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg was a member of the House of Mecklenburg-Schwerin who served as the regent of two states of the German Empire...

, the former ambassador to the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim

Baron Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim - German diplomat. Ambassador Extraordinary to Mexico. German Minister at Athens, 1909-12. During World War I, from 1912 to October 25, 1915 was ambassador to the Ottoman Empire....

and the Prince Hohenlohe, who openly declared that after the defeat of Serbia Bulgaria would assume hegemony

Hegemony

Hegemony is an indirect form of imperial dominance in which the hegemon rules sub-ordinate states by the implied means of power rather than direct military force. In Ancient Greece , hegemony denoted the politico–military dominance of a city-state over other city-states...

of the Balkans

Balkans

The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...

. What kept the Bulgarian interest the most was indeed the balance of military power. The situation on the major European fronts was at that time developing markedly in favor of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

and while the Allied operation in Gallipoli

Gallipoli

The Gallipoli peninsula is located in Turkish Thrace , the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles straits to the east. Gallipoli derives its name from the Greek "Καλλίπολις" , meaning "Beautiful City"...

turned into a costly stalemate the Russians were being driven out of Galicia and Poland

Poland

Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...

. Under these circumstances the Allies were hoping to finally secure Bulgaria.

Still it took Entente diplomacy more than a month to give an answer to Radoslavov's questions and the reply proved far from satisfying. In reality it hardly differed from the offer the Allies presented in May. Once again the promises lacked a clear guarantee that Serbia would cede the desired lands and there was not even a mention of Southern Dobrudja. In the eyes of the Bulgarians this was a manifestation of the Entente helplessness in the face of the conflicting ambitions of it smaller Balkan allies. The diplomatic positions of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

in Sofia

Sofia

were strengthened immensely forcing the Bulgarian tsar and prime minister to assume a course towards a final alignment of the country to the side of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

. In August a Bulgarian military mission led by Colonel Petar Ganchev, a former military attaché in Berlin, was dispatched to Germany to work out the details for a military convention. Almost at the same time the Minister of War Lieutenant General

Lieutenant General

Lieutenant General is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages where the title of Lieutenant General was held by the second in command on the battlefield, who was normally subordinate to a Captain General....

Ivan Fichev

Ivan Fichev was a Bulgarian General, Minister of Defense, military historian and academician.-Biography:...

resigned and was replaced as minister by the pro-German Major General

Major General

Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...

Nikola Zhekov

Nikola Todorov Zhekov was the Minister of War of Bulgaria in 1915 and served as Commander-in-Chief from 1915 to 1918 during World War I.-Biography:...

. Radoslavov had also entered talks with the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

, trying to gain concessions in exchange for Bulgarian benevolent neutrality. In this situation Germany,unlike the Allies, was able to persuade its ally to at least seriously consider ceding some land to gain Bulgarian support. Still the Ottomans were willing to conclude the deal only after Bulgaria entered into an agreement with the Central Powers.

Throughout the month of August the Allied diplomatic activity was growing more incoherent. British and French diplomats began to realize that in the face of the stubborn Serbian and Greek refusals of any immediate concessions the best they could hope for was to keep Bulgaria neutral. In the face of its diplomatic failure the Entente

Allies of World War I

even resorted to more unusual means of keeping Bulgaria on the side lines. The Allies and their Bulgarian political sympathizers attempted to buy out the country's grain harvest and create a food crisis. This affair

Affair

Affair may refer to professional, personal, or public business matters or to a particular business or private activity of a temporary duration, as in family affair, a private affair, or a romantic affair.-Political affair:...

however was revealed to the Bulgarian government and the perpetrators were arrested. Entente diplomats continued to pressure the Serbian government, finally forcing it to assume a more yielding attitude. On 1 of September the Serbian prime minister agreed to cede about half of the uncontested zone but he demanded that Serbia should keep most of the land to the west of the Vardar

Vardar

The Vardar or Axios is the longest and major river in the Republic of Macedonia and also a major river of Greece. It is long, and drains an area of around . The maximum depth of river is ....

including the towns of Prilep

Prilep

Prilep is the fourth largest city in the Republic of Macedonia. It has a population of 66,246 citizens. Prilep is known as "the city under Marko's Towers" because of its proximity to the towers of Prince Marko.-Name:...

, Ohrid

Ohrid

Ohrid is a city on the eastern shore of Lake Ohrid in the Republic of Macedonia. It has about 42,000 inhabitants, making it the seventh largest city in the country. The city is the seat of Ohrid Municipality. Ohrid is notable for having once had 365 churches, one for each day of the year and has...

and Veles

Veles

Veles may refer to:*Veles , Slavic deity*Veles , in the Republic of Macedonia*Veles municipality, in the Republic of Macedonia*Veles, singular of velites, a class of infantry in the early Roman Republic...

. In return for these territorial concessions, the Allied Powers had to allow Serbia to absorb Croatia and Slovenia and demand Bulgaria to attack the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

. The Serbian offer was unacceptable and most of its demands were rejected. At the same time the Entente was unaware that the negotiations between Bulgaria and the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

had reached a critical phase.

Bulgaria enters the war

On 6 of September 1915 Bulgaria formalized its affiliation with the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

by concluding three separate documents of political and military character. The first document was signed by the prime minister

Prime minister

Radoslavov and the German ambassador Michaheles in Sofia

Sofia

and constituted the Treaty of Amity and Alliance between the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the German Empire. It consisted of five articles that were to remain in force for five years. According to the treaty each of the contracting sides agreed not to enter an alliance or agreement directed against the other. Germany was obliged to protect Bulgarian political independence and territorial integrity against all attack which could result without provocation on the side of the Bulgarian government. In exchange Bulgaria was obligated to take action against any of its neighboring states had they attacked Germany.

The second important document the two men signed was a secret annex to the Treaty of Alliance. It specified the territorial acquisitions that Germany guaranteed to Bulgaria and included the whole of Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

, including the so-called contested and uncontested zones, plus the part of Old Serbia to the east of the Morava river. In case Romania or Greece attacked Bulgaria or its allies without provocation, Germany would agree to Bulgarian annexation of the lands lost to these countries by the Treaty of Bucharest, and to a rectification of the Bulgarian-Romanian border as delimited by the Treaty of Berlin. In addition Germany and Austria-Hungary guaranteed the Bulgarian government a war loan of 200 million francs and in case the war lasted longer than four months, they guaranteed an additional supplementary loan.

The third documented was concluded at the German Eastern military headquarters in Pless

Pszczyna

Pszczyna is a town in southern Poland with 26,827 inhabitants within the immediate gmina rising to 50,121 inhabitants in the powiat, which includes the town of Pszczyna, itself, Brzeźce , Czarków , Ćwiklice , Jankowice , Łąka , Piasek , Poręba , Rudołtowice , Studzionka , Studzienice , Wisła...

by the Chief of the German General Staff

German General Staff

The German General Staff was an institution whose rise and development gave the German armed forces a decided advantage over its adversaries. The Staff amounted to its best "weapon" for nearly a century and a half....

Erich von Falkenhayn

Erich von Falkenhayn was a German soldier and Chief of the General Staff during World War I. He became a military writer after World War I.-Early life:...

, the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf and the delegate of the Bulgarian government Colonel

Colonel

Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...

Peter Ganchev. It was a military convention detailing the plan for the final defeat and conquest of Serbia. Germany and Austria-Hungary were obliged to act against Serbia within 30 days of the signing of the convention, while Bulgaria had to do the same within 35 days of that date. Germany and Austria-Hungary were to field at least 6 infantry divisions for the attack, and Bulgaria at least 4 infantry divisions according to their established tables and organization. All these forces were to be placed under the command of Generalfeldmarschall

Generalfeldmarschall

Field Marshal or Generalfeldmarschall in German, was a rank in the armies of several German states and the Holy Roman Empire; in the Austrian Empire, the rank Feldmarschall was used...

August von Mackensen

Anton Ludwig August von Mackensen , born August Mackensen, was a German soldier and field marshal. He commanded with success during the First World War and became one of the German Empire's most prominent military leaders. After the Armistice, Mackensen was interned for a year...

, whose task wad defined as "to fight the Serbian Army wherever he finds it and to open and insure as soon as possible a land connection betweent Hungary

Hungary

Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...

and Bulgaria

Bulgaria

Bulgaria , officially the Republic of Bulgaria , is a parliamentary democracy within a unitary constitutional republic in Southeast Europe. The country borders Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, as well as the Black Sea to the east...

". Germany also pledged to assist with what ever war material Bulgaria needed unless it harmed Germany's own needs. Bulgaria was to mobilize the 4 divisions within 15 days of the signing of the convention and furnish at least one more division(outside of Mackensen's command and forces) that was to occupy Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

. Bulgaria also pledged to keep strict neutrality against Greece and Romania for the duration of the war operations against Serbia, as long as the two countries remained neutral themselves. The Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

was given the right to adhere to all points of the military convention and von Falkenhayn

Erich von Falkenhayn

Erich von Falkenhayn was a German soldier and Chief of the General Staff during World War I. He became a military writer after World War I.-Early life:...

was to open immediate negotiations with its representatives. On its part Bulgaria agreed to give full passage to all materials and soldiers sent from Germany and Austria-Hungary to the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

, as soon as a connection through Serbia, the Danube or Romania had been opened.

On the same day Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

concluded a separate agreement that granted Bulgaria the possession of the remaining Ottoman lands west of the river Maritsa

Maritsa

The Maritsa or Evros , ) is, with a length of 480 km, the longest river that runs solely in the interior of the Balkans. It has its origin in the Rila Mountains in Western Bulgaria, flowing southeast between the Balkan and Rhodope Mountains, past Plovdiv and Parvomay to Edirne, Turkey...

including a 2 kilometer stretch on its eastern bank that ran along the entire length of the river. This placed the railway to the Aegean port of Dedeagach and some 2,587 square kilometers under Bulgarian control.

The Allies were unaware of the treaty between Bulgaria and Germany and on 13 of September made a new attempt to gain Bulgarian support by offering the occupation of the Uncontested zone by Allied troops as a guarantee hat Bulgaria would receive it after it had attacked the Ottoman Empire. This offer however was a sign of desperation and even the British foreign minister considered it inadequate. Radoslavov decided to play along and asked for further clarification.

On 22 of September Bulgaria declared general mobilization and Radoslavov stated that country would assume a state of "armed neutrality" which its neighbors should not perceive as a threat. This event was indicative of Bulgarian intentions and prompted the Serbians to ask the Entente

Allies of World War I

to support them in a preemptive strike on Bulgaria. The Allies were not yet ready to help Serbia in a military way and refused, focusing their efforts instead on finding ways to delay as much as possible the seemingly imminent Bulgarian attack. Sazonov angered by this "Bulgarian betrayal" insisted that a clear ultimatum should be issued to the Balkan country. The French and the British resisted at first but eventually fell in line with the Russians and on 4 of October the Entente presented an ultimatum demanding demanding all German officers attached to the Bulgarian army be sent back to home within 24 hours. On the previous day a small Allied force had landed in Salonika. Radoslavov did not reply and on 5 of October the Allied representatives asked for their passports and left
Sofia.

On 14 of October Bulgaria declared war on Serbia and the Bulgarian Army invaded Serbian territory. British Prime Minister

Prime minister

Herbert Asquith concluded that "one of the most important chapters in the history of diplomacy" had ended. He blamed this heavy Allied diplomatic defeat on Russia and most of all on Serbia and its "obstinacy and cupidity". In military terms Bulgaria's involvement also made the position of the Allies in Gallipoli untenable.

Organization and state of the army

The demobilization of the Bulgarian Army following the formal end of the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

took place under difficult conditions created by the Ottoman military threat hanging over Southern Bulgaria and the Romanian occupation of Northern Bulgaria.
Many of the divisions had to be brought down to their usual peace strength and redeployed to cover the Ottoman border. It was only after the signing of the Treaty of Constantinople that the army was ably to complete the process of its demobilization and assume its peace time organization. The old nine regular infantry divisions were returned to their garrison areas; the 10th Aegean Division, that had been formed in the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

, was settled in the newly acquired territories in the Rhodope mountains and Western Thrace

Western Thrace

; the 11th Infantry Division was reduced to minimal size and reformed into a cadre division, used for the training of new recruits. On 8 of December the demobilization was completed and the peace time army now comprised 66,887 men, out of whom 36,976 were in the interior of Bulgaria and 27,813 in the new territories.

In peace time the Bulgarian Land Forces

Bulgarian land forces

The Bulgarian Land Forces are one of the service branches of the Bulgarian Armed Forces. Their existence is to be traced back to the establishment of the First Bulgarian Empire in 681. In more recent history the Land Forces have played an active role in the Bulgarian participation in the Balkan...

consisted of three armies, ten infantry divisions, forty infantry regiments, nineteen artillery regiments, eleven cavalry regiments, five battalions of engineers, one railway battalion, one telegraph battalion and one technical battalion. These forces retained the territorial organization established prior the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

. According to it the country was divided in three Army inspectorates, ten Division districts and forty Regiment districts. During wartime the staff of each of these administrative units formed the headquarters and staff of a separate army, division and regiment. All male Bulgarian subjects were eligible to serve in the army when they reached the age of 20. Upon reaching the said age a person was conscripted for a period of two years in the infantry and three years in other branches of the Active(Standing) Army. Following this period the person was enrolled for another 18 years in the infantry or 16 years in the other branches of the Active Army's Reserve. This Reserve was the heart of the army as it encompassed the bulk of the available manpower and reached a size of 374,613 men by the end of 1914. Finally the men between 40 and 48 years served in the National Militia(Narodno Opalchenie) which was divided in two Bans. Initially the First Ban was composed of men 41 to 44 years old and the Second Ban was composed of men 45 to 48 old. Around 1914, due to the experience of the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

, however the men between 45 and 46 years old, that belonged to the Second Ban, were formed into separate Etappe Troops. By early 1915 the Bulgarian Army could altogether rely on some 577,625 trained men aged 20 to 48. A special inquiry also determined that another 231,572 men were eligible for military service but had not received their training. Many of those were called up and received training in 1915.

The principal firearm

Firearm

A firearm is a weapon that launches one, or many, projectile at high velocity through confined burning of a propellant. This subsonic burning process is technically known as deflagration, as opposed to supersonic combustion known as a detonation. In older firearms, the propellant was typically...

used by the Bulgarian infantry since the end of the nineteenth century was the Mannlicher

Steyr-Mannlicher M1895

The Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 rifle is a bolt-action rifle, designed by Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher that used a refined version of his revolutionary straight-pull action. It was nicknamed the "Ruck-Zuck" by Landsers...

magazine rifle

Rifle

A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called "lands," which make contact with the projectile , imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the...

, notably the M95 model but also the 1888 and 1890 models. Other rifles in use by the army include the Mosin Nagant 1891 model, the Berdan II

Berdan rifle

The Berdan rifle is a Russian rifle created by famous American firearms expert and inventor Hiram Berdan in 1868. Standard issue in the Russian army from 1869-1891, the Berdan was replaced by the Mosin-Nagant rifle...

and a number of Mauser

Mauser

Mauser was a German arms manufacturer of a line of bolt-action rifles and pistols from the 1870s to 1995. Mauser designs were built for the German armed forces...

rifle

Rifle

s captured from the Ottomans during the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

. Officers were armed with a variety of pistol

Pistol

When distinguished as a subset of handguns, a pistol is a handgun with a chamber that is integral with the barrel, as opposed to a revolver, wherein the chamber is separate from the barrel as a revolving cylinder. Typically, pistols have an effective range of about 100 feet.-History:The pistol...

s and revolver

Revolver

A revolver is a repeating firearm that has a cylinder containing multiple chambers and at least one barrel for firing. The first revolver ever made was built by Elisha Collier in 1818. The percussion cap revolver was invented by Samuel Colt in 1836. This weapon became known as the Colt Paterson...

s including the Parabellum 1908 and Smith & Wesson

Smith & Wesson

Smith & Wesson is the largest manufacturer of handguns in the United States. The corporate headquarters is in Springfield, Massachusetts. Founded in 1852, Smith & Wesson's pistols and revolvers have become standard issue to police and armed forces throughout the world...

. Since 1908 the infantry was also armed with the heavy Maxim machine gun

Maxim gun

The Maxim gun was the first self-powered machine gun, invented by the American-born British inventor Sir Hiram Maxim in 1884. It has been called "the weapon most associated with [British] imperial conquest".-Functionality:...

.

The Bulgarian cavalry

Cavalry

Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...

was armed with sabers for close combat and with the Mannlicher M.1890 carbine

Carbine

A carbine , from French carabine, is a longarm similar to but shorter than a rifle or musket. Many carbines are shortened versions of full rifles, firing the same ammunition at a lower velocity due to a shorter barrel length....

. The Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

had revealed that horse-breeding in Bulgaria was not developed enough to satisfy the wartime requirements of the army and in order to compensate for the deficiency of strong cavalry and artillery horses by October 1915 the authorities imported about 300 animals.

Available infantry weaponry in September 1915
Weapon system	Quantity	Ammunition stock	Ammunition per single weapon
Mannlicher Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 The Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 rifle is a bolt-action rifle, designed by Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher that used a refined version of his revolutionary straight-pull action. It was nicknamed the "Ruck-Zuck" by Landsers... rifle Rifle A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called "lands," which make contact with the projectile , imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the... s	251,713	150,810,600	600
Mannlicher Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 The Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 rifle is a bolt-action rifle, designed by Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher that used a refined version of his revolutionary straight-pull action. It was nicknamed the "Ruck-Zuck" by Landsers... carbine Carbine A carbine , from French carabine, is a longarm similar to but shorter than a rifle or musket. Many carbines are shortened versions of full rifles, firing the same ammunition at a lower velocity due to a shorter barrel length.... s	9,513	1,781,800	187
Mosin Nagant rifle Rifle A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called "lands," which make contact with the projectile , imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the... s	46,056	42,750,000	928
Berdan rifle Berdan rifle The Berdan rifle is a Russian rifle created by famous American firearms expert and inventor Hiram Berdan in 1868. Standard issue in the Russian army from 1869-1891, the Berdan was replaced by the Mosin-Nagant rifle... s	54,912	27,757,340	500
Mauser Mauser Mauser was a German arms manufacturer of a line of bolt-action rifles and pistols from the 1870s to 1995. Mauser designs were built for the German armed forces... rifle Rifle A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called "lands," which make contact with the projectile , imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the... s	12,918	11,188,000	860
Martini-Mauser rifles	3,614	900,000	250
Captured Serbian rifles	995	86,000	86
Krnka M1867 Russian Krnka The M1867 Russian Krnka was a breachloader conversion of the muzzle-loading Model 1857 Six Line rifle musket, similar to the contemporary Snider-Enfield and Tatabatiere conversions. Conversions were carried out at the Tula armoy . The weapon was chambered for a 15mm cartridge.Two main versions were... rifle Rifle A rifle is a firearm designed to be fired from the shoulder, with a barrel that has a helical groove or pattern of grooves cut into the barrel walls. The raised areas of the rifling are called "lands," which make contact with the projectile , imparting spin around an axis corresponding to the... s	12,800	1,224,000	95
Parabellum 1908 pistol Pistol When distinguished as a subset of handguns, a pistol is a handgun with a chamber that is integral with the barrel, as opposed to a revolver, wherein the chamber is separate from the barrel as a revolving cylinder. Typically, pistols have an effective range of about 100 feet.-History:The pistol... s	3,957	273,000	69
Smith & Wesson Smith & Wesson Smith & Wesson is the largest manufacturer of handguns in the United States. The corporate headquarters is in Springfield, Massachusetts. Founded in 1852, Smith & Wesson's pistols and revolvers have become standard issue to police and armed forces throughout the world... revolver Revolver A revolver is a repeating firearm that has a cylinder containing multiple chambers and at least one barrel for firing. The first revolver ever made was built by Elisha Collier in 1818. The percussion cap revolver was invented by Samuel Colt in 1836. This weapon became known as the Colt Paterson... s	1,112	105,320	94
Maxim machine guns	248	10,667,763	43,000
Sabres Sabres Sabres can refer to:* The plural of sabre* Sabres, Landes, a commune in the Landes department in France* Buffalo Sabres, a National Hockey League team* Somerset Sabres, the name used by Somerset County Cricket Club in one day competition...	19,000	-	-

The artillery

Artillery

Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...

consisted of various field, mountain and fortress guns, most of it produced by the two world leading manufacturers Schneider

Schneider Electric

Schneider Electric is a French global company. It was founded in 1836 by two brothers, Eugène and Adolphe Schneider.In the first part of the 20th century, Schneider et Cie associated itself with Westinghouse Systems, a major international electrical group at the time. The group began manufacturing...

and Krupp

Krupp

The Krupp family , a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their steel production and for their manufacture of ammunition and armaments. The family business, known as Friedrich Krupp AG Hoesch-Krupp, was the largest company in Europe at the beginning of the 20th...

. During the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

the Bulgarian Army had lost a seizable quantity of its artillery but by 1915 the country managed to recover its loses and even increase the number of available guns so that by October 1915 the artillery park consisted of 1,211 pieces, of which 418 were not quick-firing gun

Quick-firing gun

A quick-firing gun is an artillery piece, typically a gun or howitzer, which has several characteristics which taken together mean the weapon can fire at a fast rate...

s. The ammunition for the artillery was however in short supply and the lack of any large home based manufacturing capability left the army with only about 500 shells per gun, enough to satisfy the artillery's needs for about two months.

Bulgaria possessed a small naval force of torpedo gunboat

Torpedo gunboat

In late 19th-century naval terminology, torpedo gunboats or, in north European usage, torpedo cruisers, were a form of gunboat armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats...

s and patrol boats that were restricted to operating only in the coastal areas of the Black Sea

Black Sea

The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...

and along the river Danube

Danube

The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....

. Following the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

the country acquired an outlet on the Aegean Sea

Aegean Sea

and in January 1915 the "Aegean" Section of the Bulgarian Navy was created by a royal decree. Initially only 78 soldiers were assigned to the small force and were given a task to observe and defend the coastline by laying naval mines. These activities were centered on the ports of Porto Lagos

Lagos, Greece

and Dedeagach but the true development of the facilities there was hampered by financial difficulties.

The Bulgarian air force had gained some experience during the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

but its development was halted followng the defeat in the Second Balkan War

Second Balkan War

. The airplane and balloon sections were reduced to two companies and made part of a technical battalion that was attached to the Army's engineers. The airplane section, which included 5 functional aircraft and 124 men(including 8 pilots), was stationed on an airfield outside of Sofia

Sofia

. Despite the difficult conditions the command took measures to improve the material and personnel situation of the air troops by building a special repair workshop and opening a specialized school for the training of pilot, observers and technicians. Bulgaria's hostile neighbors practically isolated it from the big airplane manufacturers and prevented it from receiving new aircraft. Under these circumstances an alternative had to be provided by few Bulgarian air enthusiast who attempted to build a fully functional Bulgarian airplane. In the summer of 1915 Assen Jordanoff

Assen Jordanoff

Assen "Jerry" Jordanoff was a Bulgarian American inventor, engineer, and aviator...

was the first to succeed in this task by designing and building the first Bulgarian-made airplane, which was latter named Diplane Yordanov-1. Still in September 1915 the airplane section had only two German made Albatros B.I

Albatros B.I

|-See also:...

, two French made Blériot IX-2

Blériot IX

|-References:* Devaux, Jean and Michel Marani. "Les Douze Premiers Aéroplanes de Louis Blériot". Pegase No 54, May 1989.* * -See also:...

and one Blériot IX-bis. They were however joined by three German Fokker-Е80Е-III

Fokker E.III

|-See also:...

and their German crew whose task was to defend Sofia

Sofia

from any attacks. It was only after Bulgaria entered the war that the air force was able to receive new aircraft.

1915 also saw the birth of the anti-aircraft

Anti-aircraft warfare

NATO defines air defence as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground and air based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures. It may be to protect naval, ground and air forces...

component of the Bulgarian armed forces. The first such specialized formation was a mixed battery of six guns(2 quick-firing 75 mm Krupp guns and 4 not quick-firing 87 mm Krupp guns) and seven machine guns(five Madsen

Madsen machine gun

The Madsen was a light machine gun developed by Julius A. Rasmussen and Theodor Schoubue and proposed for adoption by Captain Vilhelm Herman Oluf Madsen, the Danish Minister of War and adopted by the Danish Army in 1902...

and two Hotchkiss

Hotchkiss machine gun

Hotchkiss machine gun:*Hotchkiss M1909, light machine gun also known as the "Hotchkiss Mark I" in British service*Hotchkiss M1914, medium machine gun*Hotchkiss M1922, light machine gun*13.2 mm Hotchkiss machine gun, heavy machine gun...

), which was deployed around Sofia

Sofia

Mobilization

The decree for general mobilization of the Bulgarian Army was issued by the Bulgarian government on 22 of September 1915 but as this happened late in the evening the orders reached the local authorities only on the next day. Around this time the total surface area of the kingdom was 114,424 square kilometers and its population stood at 4,930,151 people, out of whom 2,484,122 were males. The mobilization however was declared and carried out behind the established schedule because the nature of Colonel

Colonel

Ganchev's mission to Germany

German Empire

The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...

was held in great secrecy to the last moment, even from the Bulgarian General Staff which was left out of the negotiations completely. The whole mobilization period, which lasted for 17 or 18 days, was accompanied with some difficulties of material character due to the insufficient quantities of uniforms, horses and carts and even though there was no serious manpower shortage the absence of the enthusiasm demonstrated during the mobilization prior the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

was visible. By the beginning of October the total number of mobilized personnel reached 616,680 men which represented over 12 percent of the population and almost a quarter of the male inhabitants of the country. Instead of the five divisions required by the military convention Bulgaria mobilized 11 infantry and one cavalry division as well as numerous auxiliary and militia units most of these forces were deployed in three field armies, two of which concentrated on the Serbian border and one on the Romanian boarder.

The Bulgarian constitution designated the monarch

Monarch

A monarch is the person who heads a monarchy. This is a form of government in which a state or polity is ruled or controlled by an individual who typically inherits the throne by birth and occasionally rules for life or until abdication...

as commander in chief of the Bulgarian armed forces in time of peace and in time war. In practice however the tsar

Tsar

could delegate this function in wartime by granting all the powers of the commander in chief to a different person. During the First Balkan War

First Balkan War

Ferdinand had remained acting supreme commander but the lack of military education or experience forced him to rely heavily on his assistant commander-in-chief Lieutenant General

Lieutenant General

Mihail Savov

Mihail Savov was a Bulgarian general, twice Minister of Defence , second in command of the Bulgarian army during the Balkan Wars....

.

The experience from the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

convinced the tsar

Tsar

in 1915 to delegate the title and its powers entirely to a different person. Out of the few appropriate candidates that were available Ferdinand chose the pro-German Minister of War Major General

Major General

Nikola Zhekov

Nikola Todorov Zhekov was the Minister of War of Bulgaria in 1915 and served as Commander-in-Chief from 1915 to 1918 during World War I.-Biography:...

. The powers of the commander in chief were not regulated by law and even from the beginning this caused some friction with the government. In his new role General Zhekov exercised direct control over all forces except those that remained in the interior of the country, which were placed under the command of the new Minister of War Major General

Major General

Kalin Naydenov. At the same time Major General

Major General

Konstantin Zhostov

Konstantin Andonov Zhostov was a Bulgarian General and Chief of the Bulgarian Army Staff.-Biography:...

succeed Lieutenant General

Lieutenant General

Kliment Boyadzhiev

Kliment Boyadzhiev was a Bulgarian General during the Balkan Wars and First World War.Born in Ohrid, he studied in an elementary school there. After the liberation of Bulgaria in 1878 he emigrated to Sofia...

, who was appointed commander of the 1st Army, as Chief of the Bulgarian General Staff.

The military convention between Bulgaria and the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

laid down the general plan for the offensive

Serbian Campaign (World War I)

The Serbian Campaign was fought from late July 1914, when Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia at the outset of the First World War, until late 1915, when the Macedonian Front was formed...

against the Kingdom of Serbia

Kingdom of Serbia

. It severely limited the control of the Bulgarian High Command over the Bulgarian 1st Army which was designated part of a combined German, Bulgarian and Austro-Hungarian force commanded by Field Marshal

Field Marshal

Field Marshal is a military rank. Traditionally, it is the highest military rank in an army.-Etymology:The origin of the rank of field marshal dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses , from the time of the early Frankish kings.-Usage and hierarchical...

August von Mackensen

. He had recently led the German

German Army (German Empire)

The German Army was the name given the combined land forces of the German Empire, also known as the National Army , Imperial Army or Imperial German Army. The term "Deutsches Heer" is also used for the modern German Army, the land component of the German Bundeswehr...

and Austro-Hungarian

Austro-Hungarian Army

The Austro-Hungarian Army was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts: the joint army , the Austrian Landwehr , and the Hungarian Honvédség .In the wake of fighting between the...

armies in the highly successful and victorious Summer campaign of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

against the Imperial Russian Army

Imperial Russian Army

The Imperial Russian Army was the land armed force of the Russian Empire, active from around 1721 to the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the early 1850s, the Russian army consisted of around 938,731 regular soldiers and 245,850 irregulars . Until the time of military reform of Dmitry Milyutin in...

on the Eastern Front

Eastern Front (World War I)

. His army group

Army group

An army group is a military organization consisting of several field armies, which is self-sufficient for indefinite periods. It is usually responsible for a particular geographic area...

was created specifically to wage war against the Serbian Army in the pre-1913 borders of the country(Old Serbia), to beat it wherever it found it and to open the land route between Hungary

Hungary

and Bulgaria

Bulgaria

. As commander Field Marshal Mackensen acted independently and received his directives only from the German High Command. However the field marshal's orders to his Bulgarian forces had to relayed to the commander of the 1st Army by the Bulgarian General Staff, which left room for the latter to intervene when needed. According to the convention the Bulgarian commander in chief retained full and direct control over the Bulgarian 2nd Army

Second Army (Bulgaria)

The Bulgarian Second Army was a Bulgarian field army during the Balkan Wars, World War I, and World War II.-History:After 1907, during times of peace, the territory of Bulgaria was divided in three army inspectorates , each one comprising three divisional district. During war they formed three...

and its operations in Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

Military operations

The conquest of Serbia

The general mobilization of the Bulgarian Army caused great concern in Serbia but its military leaders were quick to respond by drafting a plan to deter Bulgaria from entering into the war. The build up of Serbian forces along the Bulgarian border peaked by the first week of October when 145 battalions, 25 squadrons and 316 guns were concentrated and prepared for operations against Bulgaria. These forces represented half the entire Serbian Army

Serbian Army

-Objectives:The Serbian Army is responsible for:* deterring armed threats* defending Serbia's territory* participation in peacekeeping operations* providing humanitarian aid and disaster relief-Personnel:...

of 288 battalions, 40 squadrons and 678 guns. The plan however relayed heavily on the support of the Allies, from whom the Serbians expected to draw another 150,000 men for the defense of Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

. The Serbian government pressed this issue before the governments of the major Entente

Allies of World War I

powers but was not able to negotiate any commitment on their part. France, Britain and Russia were unable and unwilling to dispatch large numbers of troops and instead thought that Greece

Greece

Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....

, which had a defensive treaty with Serbia, would act in case of a Bulgarian attack.

Allied inactivity allowed the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

to continue, unmolested, their preparations for the offensive. By early October however the Austro-Hungarians were not able to furnish the required minimum of 6 division for the attack so the Germans

Germans

The Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....

had to step in with additional forces. The forces, under the overall command of Field Marshal Mackensen, were deployed in the German 11th Army(7 German divisions) led by General

General

A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....

Gallwitz

Max von Gallwitz

Max Karl Wilhelm von Gallwitz was a German general from Breslau , Silesia, who served with distinction during World War I on both the Eastern and Western Fronts.-Biography:...

and Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army(4 Austro-Hungarian and 3 German divisions) led by General

General

Kövess

Hermann Kövess von Kövessháza

Hermann Kövess von Kövessháza was the final, and completely ceremonial, Commander-in-Chief of Austria-Hungary...

. On 6 of October 1915 Mackensen opened the offensive, as scheduled, with a powerful artillery barrage

Barrage

Barrage may refer to:In music* Barrage , a Canadian violin ensemble, or* Barrage , their self-titled debut albumIn engineering...

along the Sava-Danube

Danube

The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....

front and on the next day the main body of his forces crossed the rivers.

According to the convention Bulgaria was obliged to move against Serbia within 5 day of the German and Austo-Hungarian attack but owing to a delay in the concentration of some of the forces the schedule could not be kept. The Serbians were surprised by Bulgarian inactivity and were forced to begin shifting part of their forces from the Bulgarian boarder to face the Germans and Austro-Hungarians to the north, which eventually allowed their eastern neighbors to finish their preparations undisturbed. The Bulgarians deployed two field armies with a combined strength of almost 300,000 men. The 1st Army together with its four infantry divisions was placed under the command of Lieutenant General

Lieutenant General

Kliment Boyadzhiev

and was part of Army Group

Army group

An army group is a military organization consisting of several field armies, which is self-sufficient for indefinite periods. It is usually responsible for a particular geographic area...

Mackensen. The 2nd Army, which remained under the direct control of the Bulgarian commander in chief, consisted of two infantry and one cavalry division and was under the command of Lieutenant General

Lieutenant General

Georgi Todorov

Georgi Todorov (general)

Georgi Stoyanov Todorov was a Bulgarian General who fought in the Russo-Turkish War , Serbo-Bulgarian War , Balkan Wars and First World War .-Biography:At the age of 19 he volunteered in the Bulgarian Corps during the Russo-Turkish...

. The two armies were to operate against Old Serbia and Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

on a front stretching over 300 kilometers.

On 14 of October, with most of the preparations completed, Bulgaria finally declared war on Serbia and officially entered the First World War. Around this time the Germans and Austro-Hungarians had penetrated into Serbia on front that was 140 kilometer in length and 15 kilometers in depth. In order to close the 90 kilometer gap between the flanks of the German 11th Army and the Bulgarian 1st Army the Field Marshal Mackensen ordered the latter to invade the valley of the river Morava and take Nis

NIS

NiS may refer to:*Nickel sulfide NiSNis or NIS may refer to: * Niš, a city in south-eastern Serbia. * Ness, Western Isles , a village in the Outer Hebrides islands.In politics and government:...

and Aleksinac

Aleksinac

Aleksinac is a town which is a center of Aleksinac Municipality, located in the Nišava District of Serbia. According to 2011 census, the town has a population of 16,420 inhabitants, while the municipality has 51,462.-Name:...

. In accordance with this order the Bulgarians attacked along the entire front of their 1st Army, quickly driving out the Serbian units and taking control of the border area.[ Following this easy success however the speed of the advance was reduced significantly due to the bad weather, which turned roads into mud, and a dense fog that sometimes limited visibility to 50 meters. In addition the stiffening Serbian resistance and the mountainous character of the area caused the flanks of the 1st Army to halt before the fortresses of Pirot

Pirot

Pirot is a town and municipality located in south-eastern Serbia. According to 2011 census, the town has a total population of 38,432, while the population of the municipality is 57,911...

and Zaječar

Zajecar

Zaječar is a city and municipality in the eastern part of Serbia. According to the 2011 census the town has a population of 36,830, and its coordinates are 43.91° North, 22.30° East...

that were only 15 kilometers from the border. A breakthrough in the center of the front forced the Serbians to retreat and the two towns were occupied on 26 of October.

Despite its smaller size the Bulgarian 2nd Army achieved much greater success and completed it's first objective as early as 16 of October by taking the town of Vranje

Vranje

Vranje is a city and municipality located in southern Serbia. In 2011 the city has total population of 82,782, while the urban area has 54,456...

and severing all railway communications between Serbia and Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

. A small part of the army was then directed in the direction of Nis

NIS

NiS may refer to:*Nickel sulfide NiSNis or NIS may refer to: * Niš, a city in south-eastern Serbia. * Ness, Western Isles , a village in the Outer Hebrides islands.In politics and government:...

with the idea of assisting the 1st Army and cutting off the Serbian retreat routes. The remaining units advanced further west reaching Veles

Veles

and Kumanovo

Kumanovo

Kumanovo is a city in the Republic of Macedonia and is the seat of Kumanovo Municipality which is the largest municipality in the country. Municipal institutions include a city council, mayor and other administrative bodies.-Name:...

on 20 of October. During the fighting around Veles

Veles

other Bulgarian troops located around Krivolak and Strumitsa met in battle for the first time French forces that were finally advancing north in an attempt to aid the Serbians. The appearance of this new threat to the south forced the Bulgarian High Command to prepare the transportation of two more infantry divisions to Macedonia and divide the 2nd Army in two groups - a Northern Group operating against the Serbians and a Southern Group operating against the Allies. On 22 of October following a brief confrontation between Serbian and Bulgarian forces the town of Skopje

Skopje

Skopje is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Macedonia with about a third of the total population. It is the country's political, cultural, economic, and academic centre...

was taken and a detachment was sent to occupy the Kacanik

Kacanik

Kačanik or Kaçanik is a town and municipality in southern Kosovo, in the Uroševac district. The municipality covers an area of , including the town of Kačanik and 31 villages. It has a population of approximately 33,454...

pass and block the Serbian retreat. The rapid advance of the Bulgarian 2nd Army created favorable conditions for the encirclement of the entire Serbian Army fighting in Old Serbia. The Bulgarian High Command decided to focus this objective and ordered the forces operating against the Allies to the south to assume defensive positions.
The exploits of the Bulgarian 2nd Army in Macedonia convinced the Serbians that the danger of complete encirclement is high and forced them to begin withdrawing their forces to Kosovo

Kosovo

Kosovo is a region in southeastern Europe. Part of the Ottoman Empire for more than five centuries, later the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija within Serbia...

while offering stiff but not desperate resistance to Army Group Mackensen. On 1 of November Kragujevac

Kragujevac

Kragujevac is the fourth largest city in Serbia, the main city of the Šumadija region and the administrative centre of Šumadija District. It is situated on the banks of the Lepenica River...

fell to the Germans who began pursuing their opponents down the river Great Morava. Mackensen ordered is forces to "push the main body of the Serbian Army back and decisively beat it in the interior of Serbia". In accordance the Bulgarian 1st Army continued its advance and captured the war time capital of the Serbia Nis

NIS

NiS may refer to:*Nickel sulfide NiSNis or NIS may refer to: * Niš, a city in south-eastern Serbia. * Ness, Western Isles , a village in the Outer Hebrides islands.In politics and government:...

together with around 5,000 prisoners on 5 of November. On the same day the flanks of the German 11th Army and the Bulgarian 1st Army joined in a single line, closing the gap between them. Thus the main objectives of the Bulgarian Morava Offensive were completed but more importantly the main objective of the entire campaign was also completed and the land route from Austria-Humgary to Bulgaria was opened permanently.

The Serbian Army was now retreating and concentrating on the Kosovo

Kosovo

Kosovo is a region in southeastern Europe. Part of the Ottoman Empire for more than five centuries, later the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija within Serbia...

plain where they hoped to make a stand and buy time to either breakthrough and join the Allies in Macedonia or escape an encirclement. Under these circumstances the Bulgarian High Command and the headquarters of Army Group "Mackensen" agreed to pursue relentlessly the retreating Serbians, to cut its possible retreat routes and to undertake a decisive advance towards Pristina

Pristina

Pristina, also spelled Prishtina and Priština is the capital and largest city of Kosovo. It is the administrative centre of the homonymous municipality and district....

. The plan required the Bulgarian 1st Army to attack from the east, the reinforced Northern Operations Group of the Bulgarian 2nd Army from the south, parts of the German 11th army from the north and finally the main forces of the Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army from the northwest. The plan however didn't take into account the swollen waters of the river Morava which slowed down its crossing. As a result of this delay the Serbians concentrated greater forces against the Bulgarian 2nd Army, which was the main obstacle sitting between them and the Allies but also the greatest threat to their retreat routes leading in Albania

Albania

. Thus when the operation started the Serbians were not only able to resist heavily the 2nd Army but also to launch a desperate attempt to break through it at Kacanik

Kacanik

and reach the Allies. They were allowed to do so because of the slow advance of the Austro-German and Bulgarian forces from the North and East due to the bad weather, bad roads and overextended supply lines. Field Marshal

Field Marshal

Mackensen had even pulled back most of the 11th Army, leaving only two divisions in the first line which greatly reduced the already lacking will of the German forces to advance rapidly. Despite this the exhausted Serbians were not able to break through the Northern Group of the 2nd Army and retreated. Bulgarian attempts to to cut their retreat from the South were thwarted and when the Bulgarian 1st Army and the German 11th Army took Pristina

Pristina

Pristina, also spelled Prishtina and Priština is the capital and largest city of Kosovo. It is the administrative centre of the homonymous municipality and district....

on 23 of November the Serbian High Command was able to order a general retreat of the entire army to Albania

Albania

and avoid its the complete destruction. The pursuit of the retreating opponent was left mostly to Bulgarian and Austro-Hungarian forces and on 29 November the 3rd "Balkan" division took Prizren

Prizren

Prizren is a historical city located in southern Kosovo. It is the administrative center of the eponymous municipality and district.The city has a population of around 131,247 , mostly Albanians...

, within days the towns of Debar

Debar

Debar is a city in the western part of the Republic of Macedonia, near the border with Albania, on the road from Struga to Gostivar. It is the seat of Debar Municipality.-Geography:...

, Struga

Struga

Struga is a town and popular tourist destination situated in the south-western region of the Republic of Macedonia, lying on the shore of Lake Ohrid. The town of Struga is the seat of Struga Municipality.-Etymology:...

, Ohrid

Ohrid

were also occupied and finally on 4 of December the Bulgarians entered Bitola

Bitola

Bitola is a city in the southwestern part of the Republic of Macedonia. The city is an administrative, cultural, industrial, commercial, and educational centre. It is located in the southern part of the Pelagonia valley, surrounded by the Baba and Nidže mountains, 14 km north of the...

. This marked the end of the operations against the Serbian Army which continued it retreat through the Albanian mountains, losing around 55,000 men in the process. Around 150,000 Serbian troops gathered in different Albanian ports and were evacuated by Allied ships to the island of Korfu. This beaten and demoralized force had lost practically all its equipment and had to be rebuild from scratch.

In November, while the decisive Serbian defeat unfolded, the French attempted to exert pressure on the Bulgarian 2nd Army but were soon forced to halt their attempts to drive North. The forces of General Maurice Sarrail

Maurice Sarrail

Maurice-Paul-Emmanuel Sarrail was a French general of the First World War. Sarrail endeared himself to the political elite of the Third Republic through his openly socialist views, all the more conspicuous in contrast to the Catholics, conservatives and monarchists who dominated the French Army...

that consisted of three French and one British division dug in along a 80 kilometer front from the river Cherna to Lake Doiran. With the fall of Pristina

Pristina

Pristina, also spelled Prishtina and Priština is the capital and largest city of Kosovo. It is the administrative centre of the homonymous municipality and district....

Generail Sarrail realized that the Allies could no longer help the Serbians and decided to begin pulling back his forces to Salonika. The Bulgarian High Command shifted its focus to the Allies in Macedonia and decided that the time was right to go on the offensive. Several days however were lost in scouting and it was only on 3 of December that the 2nd army commenced a general advance but the French were able to retreat in good order towards Salonika. They were soon followed by the British who were defeated at Kosturino. On 11 of December the Bulgarian divisions reached the Greek border where they were ordered to halt and warned repeatedly not to cross the line.

By the middle of December the entire Kingdom of Serbia

Kingdom of Serbia

was occupied by the armies of the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

and the Allies were pushed back to Salonika by the Bulgarians. Within two months of its entry into the war Bulgaria achieved its main war goal - the conquest of Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia

Vardar Macedonia is an area in the north of the Macedonia . The borders of the area are those of the Republic of Macedonia. It covers an area of...

. For the duration of military operations against Serbia and the Entente in 1915 the Bulgarian Army committed a total of around 424,375 men while its casualties were around 37,000 men.

By the end of 1915 the Central Powers

Central Powers

The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...

established firm and unbroken control over a vast territory that stretched from the North Sea

North Sea

In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...

to the Persian Gulf

Persian Gulf

The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers...

. They also drew great political and military dividends from the defeat and occupation of Serbia. Bulgaria

Kingdom of Bulgaria

conquered almost all the territory it desired, Germany

German Empire

gained unrestricted access to the natural resources of Ottoman Asia, the Ottomans

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

received much needed German matériel assistance, Austria-Hungary

Austria-Hungary

secured its southern flank and could completely focus its attention on the Russian and Italian fronts.

Establishment and development of the Macedonian Front during 1916

1917 - Stalemate on the Macedonian Front

The aftermath

In September 1918 the Serbs, British, French and Greeks broke through on the Macedonian front and Tsar Ferdinand was forced to sue for peace. Stamboliyski favoured democratic reforms, not a revolution. In order to head off the revolutionaries, he persuaded Ferdinand to abdicate in favour of his son Boris III

Boris III of Bulgaria

. The revolutionaries were suppressed and the army disbanded. Under the Treaty of Neuilly

Treaty of Neuilly

The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, dealing with Bulgaria for its role as one of the Central Powers in World War I, was signed on 27 November 1919 at Neuilly-sur-Seine, France....

(November 1919), Bulgaria lost its Aegean coastline to Greece and nearly all of its Macedonian territory to the new state of Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....

, and had to give Dobruja back to the Romanians (see also Dobruja

Dobruja

Dobruja is a historical region shared by Bulgaria and Romania, located between the lower Danube river and the Black Sea, including the Danube Delta, Romanian coast and the northernmost part of the Bulgarian coast...

, Western Outlands, Western Thrace

Western Thrace

). Elections in March 1920 gave the Agrarians a large majority, and Stamboliyski formed Bulgaria's next government.

Stamboliyski faced huge social problems in what was still a poor country inhabited mostly by peasant smallholders. Bulgaria was saddled with huge war reparations to Yugoslavia and Romania, and had to deal with the problem of refugees as many native Bulgarian civilians had to leave Yugoslav Macedonia. Nevertheless Stamboliyski was able to carry through many social reforms, although opposition from the Tsar, the landlords and the officers of the much-reduced but still influential army was powerful. Another bitter enemy was the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO), which favoured a war to regain Macedonia for Bulgaria. Faced with this array of enemies, Stamboliyski allied himself with the Bulgarian Communist Party

Bulgarian Communist Party

The Bulgarian Communist Party was the communist and Marxist-Leninist ruling party of the People's Republic of Bulgaria from 1946 until 1990 when the country ceased to be a communist state...

and opened relations with the Soviet Union

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....

Ethnic Greeks and Turks

The Greek inhabitants of Eastern Rumelia

Eastern Rumelia

Eastern Rumelia or Eastern Roumelia was an administratively autonomous province in the Ottoman Empire and Principality of Bulgaria from 1878 to 1908. It was under full Bulgarian control from 1885 on, when it willingly united with the tributary Principality of Bulgaria after a bloodless revolution...

were concentrated on the coast, where they were strong in numbers, and certain cities in the interior such as Plovdiv

Plovdiv

Plovdiv is the second-largest city in Bulgaria after Sofia with a population of 338,153 inhabitants according to Census 2011. Plovdiv's history spans some 6,000 years, with traces of a Neolithic settlement dating to roughly 4000 BC; it is one of the oldest cities in Europe...

, where they formed a substantial minority. The Greek population of the region was largely exchanged with Bulgarians from the Greek provinces of Macedonia

Macedonia (Greece)

Macedonia is a geographical and historical region of Greece in Southern Europe. Macedonia is the largest and second most populous Greek region...

and Thrace

Western Thrace

in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

and World War I

World War I

. Today, there are about 1400 Greeks in the region. as well as about 4200 Karakachans (Sarakatsani

Sarakatsani

The Sarakatsani are a group of Greek transhumant shepherds inhabiting chiefly Greece, with a smaller presence in neighbouring Bulgaria, southern Albania and the Republic of Macedonia. Historically centered around the Pindus mountains, they have been currently urbanised to a significant degree...

)

Throughout the Balkan Wars

Balkan Wars

and World War I

World War I

, Bulgaria

Bulgaria

, Greece

Greece

Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....

and Turkey

Turkey

Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...

each forced respective minority populations in the Thrace

Thrace

region out of areas they controlled. A large population of Greek

Greeks

The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....

s in Eastern Thrace, and Black Sea

Black Sea

coastal and southern Bulgaria, was expelled south and west into Greek-controlled Thrace. Concurrently, a large population of Bulgarians was forced from the region into Bulgaria

Bulgaria

by Greek and Turkish

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

actions. Turkish

Turkish people

Turkish people, also known as the "Turks" , are an ethnic group primarily living in Turkey and in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire where Turkish minorities had been established in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, and Romania...

populations in the area were also targeted by Bulgarian and Greek forces and pushed eastward. As part of the Treaty of Neuilly

Treaty of Neuilly

The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, dealing with Bulgaria for its role as one of the Central Powers in World War I, was signed on 27 November 1919 at Neuilly-sur-Seine, France....

, and subsequent agreements, the status of the expelled populations was legitimized. This was followed by a further population exchange which radically changed the demographics of the region toward increased ethnic homogenization within the territories each respective country ultimately was awarded.

The interwar years

In March 1923 Stamboliyski signed an agreement with Yugoslavia recognising the new border and agreeing to suppress VMRO. This triggered a nationalist reaction, and on June 9 there was a coup in which Stamboliykski was assassinated (beheaded). A right wing government under Aleksandar Tsankov

Aleksandar Tsankov

Aleksander Tsolov Tsankov was a leading Bulgarian right wing politician between the two World Wars.-Biography:...

took power, backed by the Tsar, the army and the VMRO, who waged a White terror

White Terror

White Terror is the violence carried out by reactionary groups as part of a counter-revolution. In particular, during the 20th century, in several countries the term White Terror was applied to acts of violence against real or suspected socialists and communists.-Historical origin: the French...

against the Agrarians and the Communists. The Communist leader Georgi Dimitrov

Georgi Dimitrov

Georgi Dimitrov Mikhaylov , also known as Georgi Mikhaylovich Dimitrov , was a Bulgarian Communist politician...

fled to the Soviet Union. There was savage repression in 1925 following the second of two failed attempts on the Tsar's life in the bomb attack on Sofia Cathedral

St Nedelya Church assault

The St Nedelya Church assault was an attack upon St. Nedelya Church in Bulgaria. It was carried out on 16 April 1925, when a group of the Bulgarian Communist Party blew up the roof of the St Nedelya Church in the capital Sofia. This occurred during the funeral service of General Konstantin...

(the first attempt took place in the mountain pass of Arabakonak). But in 1926 the Tsar persuaded Tsankov to resign and a more moderate government under Andrey Lyapchev took office. An amnesty was proclaimed, although the Communists remained banned. The Agrarians reorganised and won elections in 1931 under the leadership of Nikola Mushanov

Nikola Mushanov

Nikola Stoykov Mushanov was a Bulgarian liberal politician who served as Prime Minister and leader of the Democratic Party....

.

Just when political stability had been restored, the full effects of the Great Depression

Great Depression

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...

hit Bulgaria, and social tensions rose again. In May 1934 there was another coup, the Agrarians were again suppressed, and an authoritarian regime headed by Kimon Georgiev

Kimon Georgiev

Colonel General Kimon Georgiev Stoyanov was a Bulgarian general and prime minister.Born at Pazardzhik, Kimon Georgiev graduated from the Sofia military academy in 1902. He participated in the Balkan Wars as a company commander and in the First World War as a commander of a battalion. In 1916 he...

established with the backing of Tsar Boris. In April 1935 Boris took power himself, ruling through puppet Prime Ministers Georgi Kyoseivanov

Georgi Kyoseivanov

Georgi Ivanov Kyoseivanov was a Bulgarian politician who went on to serve as Prime Minister.Kyoseivanov came to power on 23 November 1935 after a period in which the country had had three Prime Ministers in quick succession...

(1935–40) and Bogdan Filov

Bogdan Filov

Bogdan Dimitrov Filov was a Bulgarian archaeologist, art historian and politician. He was Prime Minister of Bulgaria during World War II. During his service, Bulgaria became the seventh nation to join the Axis Powers....

(1940–43). The Tsar's regime banned all opposition parties and took Bulgaria into alliance with Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...

and Fascist Italy

Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)

The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...

. Although the signing of the Balkan Pact

Balkan Pact

The Balkan Pact was a treaty signed by Greece, Turkey, Romania and Yugoslavia on February 9, 1934 in Athens, aimed at maintaining the geopolitical status quo in the region following World War I...

of 1938 restored good relations with Yugoslavia and Greece, the territorial issue continued to simmer.

In literature

The story ¨Kradetzat na praskovi¨ (English: "The Thief of Peaches") depicts the love story between a Bulgarian colonel's wife and a Serbian prisoner of war. The First World War is so far best presented in that story by the late Emiliyan Stanev, one of the greatest Bulgarian writers.

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