London Clay
Encyclopedia
The London Clay Formation is a marine geological formation of Ypresian
(Lower Eocene
Epoch, c. 56-49 Ma) age which crops out
in the southeast of England
. The London Clay is well known for the fossil
s it contains. The fossils from the Lower Eocene indicate a moderately warm climate, the flora being tropical or subtropical. Though sea level
s changed during the deposition of the Clay, the habitat
was generally a lush forest - perhaps like in Indonesia
or East Africa
today - bordering a warm, shallow ocean.
The London Clay consists of a stiff, bluish coloured clay
which becomes brown when weathered. Nodular lumps of pyrite
and crystals of selenite (sometimes called "waterstones") frequently occur within the clay, and large septarian concretions
are also common. These have been used in the past for the manufacturing of cement. They were once dug for this purpose at Sheppey, near Sittingbourne
, and at Harwich
, and also dredged off the Hampshire
coast. The clay itself has been used commercially for making brick
s, tiles, and coarse pottery. It is infertile for gardens and crops.
, where it thins westwards from around 150 metres (492.1 ft) in Essex and north Kent to around 4.6 metres (15.1 ft) in Wiltshire
. though it is not frequently exposed as it is to a great extent covered by more recent neogene
sediments and Pleistocene
gravel deposits. One location of particular interest is Oxshott Heath
, where the overlying sand and the London Clay layers are exposed as a sand escarpment, rising approximately 25 metres. This supported a thriving brick industry in the area until the 1960s. The London Clay is also well developed in the Hampshire Basin
, where an exposure 91 metres (298.6 ft) thick occurs at Whitecliff Bay
on the Isle of Wight
and around 101 metres (331.4 ft) is spread along 6 km of foreshore at Bognor Regis
, West Sussex
.
followed by shallowing of the sea) have been found, most markedly at the shallower, western end. Each cycle begins with coarser material (sometimes including rounded flint pebbles), followed by clay which becomes increasingly sandy. The final cycle ends with the Claygate Beds.
The youngest part of the London Clay, known as the Claygate Beds or Claygate Member forms a transition between the clay and the sandier Bagshot Beds
above. This is shown separately on many geological maps, and often caps hills. It is up to 15 metres (49.2 ft) thick at Claygate
, Surrey. It is now believed to be diachronous
, with the formation at Claygate for example being the same age as the end of the fourth cycle of deposition further east.
in Kent
and Walton-on-the-Naze
, Essex
in the London Basin, and Bognor Regis
in the Hampshire Basin.
Animal fossils include bivalves
, gastropods, nautilus
, worm tubes, brittle star
s and starfish, crab
s, lobster
s, fish
(including shark
and ray
teeth), reptile
s (particularly turtle
s), and a large diversity of bird
s. A few mammal
remains have also been recorded. Preservation varies; articulated skeletons are generally rare. Of fish, isolated teeth are very frequent. Bird bones are not infrequently encountered compared to other lagerstätte
n, but usually occur as single bones and are often broken.
Plant fossils, including seeds and fruits, may also be found in abundance. The flora demonstrates the much hotter climate of that time, with plants such as Nypa
(Nipah palms) being frequently encountered. Plant fossils have been collected from the London Clay for almost 300 years. Some 350 named species of plant have been found, making the London Clay flora one of the world's most varied for fossil seeds and fruits.
The following species list follows Clouter (2007).
Snakes
Turtles and tortoises
itself, providing a soft yet stable environment for tunnel
ling, was instrumental in the early development of the London Underground
, although this is also the reason why London has no true skyscraper
buildings, at least to the same degree as many other cities throughout the world. Erecting tall buildings in London requires very deep, large and costly piled foundations.
London Clay is highly susceptible to volumetric changes depending upon its moisture content. During exceptionally dry periods or where the moisture is extracted by tree root activity, the clay can become desiccated and shrink in volume, and conversely swell again when the moisture content is restored. This can lead to many problems near the ground surface, including structural movement and fracturing of buildings, fractured sewers and service pipes/ducts and uneven and damaged road surfaces and pavings. Such damage is recognised to be covered by the interpretation of subsidence
in buildings insurance policies, and the periods of dry weather in 1976/77 and 1988/92, in particular, led to a host of insurance claims. As a result, many insurance companies have now increased the cost of premiums for buildings located in the most susceptible areas where damage occurred, where the clay is close to the surface.
Ypresian
In the geologic timescale the Ypresian is the oldest age or lowest stratigraphic stage of the Eocene. It spans the time between and , is preceded by the Thanetian age and is followed by the Eocene Lutetian age....
(Lower Eocene
Eocene
The Eocene Epoch, lasting from about 56 to 34 million years ago , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Palaeocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the...
Epoch, c. 56-49 Ma) age which crops out
Outcrop
An outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth. -Features:Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be...
in the southeast of England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
. The London Clay is well known for the fossil
Fossil
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals , plants, and other organisms from the remote past...
s it contains. The fossils from the Lower Eocene indicate a moderately warm climate, the flora being tropical or subtropical. Though sea level
Sea level
Mean sea level is a measure of the average height of the ocean's surface ; used as a standard in reckoning land elevation...
s changed during the deposition of the Clay, the habitat
Habitat
* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows*Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play** Space habitat, a space station intended as a permanent settlement...
was generally a lush forest - perhaps like in Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
or East Africa
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
today - bordering a warm, shallow ocean.
The London Clay consists of a stiff, bluish coloured clay
Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.- Formation :Clay minerals...
which becomes brown when weathered. Nodular lumps of pyrite
Pyrite
The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is an iron sulfide with the formula FeS2. This mineral's metallic luster and pale-to-normal, brass-yellow hue have earned it the nickname fool's gold because of its resemblance to gold...
and crystals of selenite (sometimes called "waterstones") frequently occur within the clay, and large septarian concretions
Concretion
A concretion is a volume of sedimentary rock in which a mineral cement fills the porosity . Concretions are often ovoid or spherical in shape, although irregular shapes also occur. The word 'concretion' is derived from the Latin con meaning 'together' and crescere meaning 'to grow'...
are also common. These have been used in the past for the manufacturing of cement. They were once dug for this purpose at Sheppey, near Sittingbourne
Sittingbourne
Sittingbourne is an industrial town about eight miles east of Gillingham in England, beside the Roman Watling Street off a creek in the Swale, a channel separating the Isle of Sheppey from mainland Kent...
, and at Harwich
Harwich
Harwich is a town in Essex, England and one of the Haven ports, located on the coast with the North Sea to the east. It is in the Tendring district. Nearby places include Felixstowe to the northeast, Ipswich to the northwest, Colchester to the southwest and Clacton-on-Sea to the south...
, and also dredged off the Hampshire
Hampshire
Hampshire is a county on the southern coast of England in the United Kingdom. The county town of Hampshire is Winchester, a historic cathedral city that was once the capital of England. Hampshire is notable for housing the original birthplaces of the Royal Navy, British Army, and Royal Air Force...
coast. The clay itself has been used commercially for making brick
Brick
A brick is a block of ceramic material used in masonry construction, usually laid using various kinds of mortar. It has been regarded as one of the longest lasting and strongest building materials used throughout history.-History:...
s, tiles, and coarse pottery. It is infertile for gardens and crops.
Distribution
The London Clay is well developed in the London BasinLondon Basin
The London Basin is an elongated, roughly triangular sedimentary basin approximately long which underlies London and a large area of south east England, south eastern East Anglia and the adjacent North Sea...
, where it thins westwards from around 150 metres (492.1 ft) in Essex and north Kent to around 4.6 metres (15.1 ft) in Wiltshire
Wiltshire
Wiltshire is a ceremonial county in South West England. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Hampshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Berkshire. It contains the unitary authority of Swindon and covers...
. though it is not frequently exposed as it is to a great extent covered by more recent neogene
Neogene
The Neogene is a geologic period and system in the International Commission on Stratigraphy Geologic Timescale starting 23.03 ± 0.05 million years ago and ending 2.588 million years ago...
sediments and Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
gravel deposits. One location of particular interest is Oxshott Heath
Oxshott Heath
Oxshott Heath and Woods is an area of woods and heathland in Oxshott, Surrey, England covering approximately 200 acres and having an interesting geology where the London Clay stratum meets the overlying sand stratum and emerges to the surface. This has created a sand escarpment, from which views to...
, where the overlying sand and the London Clay layers are exposed as a sand escarpment, rising approximately 25 metres. This supported a thriving brick industry in the area until the 1960s. The London Clay is also well developed in the Hampshire Basin
Hampshire Basin
The Hampshire Basin is a geological basin of Paleogene age in southern England, underlying parts of Hampshire, the Isle of Wight, Dorset, and Sussex...
, where an exposure 91 metres (298.6 ft) thick occurs at Whitecliff Bay
Whitecliff Bay
Whitecliff Bay is a sandy bay near the easternmost point of the Isle of Wight, England about 2 miles south-west of Bembridge and just to the north of Culver Down. It is a tourist site , has a popular beach with two hundred metres of sand and shingle, and minimal facilities including 2 cafes...
on the Isle of Wight
Isle of Wight
The Isle of Wight is a county and the largest island of England, located in the English Channel, on average about 2–4 miles off the south coast of the county of Hampshire, separated from the mainland by a strait called the Solent...
and around 101 metres (331.4 ft) is spread along 6 km of foreshore at Bognor Regis
Bognor Regis
Bognor Regis is a seaside resort town and civil parish in the Arun district of West Sussex, on the south coast of England. It is south-south-west of London, west of Brighton, and south-east of the city of Chichester. Other nearby towns include Littlehampton east-north-east and Selsey to the...
, West Sussex
West Sussex
West Sussex is a county in the south of England, bordering onto East Sussex , Hampshire and Surrey. The county of Sussex has been divided into East and West since the 12th century, and obtained separate county councils in 1888, but it remained a single ceremonial county until 1974 and the coming...
.
Formation
The clay was deposited in a sea up to 200 metres (656.2 ft) deep at the eastern end. Up to five cycles of deposition (representing transgressionTransgression (geology)
A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground, resulting in flooding. Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water...
followed by shallowing of the sea) have been found, most markedly at the shallower, western end. Each cycle begins with coarser material (sometimes including rounded flint pebbles), followed by clay which becomes increasingly sandy. The final cycle ends with the Claygate Beds.
Tunnels in London Clay
The London Clay is an ideal medium for driving tunnels, which is why the London tube railway network expanded so quickly North of the Thames, but South of the Thames the London Clay is much deeper, and the stratum is water-bearing sand and gravel (not good for tunnelling) at tube level, which is why there are few tube tunnels there. London Clay has a stand-up time long enough to enable support to be installed without urgency. It is also almost waterproof, resulting in virtually no seepage of ground-water into the tunnel. It is over-consolidated, which means that it is under pressure, and expands upon excavation, thus gradually loading the support, i.e. it is not necessary to stress the support against the ground. Sometimes the London Clay is prettily coloured, and is called shepherd's plaid, but generally the colours disappear when the clay is fired.Claygate Beds
The youngest part of the London Clay, known as the Claygate Beds or Claygate Member forms a transition between the clay and the sandier Bagshot Beds
Bagshot Beds
In geology, the Bagshot Beds are a series of sands and clays of shallow-water origin, some being fresh-water, some marine. They belong to the upper Eocene formation of the London and Hampshire basins, in England and derive their name from Bagshot Heath in Surrey. They are also well developed in...
above. This is shown separately on many geological maps, and often caps hills. It is up to 15 metres (49.2 ft) thick at Claygate
Claygate
Claygate is a village in the English county of Surrey, approximately south west of London and within the Metropolitan Green Belt.It is primarily a residential area but with offices, farms and two shopping areas with a supermarket, five pubs and numerous restaurants...
, Surrey. It is now believed to be diachronous
Diachronous
A diachronous deposit in Geology is a sedimentary rock formation in which apparently similar material varies in age from place to place....
, with the formation at Claygate for example being the same age as the end of the fourth cycle of deposition further east.
Fossil fauna and flora
Notable coastal exposures from which fossils can be collected are on the Isle of SheppeyIsle of Sheppey
The Isle of Sheppey is an island off the northern coast of Kent, England in the Thames Estuary, some to the east of London. It has an area of . The island forms part of the local government district of Swale...
in Kent
Kent
Kent is a county in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of...
and Walton-on-the-Naze
Walton-on-the-Naze
Walton-on-the-Naze is a small town in Essex, England, on the North Sea coast in the Tendring district. It is north of Clacton and south of the port of Harwich. It abuts Frinton-on-Sea to the south, and is part of the parish of Frinton and Walton. It is a resort town, with a permanent population of...
, Essex
Essex
Essex is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East region of England, and one of the home counties. It is located to the northeast of Greater London. It borders with Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent to the South and London to the south west...
in the London Basin, and Bognor Regis
Bognor Regis
Bognor Regis is a seaside resort town and civil parish in the Arun district of West Sussex, on the south coast of England. It is south-south-west of London, west of Brighton, and south-east of the city of Chichester. Other nearby towns include Littlehampton east-north-east and Selsey to the...
in the Hampshire Basin.
Animal fossils include bivalves
Bivalvia
Bivalvia is a taxonomic class of marine and freshwater molluscs. This class includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and many other families of molluscs that have two hinged shells...
, gastropods, nautilus
Nautilus
Nautilus is the common name of marine creatures of cephalopod family Nautilidae, the sole extant family of the superfamily Nautilaceae and of its smaller but near equal suborder, Nautilina. It comprises six living species in two genera, the type of which is the genus Nautilus...
, worm tubes, brittle star
Brittle star
Brittle stars or ophiuroids are echinoderms in the class Ophiuroidea closely related to starfish. They crawl across the seafloor using their flexible arms for locomotion. The ophiuroids generally have five long slender, whip-like arms which may reach up to in length on the largest specimens...
s and starfish, crab
Crab
True crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" , or where the reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax...
s, lobster
Lobster
Clawed lobsters comprise a family of large marine crustaceans. Highly prized as seafood, lobsters are economically important, and are often one of the most profitable commodities in coastal areas they populate.Though several groups of crustaceans are known as lobsters, the clawed lobsters are most...
s, fish
Fish
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups...
(including shark
Shark
Sharks are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 420 million years ago....
and ray
Batoidea
Batoidea is a superorder of cartilaginous fish commonly known as rays and skates, containing more than 500 described species in thirteen families...
teeth), reptile
Reptile
Reptiles are members of a class of air-breathing, ectothermic vertebrates which are characterized by laying shelled eggs , and having skin covered in scales and/or scutes. They are tetrapods, either having four limbs or being descended from four-limbed ancestors...
s (particularly turtle
Turtle
Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines , characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a shield...
s), and a large diversity of bird
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
s. A few mammal
Mammal
Mammals are members of a class of air-breathing vertebrate animals characterised by the possession of endothermy, hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands functional in mothers with young...
remains have also been recorded. Preservation varies; articulated skeletons are generally rare. Of fish, isolated teeth are very frequent. Bird bones are not infrequently encountered compared to other lagerstätte
Lagerstätte
A Lagerstätte is a sedimentary deposit that exhibits extraordinary fossil richness or completeness.Palaeontologists distinguish two kinds....
n, but usually occur as single bones and are often broken.
Plant fossils, including seeds and fruits, may also be found in abundance. The flora demonstrates the much hotter climate of that time, with plants such as Nypa
Nypa fruticans
Nypa fruticans, known as the attap palm , nipa palm , and mangrove palm or buah atap , buah nipah , dừa nước , Ging Pol in Sinhala in Sri Lanka and gol pata , dani . It is the only palm considered a mangrove in the Mangroves Biome...
(Nipah palms) being frequently encountered. Plant fossils have been collected from the London Clay for almost 300 years. Some 350 named species of plant have been found, making the London Clay flora one of the world's most varied for fossil seeds and fruits.
The following species list follows Clouter (2007).
Mammals
- Argillotherium
- CoryphodonCoryphodonCoryphodon is an extinct genus of mammal. It was widespread in North America between 59 and 51 million years ago. It is regarded as the ancestor of the genus Hypercoryphodon of Mid Eocene Mongolia....
eocaenus – a pantodont - HyracotheriumHyracotheriumHyracotherium , also known as Eohippus or the dawn horse, is an extinct genus of very small perissodactyl ungulates that lived in the woodlands of the northern hemisphere, with species ranging throughout Asia, Europe, and North America during the early Tertiary Period and the early to mid Eocene...
– the famous horseHorseThe horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
ancestor - OxyaenaOxyaenaOxyaena is an extinct genus of extinct creodont mammal from the latest Paleocene to early Eocene of North America . The species were superficially cat or wolverine-like, with a flexible body long, and short limbs.Oxyaena had a broad, low skull Oxyaena ("Sharp" or "Drawn-out" + hyena) is an...
– a creodont
Birds
- AnatalavisAnatalavisAnatalavis is genus of prehistoric birds related to ducks and geese, perhaps in particular the Magpie-goose. The species Anatalavis rex - formerly placed in Telmatornis - is known from the Hornerstown Formation of New Jersey...
oxfordi – a waterbird possibly related to the Magpie-gooseMagpie-gooseThe Magpie Goose is a waterbird species found in coastal northern Australia and savannah in southern New Guinea. It is a unique member of the order Anseriformes, and arranged in a family and genus distinct from all other living waterfowl...
of AustraliaAustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area... - Argillipes – perhaps a landfowlGalliformesGalliformes are an order of heavy-bodied ground-feeding domestic or game bird, containing turkey, grouse, chicken, New and Old World Quail, ptarmigan, partridge, pheasant, and the Cracidae. Common names are gamefowl or gamebirds, landfowl, gallinaceous birds or galliforms...
- DasornisDasornisDasornis is a genus of the prehistoric pseudotooth birds. These were probably rather close relatives of either pelicans and storks, or of waterfowl, and are here placed in the order Odontopterygiformes to account for this uncertainty....
, OdontopteryxOdontopteryxOdontopteryx is a genus of the prehistoric pseudotooth birds or pelagornithids. These were probably rather close relatives of either pelicans and storks, or of waterfowl, and are here placed in the order Odontopterygiformes to account for this uncertainty....
and PseudodontornisPseudodontornisPseudodontornis is a rather disputed genus of the prehistoric pseudotooth birds. The pseudotooth birds or pelagornithids were probably rather close relatives of either pelicans and storks, or of waterfowl, and are here placed in the order Odontopterygiformes to account for this uncertainty...
– pseudo-tooth birds - Eocolius – a coliiform
- EostrixEostrixEostrix is an extinct genus of the family Protostrigidae from early Eocene of Wyoming and the London Clay of England. It was erected by Pierce Brodkorb in 1971 to place a fossil species known until that time as Protostrix mimica....
– an owlOwlOwls are a group of birds that belong to the order Strigiformes, constituting 200 bird of prey species. Most are solitary and nocturnal, with some exceptions . Owls hunt mostly small mammals, insects, and other birds, although a few species specialize in hunting fish... - Halcyornis – a parrotParrotParrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 372 species in 86 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three families: the Psittacidae , the Cacatuidae and the Strigopidae...
or roller relative - LithornisLithornisLithornis is a genus of extinct paleognathous birds. Lithornis were able to fly well, but are closely related to today's tinamous and ratites ....
and Promusophaga – paleognaths - Parvigyps – perhaps a diurnal raptorFalconiformesThe order Falconiformes is a group of about 290 species of birds that comprises the diurnal birds of prey. Raptor classification is difficult and the order is treated in several ways.- Classification problems :...
- Pediorallus – a paleognath or landfowl
- Percolinus – perhaps another landfowl
- "PrecursorPrecursor (bird)"Precursor" is a controversial prehistoric bird genus from the Early Eocene. It was established based on fossils found in England, e.g. in the famous London Clay deposits...
" – apparently a chimera of CharadriiformesCharadriiformesCharadriiformes is a diverse order of small to medium-large birds. It includes about 350 species and has members in all parts of the world. Most Charadriiformes live near water and eat invertebrates or other small animals; however, some are pelagic , some occupy deserts and a few are found in thick...
and Psittaciformes (and possibly other) bones - PrimapusPrimapusPrimapus is an extinct genus of apodiform bird from the Early Eocene of the United Kingdom. Its fossils were found in the London Clay, which was deposited around 50 million years ago. The type species is P. lacki.-Sources:...
– a swiftSwiftThe swifts are a family, Apodidae, of highly aerial birds. They are superficially similar to swallows, but are actually not closely related to passerine species at all; swifts are in the separate order Apodiformes, which they share with hummingbirds...
-like bird - Primodroma – a tubenoseProcellariiformesProcellariiformes is an order of seabirds that comprises four families: the albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters, storm petrels, and diving petrels...
, possibly a storm-petrelStorm-petrelStorm petrels are seabirds in the family Hydrobatidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. These smallest of seabirds feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like.Storm petrels have a cosmopolitan... - ProphaetonProphaetonProphaethon is an extinct genus of seabird that lived during the Early Eocene . It is essentially known from fairly comprehensive remains of a single individual, namely skull and some limb bones, which were recovered from the London Clay on the Isle of Sheppey, England...
– a tropicbirdTropicbirdTropicbirds are a family, Phaethontidae, of tropical pelagic seabirds now classified in their own order Phaethontiformes. Their relationship to other living birds is unclear, and they appear to have no close relatives. There are three species in one genus, Phaethon...
s relative - Proherodius – another waterbird
- Proplegardis – a storkStorkStorks are large, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long, stout bills. They belong to the family Ciconiidae. They are the only family in the biological order Ciconiiformes, which was once much larger and held a number of families....
or ibisIbisThe ibises are a group of long-legged wading birds in the family Threskiornithidae.... - Pulchrapollia – a parrotParrotParrots, also known as psittacines , are birds of the roughly 372 species in 86 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three families: the Psittacidae , the Cacatuidae and the Strigopidae...
relative - Stintonornis – probably a hawkHawkThe term hawk can be used in several ways:* In strict usage in Australia and Africa, to mean any of the species in the subfamily Accipitrinae, which comprises the genera Accipiter, Micronisus, Melierax, Urotriorchis and Megatriorchis. The large and widespread Accipiter genus includes goshawks,...
relative
Reptiles
Crocodilians- DiplocynodonDiplocynodonDiplocynodon is an extinct genus of alligatoroid that lived during the Paleocene to middle Miocene 49 million years ago in Europe. It looked very similar to the modern caiman in that it was small and had bony armour scutes covering its neck, back, belly, and tail...
– an alligatorAlligatorAn alligator is a crocodilian in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. There are two extant alligator species: the American alligator and the Chinese alligator .... - Crocodilus spenceri – a crocodileCrocodileA crocodile is any species belonging to the family Crocodylidae . The term can also be used more loosely to include all extant members of the order Crocodilia: i.e...
Snakes
- PalaeophisPalaeophisPalaeophis is an extinct genus of snake. The sea-dwelling creature was initially thought to have been the largest snake ever, reaching the almost mythical length of 30–40 m , but recent estimates put its length at about 9 m , about as long as the modern green anaconda and reticulated python....
toliapicus and P. typhaeus
Turtles and tortoises
- AllaeochelysAllaeochelysAllaeochelys is an extinct genus of pig-nosed turtle....
– a pig-nosed turtle - ArgillochelysArgillochelysArgillochelys is an extinct genus of sea turtle from the middle to lower Eocene in what is now Britain. It was first named by Lydekker in 1889.-External links:* at the Paleobiology Database*...
, EocheloneEocheloneEochelone is an extinct genus of sea turtle from the late Eocene. It was first named by Dollo in 1903. Its type species is E. brabantica.-References:* * in the Paleobiology Database...
, Puppigerus and "Thalassochelys" sp. – true sea-turtlesCheloniidaeCheloniidae is a family of turtles belonging to the sea turtle superfamily Chelonioidea.-Extant genera:*Genus Caretta**Loggerhead sea turtle *Genus Chelonia**Green sea turtle *Genus Eretmochelys... - Chrysemys bicarinata and C. testudiniformis – pond turtles
- EosphargisEosphargisEosphargis is an extinct genus of sea turtle from the Eocene of Africa, Europe, and North America. It was first named by Richard Lydekker in 1889, and contains one species, E. gigas. The species is also known as Anglocetus beatsoni....
– a leatherback sea-turtleDermochelyidaeDermochelyidae is a family of turtles which has eight extinct and one extant genera.-Classification of known genera:*Subfamily Desmatochelyinae** Corochelys ** Desmatochelys *Subfamily Allopleuroninae ** Allopleuron ** Eosphargis... - HomopusHomopusHomopus is a genus of tiny tortoises in the Testudinidae family. As a group, they are commonly known as "Cape tortoises" or "padlopers" , and include the smallest tortoises in the world....
comptoni – a tortoiseTortoiseTortoises are a family of land-dwelling reptiles of the order of turtles . Like their marine cousins, the sea turtles, tortoises are shielded from predators by a shell. The top part of the shell is the carapace, the underside is the plastron, and the two are connected by the bridge. The tortoise... - Lytoloma crassicostatum and L. planimentum – prehistoric sea-turtles
- Palaeaspis – an African sideneck turtle
- PodocnemisPodocnemisPodocnemis is a genus of aquatic turtles commonly known as South American River Turtles. The genus consists of six species occurring throughout South America.-Species:* Podocnemis erythrocephala - Red-headed Amazon River turtle...
bowerbanki – an American sideneck turtle - Trionyx pustulatus and T. sp. – softshell turtles
- Dacochelys and Pseudotrionyx – incertae sedisIncertae sedis, is a term used to define a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Uncertainty at specific taxonomic levels is attributed by , , and similar terms.-Examples:*The fossil plant Paradinandra suecica could not be assigned to any...
Bony fish
- AcestrusAcestrusAcestrus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
elongatus, A. ornatus, AglyptorhynchusAglyptorhynchusAglyptorhynchus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
sulcatus, A. venablasi, XiphiorhynchusXiphiorhynchusXiphiorhynchus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish-External links:*...
parvus and X priscus – swordfishSwordfishSwordfish , also known as broadbill in some countries, are large, highly migratory, predatory fish characterized by a long, flat bill. They are a popular sport fish of the billfish category, though elusive. Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood...
relatives - AcipenserAcipenserAcipenser is genus of sturgeons. With about 19 species, many of which are threatened, it is the largest genus in the order Acipenseriformes.-Species:*Acipenser baerii J. F. Brandt, 1869**Acipenser baerii baerii J. F...
toliapicus – a true sturgeonSturgeonSturgeon is the common name used for some 26 species of fish in the family Acipenseridae, including the genera Acipenser, Huso, Scaphirhynchus and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. The term includes over 20 species commonly referred to as sturgeon and several closely related species that have distinct common... - Albula oweni – a bonefishBonefishesThe bonefishes are a family of ray-finned fish that are popular as game fish in Florida, select locations in the South Pacific, and the Bahamas and elsewhere. The family is small, with twelve species in two genera.Presently the bonefishes are in their own order: Albuliformes...
- AmpheristusAmpheristusAmpheristus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
toliapicus – a scorpionfishScorpionfishScorpaenidae, the scorpionfish, are a family of mostly marine fish that includes many of the world's most venomous species. As the name suggests, scorpionfish have a type of "sting" in the form of sharp spines coated with venomous mucus. The family is a large one, with hundreds of members. They are... - ArdiodusArdiodusArdiodus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
marriotti – incertae sedisIncertae sedis, is a term used to define a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Uncertainty at specific taxonomic levels is attributed by , , and similar terms.-Examples:*The fossil plant Paradinandra suecica could not be assigned to any... - ArgillichthysArgillichthysArgillichthys is a genus of prehistoric fish.-References:http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=35557&is_real_user=1...
toombsi – a lancetfishLancetfishLancetfishes are large oceanic predatory fishes in the genus Alepisaurus , the only living genus in the family Alepisauridae....
relative - AulopopsisAulopopsisAulopopsis is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
depressifrons, A. egertoni and LabrophagusLabrophagusLabrophagus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
esocinus – aulopusAulopidaeThe Aulopidae are a small family of aulopiform fish, containing the single genus Aulopus. They are found in most tropical and subtropical oceans, being absent only in the eastern Pacific and commonly known as flagfins....
es - BeerichthysBeerichthysBeerichthys is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
ingens and B. sp. – Two species of luvar or luvar-like fish - BramoidesBramoidesBramoides is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
brieni and GoniocranionGoniocranionGoniocranion is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
arambourgi – pomfretPomfretPomfret are perciform fishes belonging to the family Bramidae.They are found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, and the largest species, the Atlantic pomfret, Brama brama, grows up to long....
s - BrychaetusBrychaetusBrychaetus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish, known from the Late Cretaceous to the Paleocene. It contains a single species, Brychaetus muelleri Its fossils have been found in Europe, North America, and northern Africa. This freshwater fish had very long, blunt teeth.-See also:*...
muelleri – an arowanaArowanaArowanas are freshwater bony fish of the family Osteoglossidae, also known as bonytongues. In this family of fishes, the head is bony and the elongate body is covered by large, heavy scales, with a mosaic pattern of canals. The dorsal and the anal fins have soft rays and are long based, while the...
- Bucklandium diluvii – a naked catfishBagridaeBagridae are a family of catfish that originate from Africa and Asia from Japan to Borneo. These fish are commonly known as naked catfishes or bagrid catfishes.Large Bagrids are important as food fish. Some species are kept as aquarium fishes....
- CylindracanthusCylindracanthusCylindracanthus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish-External links:*...
rectus and HemirhabdorhynchusHemirhabdorhynchusHemirhabdorhynchus is an extinct genus of prehistoric Actinopterygii, or ray-finned fish, that lived from the early to middle Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
elliotti – Blochiidae - CymbiumCymbium (gastropod)Cymbium is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Volutidae.-Species:Species within the genus Cymbium include:* Cymbium cucumis Röding, 1798* Cymbium cymbium...
proosti, EocoelopomaEocoelopomaEocoelopoma is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
colei, E. curvatum, E. gigas, E. hopwoodi, EothynnusEothynnusEothynnus salmonens is an extinct species of prehistoric jackfish that lived during the lower Eocene of what is now the Isle of Sheppey Eothynnus salmonens is an extinct species of prehistoric jackfish that lived during the lower Eocene of what is now the Isle of Sheppey Eothynnus salmonens is an...
salmoneus, ScombramphodonScombramphodonScombramphodon is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived from the early to middle Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
crassidens, S. sheppeyensis, ScombrinusScombrinusScombrinus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
macropomus, S. nuchalis, SphyraenodusSphyraenodusSphyraenodus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish-External links:*...
priscus, Tamesichthys decipiens, WetherellusWetherellusWetherellus is an extinct genus of mackerel from the Eocene....
brevior, W. cristatus, W. longior and WoodwardellaWoodwardellaWoodwardella is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
patellifrons – mackerel and tuna relativesScombridaeScombridae is the family of the mackerels, tunas, and bonitos, and thus includes many of the most important and familiar food fishes. The family consists of about 55 species in 15 genera and two subfamilies... - DiodonDiodonMembers of the diodontidae, species of the genus diodon are usually known as porcupinefishes or balloonfishes.-Distinguishing features:Fish of the genus Diodon have;...
sp. – a porcupinefishPorcupinefishPorcupinefish are fish of the family Diodontidae, , also commonly called blowfish .... - EgertoniaEgertoniaEgertonia is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
isodonta and Phyllodus toliapicus – Phyllodontidae - Elops sp., EsocelopsEsocelopsEsocelops is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
cavifrons, Megalops oblongus, M. priscus, PromegalopsPromegalopsPromegalops is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
sheppeyensis and P. signeuxae – ladyfishElopidaeElopidae is a family of ray-finned fish containing the single genus Elops. They are commonly known as ladyfishes, skipjacks, Jack-Rashes, or tenpounders....
- EnniskillenusEnniskillenusEnniskillenus is a genus of prehistoric fish that was described by Casier in 1966.-References:* , Paleobiology Database...
radiatus – acanthomorphAcanthomorphaAcanthomorpha is an order of prehistoric fish that was described by Rosen in 1973. Fossils range from the Late Cretaceous to the Early Oligocene -28.4mya)... - Eutrichurides winkleri – a cutlassfishCutlassfishThe cutlassfishes are about 40 species of predatory fish in the family Trichiuridae found in seas throughout the world. Fish of this family are long, slender, and generally steely blue or silver in colour, giving rise to their name...
- HalecopsisHalecopsisHalecopsis is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
insignis – Halecopsidae - Laparon alticeps and Whitephippus tamesis – spadefishEphippidaeEphippidae is the fish family containing the spadefishes. There are about eight genera, with a total of 20 species, mostly marine. The most well-known species are probably those in the reef-dwelling genus Platax, the batfishes, which are kept as aquarium fish. They are spade-shaped, laterally...
- Lehmanamia sheppeyensis – a bowfinBowfinThe Bowfin, Amia calva, is the last surviving member of the order Amiiformes , and of the family Amiidae...
- Myripristis toliapicus, NaupygusNaupygusNaupygus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
bucklandi and ParaberyxParaberyxParaberyx is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
bowerbanki – soldierfishHolocentridaeThe Holocentridae is a family of ray-finned fish, belonging to the order Beryciformes with the members of the subfamily Holocentrinae typically known as squirrelfish, while the members of Myripristinae typically are known as soldierfish...
- PercostomaPercostomaPercostoma is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
angustum, PlesioserranusPlesioserranusPlesioserranus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
cf. wemmeliensi and SerranopsisSerranopsisSerranopsis is a genus of prehistoric fish related to the modern perch....
londinensis – groupersSerranidaeSerranidae is a large family of fishes, belonging to the order Perciformes. The family contains about 450 species of serranids in 64 genera, including the sea basses and the groupers...
- PodocephalusPodocephalusPodocephalus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
curryi, P. nitidus, Sciaenuropsis turneri and SciaenurusSciaenurusSciaenurus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
bowerbanki – porgiesSparidaeThe Sparidae is a family of fish, included in the order Perciformes. The fish of the family are commonly called sea breams and porgies . The sheepshead, scup, and red sea bream are species in this family. They are found in shallow temperate and tropical waters and are bottom-dwelling carnivores....
- ProgempylusProgempylusProgempylus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
edwardsi – a snake mackerelSnake mackerelGempylidae is a family of perciform fishes, commonly known as snake mackerels or escolars.They are elongate fishes with a similar appearance to barracudas, having a long dorsal fin, usually with one or finlets trailing it. The largest species, including the snoek, Thyrsites atun, grow up to two...
- PseudosphaerodonPseudosphaerodonPseudosphaerodon is an extinct genus of prehistoric Actinopterygii, or ray-finned fish, that lived from the early to middle Eocene.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish...
antiquus and P. navicularis – wrasseWrasseThe wrasses are a family, Labridae, of marine fish, many of which are brightly colored. The family is large and diverse, with over 600 species in 82 genera, which are divided into nine subgroups or tribes....
s? - PycnodusPycnodusPycnodus is an extinct genus of ray-finned fish ranging from the Cretaceous to Eocene periods. As its name suggests, it is the type genus of Pycnodontiformes....
bowerbanki and P. toliapicus – Pychnodontidae - RhinocephalusRhinocephalusRhinocephalus is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish-External links:*...
planiceps and TrichuridesTrichuridesTrichurides is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.-See also:* Prehistoric fish* List of prehistoric bony fish-External links:*...
sagittidens – hakesMerlucciidaeMerlucciidae is a family of cod-like fish, including most hakes.They are native to the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, being common in southern waters off Tasmania and New Zealand....
- Rhynchorhinus branchialis and R. major – Eccelidae
- Tetratichthys antiquitatis – a jack mackerelCarangidaeCarangidae is a family of fish which includes the jacks, pompanos, jack mackerels, and scads.They are marine fish found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans...
Cartilaginous fish
- Abdounia beaugi, CarcharhinusCarcharhinusCarcharhinus is the type genus of the requiem shark family, Carcharhinidae.- Species :* Carcharhinus acarenatus * Carcharhinus acronotus...
sp. and PhysogaleusPhysogaleusPhysogaleus is a small prehistoric shark that lived in the Eocene.-In popular culture:It was featured in the book adaptation of the 2003 BBC series Sea Monsters, a spin-off to Walking with Dinosaurs . In the book, it tried to steal the kill of a Basilosaurus, with no results...
secundus – requiem sharkRequiem sharkRequiem sharks are a family, Carcharhinidae, of sharks in the order Carcharhiniformes, containing migratory, live-bearing sharks of warm seas such as the tiger shark, the blue shark, the bull shark, and the milk shark.The name may be related to the French word for shark, "requin", itself of...
s - Aetobatis irregularis, Burnhamia daviesi, MyliobatisMyliobatisMyliobatis is a genus of eagle rays in the family Myliobatidae.-Species:* Genus Myliobatis** Myliobatis aquila ** Myliobatis australis Macleay, 1881...
dixoni, M. latidens, M. raouxi and M. toliapicus – eagle rayEagle rayThe eagle rays are a group of cartilaginous fishes in the family Myliobatidae, consisting mostly of large species living in the open ocean rather than on the sea bottom....
s - AnomotodonAnomotodonAnomotodon is an extinct genus of shark related to the extant goblin shark . The distribution of Anomotodon fossils is worldwide, in formations indicating that members of the genus lived from the Early Cretaceous epoch through the Eocene epoch, and perhaps through the Oligocene as well. Described...
sheppeyensis – a goblin sharkGoblin sharkThe goblin shark, Mitsukurina owstoni, is a deep-sea shark, the sole living species in the family Mitsukurinidae. The most distinctive characteristic of the goblin shark is the unusual shape of its head. It has a long, trowel-shaped, beak-like rostrum or snout, much longer than other sharks' snouts...
- CarchariasCarchariasSand sharks, or sand tigers, are lamniform sharks of the family Odontaspidae . They are found on both sides of the Atlantic coast, but most notably in the western Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Maine...
hopei, Jackelotodus trigonalis, OdontaspisOdontaspisOdontaspis is one of two genera in the sand shark family, Odontaspididae. They are large-bodied sharks with long, conical snouts, broad-based dorsal and anal fins, and an asymmetrical caudal fin with a strong lower lobe. Their teeth are large, with prominent narrow cusps...
winkleri, Palaeohypotodus rutoti and StriatolamiaStriatolamiaStriatolamia is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish from the Paleocene and Eocene.-Spieces:Exist two spieces of Striatolamia : S.striata and S.macrota.Anterior teeth of macrotahave smaller roots than striata, and they are often recurved....
macrota – sand sharkSand sharkSand sharks, also known as sand tiger sharks or ragged tooth sharks, are lamniform sharks of the family Odontaspididae . They are found worldwide in temperate and tropical waters, including on both sides of the Atlantic coast, but most notably in the Western Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Maine...
s - EdaphodonEdaphodonEdaphodon was a prehistoric chimaeriforme fish genus belonging to the family callorhinchidae. Edaphodon was a type of rabbitfish, a cartilaginous fish related to sharks and rays, and indeed some rabbitfishes are still alive today. Edaphodon has under fifteen known species, all of which are extinct...
bucklandi and Elasmodus hunteri – chimaeraChimaeraChimaeras are cartilaginous fish in the order Chimaeriformes, known informally as ghost sharks, ratfish , spookfish , or rabbitfishes...
s - DasyatisDasyatisDasyatis is a genus of stingray. The members of the genus Neotrygon were formerly included in Dasyatis.-Species:...
davisi and D. wochadunensis – stingrayStingrayThe stingrays are a group of rays, which are cartilaginous fishes related to sharks. They are classified in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order Myliobatiformes, and consist of eight families: Hexatrygonidae , Plesiobatidae , Urolophidae , Urotrygonidae , Dasyatidae , Potamotrygonidae The...
s - Galeorhinus lefevrei, G. minor, G. recticonus, G. ypresiensis, Mustelus whitei and TriakisTriakisTriakis is a genus of houndshark in the family Triakidae.The name comes from the Latin word tri meaning "three", and acis meaning "sharp" or "pointed", in reference to the three-pointed teeth of these sharks.-Species:* Subgenus Cazon...
wardi – hound sharks - Heterodontus vincenti, H. wardenensis and H. woodwardi – bullhead sharks
- HexanchusHexanchusThe sixgill sharks, Hexanchus, are a genus of deepwater sharks in the family Hexanchidae. These sharks are characterized by broad pointed heads, six pairs of gill slits, comb-like, yellow lower teeth, and a long tail. It can grow up to 5 m long and weigh over 600 kg...
agassizi, H. collinsonae, H. hookeri, NotorhynchusNotorhynchusNotorynchus is a genus of Seven-gill shark that evolved in the Late Cretaceous through the Present Day. The Sevengill shark is a large shark which according to Compagno inhabits shallow , temperate coastal continental waters...
serratissimus and Weltonia burnhamensis – cow sharks - Isisteus trituratus and Squalus minor – dogfish sharksSqualidaeSqualidae is the family of dogfish sharks. They are found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, from tropical equatorial climates to the Arctic and Antarctic....
- Isurolamna affinis, IsurusIsurusIsurus is a genus of mackerel sharks in the family Lamnidae, commonly known as the mako sharks. There are two living species, the common shortfin mako shark and the rare longfin mako shark , and several extinct species known from fossils. They range in length from 9 to 15 feet, and have an...
nova, I. praecursor, LamnaLamnaLamna is a genus of mackerel sharks in the family Lamnidae, containing two extant species: the porbeagle of the North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere, and the salmon shark Lamna is a genus of mackerel sharks in the family Lamnidae, containing two extant species: the porbeagle (L. nasus) of the...
inflata, L. lerichei, Otodus obliquusOtodus obliquusOtodus obliquus is an extinct mackerel shark which lived during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs, approximately about 60 to 37.5 million years ago.-Known physiology:This shark is known from the fossil teeth and fossilized vertebral centra...
and Xiphodolamia eocaena – white sharksLamnidaeLamnidae is a family of sharks, commonly known as mackerel sharks or white sharks. They are large, fast-swimming sharks, found in oceans worldwide....
- Megascyliorhinus cooperi, ScyliorhinusScyliorhinusScylorhinus is a genus of catsharks in the family Scyliorhinidae.-Species:* Scyliorhinus besnardi S. Springer & Sadowsky, 1970 * Scyliorhinus boa Goode & Bean, 1896...
casieri, S. gilberti, S. pattersoni and S. woodwardi – catsharkCatsharkCatsharks are ground sharks of the family Scyliorhinidae, with over 150 known species. While they are generally known as catsharks, many species are commonly called dogfish....
s - Pararhincodon sp? – an indeterminate shark
- RajaRaja (genus)Raja is a genus of skates in the family Rajidae, containing nearly thirty species. They are flat-bodied cartilaginous fish with a rhombic shape due to their large pectoral fins extending from or nearly from the snout to the base of their tail. Their sharp snouts produced by a cranial projection of...
sp.? – an indeterminate ray - Squatina prima – an angel sharkAngel sharkThe angel sharks are an unusual genus of sharks with flattened bodies and broad pectoral fins that give them a strong resemblance to rays. The more than 16 known species are in the genus Squatina, the only genus in its family, Squatinidae, and order Squatiniformes. They occur worldwide in temperate...
Crustaceans
- LobsterLobsterClawed lobsters comprise a family of large marine crustaceans. Highly prized as seafood, lobsters are economically important, and are often one of the most profitable commodities in coastal areas they populate.Though several groups of crustaceans are known as lobsters, the clawed lobsters are most...
s and shrimpShrimpShrimp are swimming, decapod crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh and salt water. Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals living close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. Shrimp are an important...
- Archiocarabus bowerbanki
- Callianassa sp.Callianassa (genus)Callianassa is a genus of mud shrimps, in the family Callianassidae. Three of the species in this genus Callianassa is a genus of mud shrimps, in the family Callianassidae. Three of the species in this genus Callianassa is a genus of mud shrimps, in the family Callianassidae. Three of the species...
- Homarus morrisiHomarus morrisiHomarus morrisi is a species of fossil lobster from the Eocene of southern England.-Taxonomy:Specimens of H. morrisi were described as early as 1849, but were assigned to Hoploparia gammaroides rather than Homarus by scientists including Frederick M'Coy and Thomas Bell. In 1987, W. J...
- Hoploparia gammaroides
- Linuparus eocenicusLinuparusLinuparus is a genus of spiny lobsters in the family Palinuridae. It contains four extant species, and 32 fossil species, ranging from the Early Cretaceous to the Oligocene...
& L. scyllariformis - Scyllarides tuberculatusScyllaridesScyllarides is a genus of slipper lobsters.-Characteristics:Scyllarides is placed in the subfamily Arctidinae, which is differentiated from other subfamilies by the presence of multiarticulated exopods on all three maxillipeds, and a three-segmented palp on the mandible...
- Scyllaridia koenigi
- Thenops scyllariformis
- BarnacleBarnacleA barnacle is a type of arthropod belonging to infraclass Cirripedia in the subphylum Crustacea, and is hence related to crabs and lobsters. Barnacles are exclusively marine, and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters, typically in erosive settings. They are sessile suspension feeders, and have...
s- Arcoscapellum quadratum
- Scalpellum minutum and S. quadratum
- CrabCrabTrue crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" , or where the reduced abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax...
s- Campylostoma mutatiforme
- Cyclocorystes pulchellus
- Dromilites bucklandi & D. lamarki
- Glyphthyreus wetherelli
- Goniochela angulata
- Harpactoxanthopsis cf. quadrilo
- Mithracia libinioides
- Oediosoma ambigua
- Portunites incerta & P. stintoni
- Xanthilites bowerbanki
- Zanthopsis bispinosa, Z. dufori, Z. leachei, Z. nodosa and Z. unispinosa
- Mantis shrimpMantis shrimpMantis shrimp or stomatopods are marine crustaceans, the members of the order Stomatopoda. They are neither shrimp nor mantids, but receive their name purely from the physical resemblance to both the terrestrial praying mantis and the shrimp. They may reach in length, although exceptional cases of...
- Squilla wetherelliSquillaSquilla is a genus of mantis shrimp. It includes the following species:*Squilla brasiliensis Calman, 1917*Squilla chydaea Manning, 1962*Squilla deceptrix Manning, 1969*Squilla edentata *Squilla empusa Say, 1818...
- Squilla wetherelli
Cephalopods
- Aturia ziczac, Cimomia imperialis, Deltoidonautilus sowerbyi, Euciphoceras regale, Eutrephoceras urbanum, Hercoglossa cassiniana and Simplicioceras centrale – nautilusNautilusNautilus is the common name of marine creatures of cephalopod family Nautilidae, the sole extant family of the superfamily Nautilaceae and of its smaller but near equal suborder, Nautilina. It comprises six living species in two genera, the type of which is the genus Nautilus...
es - Belopterina levesquei, Belosepia blainvillei and B. sepioidea – cuttlefishCuttlefishCuttlefish are marine animals of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda . Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs....
Bivalves
- Abra splendens – SemelidaeSemelidaeThe Semelidae are a family of clams, marine bivalve molluscs of the order Veneroida.-Characteristics:Menbers of this family have rounded or oval, elongated shells, much flattened. The two valves are connected by an internal ligament in contrast to the closely related family Tellinidae where the...
- AmygdalumAmygdalumAmygdalum is a genus of mussels in the family Mytilidae....
depressum and ModiolusModiolus (genus)Modiolus, the horsemussels, are a genus of medium-sized marine bivalve molluscs in the family Mytilidae.-Species:Species within the genus Modiolus include:* Modiolus adriaticus...
tubicola – MytilidaeMytilidaeMytilidae is a family of small to large saltwater mussels, marine bivalve mollusks in the order Mytiloida. It is the only family in the order... - AnomiaAnomia (genus)Anomia is a genus of bivalves in the family Anomiidae, commonly known as jingle shells.-Species :* Anomia achaeus Gray* Anomia chinensis* Anomia ephippium Linnaeus, 1758* Anomia laqueata Reeve* Anomia nobilis...
scabrosa – a jingle shellAnomiidaeAnomiidae is a family of bivalve molluscs related to scallops and oysters, and known as anomiids. It contains seven genera.The family is known by several common names, including jingle shells, saddle oysters and mermaid's toenails....
- Arca nitens, A. tumescens and Glycymeris wrigleyi – ark clamArk clamArk clam is the common name for a family of small to large-sized saltwater clams or marine bivalve molluscs in the family Arcidae. Ark clams vary both in shape and size. They number about 200 species worldwide....
s - Arctica planata – ArcticidaeArcticidaeArcticidae is a family of bivalve molluscs in the order Veneroida.-Genera in the family Arcticidae:* Arctica** Arctica islandica - ocean quahog* Trigonocardia-References:*...
- Astarte davisi, A. filigera and A. rugata – AstartidaeAstartidaeAstartidae is a family of bivalves related to the large family Veneridae or venus clams.-Astartidae Taxonomy:*Astarte J. Sowerby, 1816**Astarte acuticostata J. G. Jeffreys, 1881**Astarte arctica Astartidae is a family of bivalves related to the large family Veneridae or venus clams.-Astartidae...
- Calpitaria sulcataria – a venus clamVeneridaeThe Veneridae or venerids, also known as the Venus clams, are a very large family of minute to large, saltwater clams, marine bivalve molluscs. There are over 500 living species of venerid bivalves, most of which are edible, and many of which are exploited as a food source.Many of the most...
- CorbulaCorbulaCorbula is a genus of bivalve molluscs in the Corbulidae family -Species :* Corbula aequivalvis Philippi, 1836* Corbula albuginosa Hinds, 1843* Corbula amethystina * Corbula arcaeformis Lynge, 1909...
globosa – CorbulidaeCorbulidaeCorbulidae is a family of bivalve molluscs in the order Myoida.-Genera and species in the family Corbulidae:* Caryocorbula Bruguiere, 1792** Caryocorbula porcella * Corbula Bruguiere, 1797** Corbula alabamiensis Lea, 1833... - Cuspidaria inflata and C. lamallosa – CuspidariidaeCuspidariidaeCuspidariidae is a family of bivalves in the order Pholadomyoida.-Genera and species in the family Cuspidariidae:* Austroneaera Powell, 1937** Austroneaera brevirostris Powell, 1937** Austroneaera finlayi Powell, 1937* Cardiomya A...
- Nuculana amygdaloides and N. prisca – NuculanidaeNuculanidaeNuculanidae is a family of small bivalve molluscs in the order Nuculanoida.Nuculanidae species are found in all seas, from shallow to deep water.-Taxonomy:* Acutispinula** Acutispinula hilleri...
- Lentipecten corneus and Pecten sp. – scallopScallopA scallop is a marine bivalve mollusk of the family Pectinidae. Scallops are a cosmopolitan family, found in all of the world's oceans. Many scallops are highly prized as a food source...
s - Nemocardium nitens and N. semigranulatum – Cardiidae
- NuculaNuculaNucula is a genus of clams of the family Nuculidae.-Species:* Nucula aegeensis Jeffreys, 1879 - Aegean nutclam* Nucula annulata Hampson, 1971 * Nucula atacellana Schenck, 1939 - cancellate nutclam...
consors – NuculidaeNuculidaeNuculidae is a family of small saltwater clams in the order Nuculoida. Species in this family are commonly known as nut clams.The nomenclature of the Western European species in this family is still uncertain. Their systematics has been based mainly on their feces. -Genera:* Acila H. Adams and A...
- OstreaOstreaOstrea is a genus of oyster in the family Ostreidae. Evidence of a number of species of this genus in the geological fossil record demonstrates the ancient nature of this genus, and also gives testimony to the species that co-existed with members of the Ostrea genus...
sp. – a true oystersOstreidaeOstreidae are the true oysters, and include most species that are commonly eaten under the name oyster. Pearl oysters are not true oysters and belong to the distinct order Pterioida....
- PinnaPinna (genus)Pinna is a genus of pen shells. It is a cosmopolitan genus of bivalve molluscs characterized by elongated, wedge-shaped shells which most commonly stand point-first in the sea bottom in which they live, anchored by a net of byssus threads....
affinis – a pen shellPinnidaePinnidae is a family of large saltwater clams sometimes known as pen shells. They are marine bivalve molluscs in the order Pterioida.The shells are fragile and have a long and triangular shape, and in life they are anchored in sediment using a byssus... - Pleurolectroma media and Pteria papyracea – pearl oystersPteriidaePteriidae is a family of medium-sized to large saltwater clams. They are pearl oysters, marine bivalve mollusks in the order Pterioida.Some of the species in this family are important economically as the source of saltwater pearls....
- PycnodontePycnodontePycnodonte is a genus of extinct oysters, marine bivalve mollusks in the family Gryphaeidae. They are found around the world in fossil shell beds from the Valanginian to Early Pleistocene...
gryphovicina – Pycnodontidae - TeredinaTeredinaTeredina is a now extinct genus of bivalve mollusk that lived from the Late Cretaceous to the late Pliocene in Asia, Europe, and North America.-Sources:* in the Paleobiology Database* Fossils by David Ward...
personata and Teredo sp. – shipwormShipwormShipworms are not worms at all, but rather a group of unusual saltwater clams with very small shells, notorious for boring into wooden structures that are immersed in sea water, such as piers, docks and wooden ships...
s - Thyasira goodhali – ThyasiridaeThyasiridaeThyasiridae is a family of bivalve molluscs, including the cleft clams.-Genera and species:* Adontorhina S. S. Berry, 1947** Adontorhina cyclia S. S. Berry, 1947** Adontorhina similis Barry & McCormack, 2007...
- VenericardiaVenericardiaVenericardia is a genus of marine bivalve molluscs, in the family Carditidae.- Species :* Venericardia purpurata * Venericardia reinga Powell, 1933* Venericardia tridentata- References :...
trinobantium – CarditidaeCarditidaeCarditidae is a family of marine bivalve clams of the order Veneroida.-Genera:* Cardita Bruguière, 1792 * Carditamera Conrad, 1838 * Crassicardia Conrad, 1838 * Cyclocardia Conrad, 1867 * Glans Megerle von Muhlfeld, 1811...
- VerticordiaVerticordiaVerticordia, a genus of the Myrtaceae family, are woody shrubs with small and exquisite flowers. They are mostly found in Southwest Australia, with several outlier species in northern regions. A revision of the genus in 1991 produced a classification within Verticordia of 3 subgenera, 24 sections,...
sulcata – VerticordiidaeVerticordiidaeVerticordiidae is a family of marine bivalves of the Pholadomyoida order.-Genera and species:* Euciroa Dall, 1881** Euciroa elegantissima ** Euciroa galatheae * Halicardia Dall, 1895...
Gastropods
- Acrilla cymaea, Foratiscala perforata, Litoriniscala scalaroides and Undiscala primaeva – wentletrapWentletrapWentletraps are small, often white, very high-spired, predatory or ectoparasitic sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks, in the family Epitoniidae.The word wentletrap originated in Dutch , and it means spiral staircase...
s - AporrhaisAporrhaisAporrhais is a genus of medium-sized sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Aporrhaidae and the superfamily Stromboidea. The genus is known from the Cretaceous to the recent periods.- Species :This genus contains the following species:...
sowerbii and Eotibia lucida – true conchsStrombidaeStrombidae, commonly known as the true conchs, is a taxonomic family of medium-sized to very large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Stromboidea.... - Bathytoma granata, B. turbida, ClavatulaClavatulaClavatula is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Clavatulidae. -Description:In this genus, the shell is fusiform, with a well-produced spire. The whorls are coronated with tubercles or short spines at the suture;. The aperture is oval. The columellar lip is smooth,...
conica, CochlespiraCochlespiraCochlespira is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cochlespiridae. -Species:Species within the genus Cochlespira include:* Cochlespira beuteli Powell, 1969* Cochlespira bevdeynzerae Garcia, 2010...
gyrata, Conolithus concinnus, Endiatoma cerithiformis, FusiturrisFusiturrisFusiturris is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Clavatulidae.-Species:Species within the genus Fusiturris include:* Fusiturris amianta * Fusiturris pluteata...
selysi, F. simillima, F. wetherelli, GemmulaGemmulaGemmula, common name the gem turrids, is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Turridae, the turrids.These snails are venomous with disulfide-rich polypeptides in their venom ducts....
koninckii, Hemipleurotoma fasciolata, H. prestwichi, Pseudotoma topleyi, Surculites errans, S. velatus, TurriculaTurricula (gastropod)Turricula is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Clavatulidae.Clavatulidae was raised, based on cladistic analysis, from subfamily to the family level by Rosenberg in 1998. It remained regarded as a subfamily of Turridae by several malacologists...
crassa, T. helix, T. latimarginata, T. nanodis, T. symmetrica and T. teretrium – ConoideaConoideaConoidea is a superfamily of predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks within the suborder Hypsogastropoda. This superfamily is a very large group of marine mollusks, estimated at about 340 recent valid genera and subgenera, and considered by one authority to contain 4,000 named living species... - BonellitiaBonellitiaBonellitia is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cancellariidae, the nutmeg snails.-Species:Species within the genus Bonellitia include:* Bonellitia afra...
clathratum and B. laeviuscula – nutmeg shellsCancellariidaeCancellariidae, common name the nutmeg snails or nutmeg shells, are a family of small to medium-large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the clade Neogastropoda... - Bullinella sp., Crenilabium elongatum, ?Roxiana sp., ScaphanderScaphanderScaphander is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Scaphandridae, the canoe bubbles.-Species:Species within the genus Scaphander include:* Scaphander alatus: synonym of Scaphander mundus Watson, 1883...
?parisiensis and Tornatellaea simulata – opisthobranchsOpisthobranchiaOpisthobranchs are a large and diverse group of specialized complex marine gastropods previously united under Opisthobranchia within the Heterobranchia, but no longer considered to represent a monophyletic grouping... - Camptoceratops prisca, Spiratella mercinensis, S. taylori and S. tutelina – sea-butterfliesSea butterflySea butterflies, also known as Thecosomata or flapping snails, are a taxonomic suborder of small pelagic swimming sea snails. These are holoplanktonic opisthobranch gastropod mollusks in the informal group Opisthobranchia. They include some of the world's most abundant gastropod species.This group...
- Cassis striata and Mambrina gallica – tun shellsTonnidaeTonnidae is a family of medium-sized to very large sea snails, known as the tun shells. These are marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Sorbeoconcha and the clade Littorinimorpha.- Taxonomy :...
- Cepatia cepacea, Daphnobela juncea, LitiopaLitiopaLitiopa is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Litiopidae....
sulculosa, Orthochetus elongatus and Stellaxis pulcher – incertae sedisIncertae sedis, is a term used to define a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Uncertainty at specific taxonomic levels is attributed by , , and similar terms.-Examples:*The fossil plant Paradinandra suecica could not be assigned to any... - Eocypraea oviformis – a cowrieCypraeidaeCypraeidae, common name the cowries , is a taxonomic family of small to large sea snails. These are marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Cypraeoidea, the cowries and cowry allies.-Shell description:...
- EuspiraEuspiraEuspira is a genus of medium-sized sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Naticidae, the moon snails. - Species :Species within the genus Euspira include:* Euspira catena* Euspira fortunei...
glaucinoides and SinumSinumSinum is a genus of predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Naticidae, the moon snails.-Species:Species within the genus Sinum include:* Sinum bifasciatum * Sinum concavum...
clathratum – moon snailsNaticidaeNaticidae, common name the moon snails, is a family of minute to large-sized predatory sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Littorinimorpha.Naticidae is the only family in the superfamily Naticoidea.... - Falsifusus londini, FusinusFusinusFusinus is a genus of small to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Fasciolariidae, the spindle snails and tulip snaills.-Species:Species in the genus Fusinus include:...
coniferus, F. wetherelli, Pseudoneptunea curta, SiphonaliaSiphonaliaSiphonalia is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Buccinidae, the true whelks.-Species:Species with valid names within the genus Siphonalia include:* Siphonalia aspersa Kuroda & Habe in Habe, 1961...
highgatensis, Streptolathyrus triliniatus, S. zonulatus, Wrigleya complanata and W. transversaria – true whelksBuccinidaeBuccinidae is a very large and diverse taxonomic family of large sea snails, often known as whelks or true whelks.True whelks are mostly marine gastropod mollusks in the clade Neogastropoda... - FicopsisFicopsisFicopsis is an extinct genus of large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Ficidae, the fig snails.This species lived from the Paleocene to the Miocene in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America.-External links:...
multiformis – a fig shellFicidaeFicidae, common name the fig shells are a family of medium to large marine gastropods. It is the only family in the superfamily Ficoidea.According to taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi the family Ficidae has no subfamilies....
- Lacunella sp. – a periwinkleLittorinidaeLittorinidae is a taxonomic family of over 200 species of sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Littorinimorpha, commonly known as periwinkles and found world-wide.-Names:...
- Mathilda sororcula - MathildidaeMathildidaeMathildidae is a family of minute sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the informal group of the Lower Heterobranchia.-Genera:Genera within the family Mathildidae include:* Gegania Jeffreys, 1884* Mathilda Semper, 1865...
- MurexMurexMurex is a genus of medium to large sized predatory tropical sea snails. These are carnivorous marine gastropod molluscs in the family Muricidae, commonly calle "murexes" or "rock snails"...
subcristatus and PaziellaPaziellaPaziella is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.-Description:The biconic, medium-sized shell has its varices dissected into spines. The aperture is ovoid and smooth inside. The anal sinus is almost closed...
argillacea – murex snailsMuricidaeMuricidae, common name murex snails or rock snails, is a large and varied taxonomic family of small to large predatory sea snails. With approximately 1,600 living species the Muricidae represent almost 10% of the Neogastropoda. Additionally, 1,200 fossil species have been recognised... - Pachysyrnola sp. and TurbonillaTurbonillaTurbonilla is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Pyramidellidae, the pyrams and their allies.-Species:Species within the genus Turbonilla include:* Turbonilla abrardi...
subterranea – pyramid shellsPyramidellidaePyramidellidae, common name the pyram family, or pyramid shells, is a voluminous taxonomic family of mostly small and minute ectoparasitic sea snails, marine heterobranch gastropod molluscs or micromolluscs.... - Patella sp. – PatellidaePatellidaePatellidae is a taxonomic family of sea snails or true limpets, marine gastropod molluscs in the clade Patellogastropoda.Patellidae is the only family in the superfamily Patelloidea...
- PtychatractusPtychatractusPtychatractus is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Ptychatractidae.-Species:Species within the genus Ptychatractus include:* Ptychatractus ligatus...
aff. interuptus, ScaphellaScaphellaScaphella is a genus of large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Volutidae, the volutes. This is a tropical genus which occurs in the Western Atlantic Ocean....
wetherelli and VolutospinaVolutospinaVolutospina is an extinct genus of fossil gastropod that lived from the Cretaceous to the Eocene in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America.-References:* Fossils by David Ward -External links:...
nodosa – volutesVolutidaeVolutidae, common name volutes, are a taxonomic family of predatory sea snails that range in size from 9 mm to over 500 mm, marine gastropod mollusks... - Rilla cf. tenuistriata – StreptaxidaeStreptaxidaeStreptaxidae is a family of air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in theStylommatophora. Six Streptaxidae subfamilies are accepted in the 2005 taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi....
- RingiculaRingiculaRingicula is a genus of minute deepwater sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks or micromollusks belonging to the family Ringiculidae.-Species:The following speces are included within the genus Ringicula:* Ringicula arctata Gould, 1860...
turgida – RingiculidaeRingiculidaeRingiculidae are a family of minute deep water sea snails or micromolluscs, marine gastropod mollusks or micromollusks in the informal group Lower Heterobranchia.Ringiculidae is the only family within the superfamily Ringiculoidea.... - SassiaSassiaCymatona is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Ranellidae, the tritons.-Species:Species within the genus Sassia include:* Sassia apenninica remensa...
morrisi – a triton shellRanellidaeRanellidae, common name the triton shells or tritons, is a taxonomic family of small to very large predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the clade Littorinimorpha.-Subfamilies:... - SigapatellaSigapatellaSigapatella is a genus of small to medium-sized sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Calyptraeidae, the slipper snails, Chinese hat snails, and cup-and-saucer snails. -Taxonomy:...
sp. – CalyptraeidaeCalyptraeidaeCalyptraeidae, common name the slipper snails or slipper limpets, cup-and-saucer snails, and Chinese hat snails are a family of small to medium-sized marine prosobranch gastropods... - Tornus sp. and Turboella cf. misera – RissoidaeRissoidaeRissoidae is a large family of very small and minute sea snails with an operculum, marine gastropod mollusks in the clade Littorinimorpha.-Distribution and habitat:...
- XenophoraXenophoraXenophora, common name carrier shells, is a genus of medium sized to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Xenophoridae, the carrier snails or carrier shells.-Description:...
extensum – a carrier shellXenophoridaeXenophoridae, common name carrier shells, are a taxonomic family of medium-sized to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the clade Littorinimorpha....
Echinoderms
- Asteropecten crispatus, Coulonia colei, Hemiaster bowerbanki, Hippasteria tuberculata, Ophioglypha wetherelli and Teichaster stokesii – starfish
- CoelopleurusCoelopleurusCoelopleurus is a genus of echinoid. Fossil records date back to the Eocene, with remains found in Europe and North America.-Species:* Coelopleurus australis H.L. Clark, 1916* Coelopleurus exquisitus Coppard & Schultz, 2006...
wetherelli and Schizaster sp. – sea urchinSea urchinSea urchins or urchins are small, spiny, globular animals which, with their close kin, such as sand dollars, constitute the class Echinoidea of the echinoderm phylum. They inhabit all oceans. Their shell, or "test", is round and spiny, typically from across. Common colors include black and dull...
s - Democrinus londinensis – crinoidCrinoidCrinoids are marine animals that make up the class Crinoidea of the echinoderms . Crinoidea comes from the Greek word krinon, "a lily", and eidos, "form". They live both in shallow water and in depths as great as 6,000 meters. Sea lilies refer to the crinoids which, in their adult form, are...
- ?Ophiacantha sp., Ophioglypha wetherelli, Ophiomusium sp. and Ophiura wetherelli – brittlestars
Cnidarians
- Paracyathus brevis and P. caryophyllus – coralCoralCorals are marine animals in class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria typically living in compact colonies of many identical individual "polyps". The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton.A coral "head" is a colony of...
s - Graphularia wetherelli – hydrozoaHydrozoaHydrozoa are a taxonomic class of very small, predatory animals which can be solitary or colonial and which mostly live in saltwater. A few genera within this class live in freshwater...
n
Other invertebrates
- Adenellopsis wetherelli, Aimulosia sp., Batopora clithridiata, Beisselina sp., Cribrilina sp., Didymosella sp., Dittosaria wetherelli, Entalophora sp., Idmonia sp., Lunulites sp., Nellia sp., Pachythecella incisa, Vibracellina sp. and Websteria crissioides – bryozoans
- HemipteraHemipteraHemiptera is an order of insects most often known as the true bugs , comprising around 50,000–80,000 species of cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, shield bugs, and others...
gen. et sp. indet. – true bug - LingulaLingula (genus)Lingula is a genus of brachiopods within the class Lingulata. Lingula is known since the Tertiary.-Species:The following species are recognised:*Lingula adamsi Dall, 1873*Lingula anatina Lamarck, 1801*Lingula dregeri Andreae, 1893...
tenuis, Terebratulina striatula and T. wardenensis – lampshells - Stelleta sp. – sponge
Ichnofossils
- Ditrupa plana, Rotularia bognorensis and SerpulaSerpulaSerpula is a genus of sessile, marine annelid tube worms that belongs to the Serpulidae family...
trilineata – polychaete worm tubes? - Scolithos
Engineering
The presence of a thick layer of London Clay underneath LondonLondon
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
itself, providing a soft yet stable environment for tunnel
Tunnel
A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for egress, commonly at each end.A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers...
ling, was instrumental in the early development of the London Underground
London Underground
The London Underground is a rapid transit system serving a large part of Greater London and some parts of Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire and Essex in England...
, although this is also the reason why London has no true skyscraper
Skyscraper
A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building of many stories, often designed for office and commercial use. There is no official definition or height above which a building may be classified as a skyscraper...
buildings, at least to the same degree as many other cities throughout the world. Erecting tall buildings in London requires very deep, large and costly piled foundations.
London Clay is highly susceptible to volumetric changes depending upon its moisture content. During exceptionally dry periods or where the moisture is extracted by tree root activity, the clay can become desiccated and shrink in volume, and conversely swell again when the moisture content is restored. This can lead to many problems near the ground surface, including structural movement and fracturing of buildings, fractured sewers and service pipes/ducts and uneven and damaged road surfaces and pavings. Such damage is recognised to be covered by the interpretation of subsidence
Subsidence
Subsidence is the motion of a surface as it shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea-level. The opposite of subsidence is uplift, which results in an increase in elevation...
in buildings insurance policies, and the periods of dry weather in 1976/77 and 1988/92, in particular, led to a host of insurance claims. As a result, many insurance companies have now increased the cost of premiums for buildings located in the most susceptible areas where damage occurred, where the clay is close to the surface.
Agriculture
"London clay is not hospitable to most plants... ploughing it up where it lies so near the surface as to be accessible to the plough is injurious to the surface soil and future crops. In Middlesex it is called 'ploughing up poison'"See also
- Geology of LondonGeology of LondonThe geology of London comprises various differing layers of sedimentary rock upon which London, England is built.-Oldest rocks:The oldest rocks proved through boreholes to exist below London are the old, hard rocks of the Palaeozoic. These consist of Silurian mudstones and sandstones, generally...
- Geology of the United Kingdom
- Geology of HertfordshireGeology of HertfordshireThe Geology of Hertfordshire describes the rocks of the English county of Hertfordshire which are a northern part of the great shallow syncline known as the London Basin. The beds dip in a south-easterly direction towards the syncline's lowest point roughly under the River Thames...
- Geology of HampshireGeology of HampshireHampshire's geology broadly comprises a major syncline in the Southern England Chalk Formation, surrounding a core of softer Tertiary rocks. This gives rise to two characteristic landscapes, the Hampshire Basin and the Downs.-Hampshire Basin:...
- List of fossil sites