The Inquisition myth
Encyclopedia
The Historical revision of the Inquisition is a historiographical
project that started to emerge in the 1970s, with the opening of formerly closed archives, the development of new historical methodologies
, and, in Spain, the death of Francisco Franco
in 1975. New works of historical revisionism
changed our knowledge of the history of the Roman and Spanish Inquisition
s.
Writers associated with this project share the view of Edward Peters, a prominent historian in the field, who states: "The Inquisition was an image assembled from a body of legends and myths which, between the twentieth and the sixteenth centuries, established the perceived character of inquisitorial tribunals and influenced all ensuing efforts to recover their historical reality."
of the inquisitorial proceedings are Inquisition (1988) by Edward Peters and The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision (1997) by Henry Kamen
. These works focus on exposing and correcting what they argue are popular modern misconceptions about the inquisitions and historical misinterpretations of their activities. The following text presents Peters’ and Kamen’s ideas.
s such as freedom of thought and freedom of religion that became prominent in Western thinking during the eighteenth century, modern society has an inherent difficulty in understanding the inquisitorial institutions. From the Middle Ages
well into the seventeenth century in Catholic
Europe
, the law stated that the worst offence that could be committed was that which threatened the unity and security of the Catholic Church, and most importantly, the salvation
of souls.
Regardless of the century, inquisitions were ecclesiastical investigations conducted either directly by the Catholic Church or by secular authorities with the support of the Church. These investigations were undertaken at varying times in varying regions under the authority of the local bishop and his designates or under the sponsorship of papal-appointed legates. The purpose of each inquisition was specific to the outstanding circumstances of the region in which it was held. Investigations usually involved a legal process, the goal of which was to obtain a confession and reconciliation with the Church from those who were accused of heresy or of participating in activities contrary to Church Canon law
. The objectives of the inquisitions were to secure the repentance of the accused and to maintain the authority of the Church. Inquisitions were conducted with the collaboration of secular authorities. If an investigation resulted in a person being convicted of heresy and unwillingness to repent punishment was administered by the secular authorities.
medieval inquisition
s were that of the Cathars (also known as the Albigensians) and the Waldensians
. The Cathars essentially believed that a “good god” created everything heavenly while an “evil god” – the God of the Old Testament
– created the material world with the Church acting as its vehicle (Horvat 1998: 4). The Waldensians rejected the sacramental authority of the Church and its clerics and encouraged apostolic poverty
(Peters 1988: 43). These movements became particularly popular in Southern France
as well as Northern Italy
and parts of Germany
. Protestant reformers in the sixteenth century often pointed to these movements as part of an underground reformed Church that had been the victim of persecution for centuries even though the Cathars had an unquestionably non-Reformed, dualistic perception of God (Peters 1988: 123).
in the world would greatly increase if the world were reformed. In addition, the papacy itself underwent reform at the end of the eleventh century and the Church began devising its “grand program of sanctifying the world” (Peters 1988: 40). This “grand program” was a combination of the Church’s need to reform its institutional life, free itself from secular control, and to build a Christian society. There was also a growing opinion that those who rebelled from the church's beliefs (heretics) or those who behaved in a manner that was “un-Christian” were not simply souls led astray in a “temptation-filled world, but [were] subverters of the world’s new course” (Peters 1988: 40).
Until the late twelfth century, the investigation of heresy
was considered the responsibility of local churches and it was held that local secular authorities would prosecute heretics. However, in 1179, the Church’s “grand program of sanctifying the world” saw the creation of The Third Lateran Council that included a canon condemning heretics (Peters 1988: 47). In 1184, Pope Lucius III
issued the Ad abolendam
, labeled "the founding charter of the inquisition," that called for those found as heretics by the local church to be turned over to secular courts (Peters 1988: 47). Finally, in 1199, Pope Innocent III
equated heresy with treason and in 1208 called for a “crusade” against the Albigensians (Peters 1988: 50).
and laity
, and pastoral teachings to oppose heresy (Peters 1988: 50-51). Peters asserts that the violence was due to the “crusade” being under the control of mobs, petty rulers, and local bishops who did not uphold Innocent’s ideas, armies from northern France swept through the south and essentially eradicated the Albigensians. The uncontainable, prejudicial passion of local mobs and heresy hunters, the violence of secular courts, and the bloodshed of the Albigensian crusade sparked a desire within the papacy to implement greater control over the prosecution of heresy. This desire led to the development of organized legal procedures for dealing with heretics (Peters 1988: 52-58).
Generally, inquisitorial courts functioned much like the secular courts of the time, though their sentences and penances were less cruel. (Peters 1988: 65) A number of procedures and protections restricted the torture
of the accused, although much torture could be inflicted, and capital punishment was executed by secular authorities due to the clerical prohibition on shedding blood. (Peters 1988: 45) Torture was used to extract confession, rather than as a form of punishment as used by secular courts. Any confession made following or during torture had to be freely repeated the next day without torture or it was considered invalid (Peters 1988: 65). “Technically, therefore, torture was strictly a means of obtaining the only full proof available…[The inquisitors’] tasks were not only – or even primarily – to convict the contumacious heretic, but…to preserve the unity of the Church” (Peters 1988: 65).
After the suppression of the Albigensian heresy in southern France in the thirteenth century, inquisitorial trials diminished in the face of more pressing local needs, and any lingering trials were left to secular authorities. Inquisitorial courts conducted under local episcopacies worked closely with local secular authorities and dealt with local circumstances. Regional control of the inquisitorial process and regional concerns became dominant (Peters 1988: 74). By the mid to late fourteenth century papal-commissioned inquisitions had been dissolved in many parts of Europe.
, Spain’s anti-Jewish sentiment steadily increased. This prejudice climaxed in the summer of 1391 when violent anti-Jewish riots broke out in Spanish cities like Barcelona
(Peters 1988: 82). These mob riots led to major forced conversions of Jews to Christianity
. To distinguish them from non-converted or long-established Christian families, new converts were labeled conversos, or New Christians. These distinctions formed part of the limpieza de sangre
("blood purity") doctrine.
Peters writes,
and Isabella
requested a papal bull
establishing an inquisition in Spain in 1478 in response to the unrest and mob violence against the conversos. Pope Sixtus IV
granted a bull permitting the monarchs to select and appoint two or three priests over forty years of age to act as inquisitors (Peters 1988: 85). In 1483, Ferdinand and Isabella established a state council to administer the inquisition with the Dominican Friar Tomás de Torquemada
acting as its president, even though Sixtus IV protested the activities of the inquisition in Aragon
and its treatment of the conversos. Torquemada eventually assumed the title of Inquisitor-General (Peters 1988: 89).
The main heresy prosecuted during the period of inquisitions in Spain was the alleged secret practice of Judaism
among the conversos. From the establishment of the inquisitions up to 1530, it is estimated that approximately 2,000 “heretics” were turned over to the secular authorities for execution in Spain
(Kamen 1997: 74). Many of those convicted of heresy were conversos who fled Spain, often to Italy where conversos were not subject to prejudice
(Peters 1988: 110).
There were so few Protestants in Spain that widespread persecution of Protestantism was not physically possible. In the 1560s, a little over one hundred people in Spain were convicted of Protestantism and were turned over to the secular authorities for execution. From 1560 to 1599, two hundred more people were accused of being followers of Martin Luther
. “Most of them were in no sense Protestants...Irreligious sentiments, drunken mockery, anticlerical expressions, were all captiously classified by the inquisitors (or by those who denounced the cases) as ‘Lutheran
’” (Kamen 1997: 98).
and witness
testimony
was gathered before an arrest was made. Once an arrest was made, the accused was given several opportunities to admit to any heretical behavior before the charges against him/her were identified. If the accused did not admit to any wrongdoing, the inquisitors dictated the charges and the accused was required to respond to them immediately (Peters 1988: 93). Torture was used; however, it was allowed solely in cases that involved charges of religious heresy only. Because many inquisitorial trials did not involve heresy alone, torture was relatively rare. Additionally, the restrictions on torture in the inquisitorial courts were much more stringent than those that regulated the torture in the secular courts. Torture was only used for extracting confession
s during a trial and was not used as punishment
after sentencing. If torture was utilized, the accused was required to repeat their repentance freely and without torture (Peters 1988: 92-93). The Inquisition also had a rule that they were only allowed to use torture once, however, they were able to 'suspend' sessions and resume them the following day, so that this rule was effectively negated.
As seen in the French inquisitions, the purpose of Spanish inquisitorial torture was to gain either information or confession, not to punish. It was used in a relatively small percentage of trials, since of course the threat of torture if no confession was given was often enough to induce one, and was usually a last resort (Kamen 1997: 174-192). The “scenes of sadism conjured up by popular writers on the inquisition have little basis in reality, though the whole procedure was unpleasant enough [even] to arouse periodic protests from Spaniards” (Kamen 1997: 189).
, a public procession of those found guilty, and a reading of their sentences (Peters 1988: 93-94). Artistic representations of the auto de fe usually depict torture and the burning at the stake. These paintings became a major source for creating the violent image popularly associated with the Spanish inquisitions. However, this type of activity never took place during an auto de fe, which was in essence a religious act. Torture was not administered after a trial concluded and executions were always held after and separate from the auto de fe (Kamen 1997: 192-213). Because the autos de fe officially separate torture and execution, all these events should be considered separate. Although some torture (routine throughout the continent at the time) may have been caused indirectly by the church it is not officially responsible for the murders committed during the inquisition.(Kamen 1997: 218)
Between 1550 and 1800, the inquisitions in Spain focused on not only Protestants, but also the conversos, the supervision of their own clergy, the general problem of non-mainstream religious beliefs among Catholics, and “blasphemous” or “scandalous” behavior (Peters 1988: 86). Spanish inquisitions were not exceptionally different from other European courts of the time in their prosecution of these offences, as many of these charges were viewed as part of a broad class of moral
crimes that raised legitimate concern to spiritual and secular courts in an age when religion was regarded as the fundamental foundation of society (Peters 1988: 87).
, and the Great Schism all contributed to the emergence of new religious dissent and unrest in fourteenth and fifteenth century Italy. Furthermore, widespread ecclesiastical and clerical reform advanced through the last decades of the fifteenth century, and by the second decade of the sixteenth century, reform movements prevailed in many parts of Europe (Peters 1988: 106).
The protests raised by Martin Luther
that began in 1517 did not initially receive much attention from the papacy (Peters 1988: 107). Luther and his supporters concreted the principles of the Protestant Reformation
during the 1520s, sparking the development of many reform movements in various regions of Italy. By the time of the pontificate of Paul III, the Reform movement had swept much of Europe away from the Catholic Church. In response, Paul III issued the Licet ab initio, establishing inquisitions in Rome in 1542 (Peters 1988: 108). These inquisitions consisted of six cardinals given the authority to investigate heresy and to appoint deputies when they deemed necessary.
, who became pope in 1555, launched the Counter-Reformation
that Paul III began (Peters 1988: 108). Later, in 1588, Pope Sixtus V
officially organized the inquisitions into the Congregation of the Holy Roman and Universal Inquisition or Holy Office (Peters 1988: 109). It is important to note, however, that this was only one of fifteen administrative departments of the papal government and was not the sole operating body of the Church.
In many trials involving “witchcraft
” or “sorcery,” “the inquisitors understood very well that the lack of catechesis or consistent pastoral guidance could often result in misunderstandings of doctrine and liturgy, and they showed tolerance
of all but the most unavoidably serious circumstances. Thus, although both the Spanish and Roman inquisitions prosecuted the offenses of witchcraft and sorcery very early and vigorously, they also were the first courts to be skeptical of the evidence and mechanism of witchcraft accusations, and they consistently offered the most lenient treatment to marginal cases” (Peters 1988: 111).
Italian historian Andrea Del Col estimates that out of 62,000 cases judged by Inquisition in Italy after 1542 only 2% (ca. 1250) ended with death sentence.
(Peters 1988: 119). Its main function shifted yet again to the investigation of clerical immorality and corruption and to the censoring
of printed books, the latter of which was the key responsibility of the Congregation of the Index (Peters 1988: 119). By 1860, the restrictions placed upon ecclesiastical authority and the emerging national Italian state only further reduced the activities of the Holy Office. With its powers reduced to the weakened Papal State, the Office became an advisory committee to the late nineteenth century popes, where it played a far greater advisory than executive role (Peters 1988: 120).
In 1965 Pope Paul VI
changed the Office’s name to The Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith and abolished the Congregation of the Index entirely in 1966. Since then, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith has functioned as a papal advisor on theological matters and on matters of ecclesiastical discipline. “Although its work is regular, the Congregation can now hardly be thought of as an Inquisition” (Peters 1988: 120).
and Italy
, that provoked the first image of “The Inquisition” as the most violent and suppressive vehicle of the Church
against Protestantism
. Later, philosophical critics of religious persecution and the Catholic Church only furthered this image during the Enlightenment
(Peters 1988: 122).
and Italy
, their “united” success in keeping Protestant doctrines out of their countries, and the fear of “The Inquisition” being initiated in other parts of Europe
. “As a Protestant vision of Christian
history took shape in the sixteenth century, the contemporary inquisitions were identified with the inquisitorial tribunals of the medieval past, and the Protestant Reformers with earlier victims of The Inquisition ” (Peters 1988: 122). Additionally, Catholic
defenders of the inquisitorial process used the same argument – that the Reformers were no different from medieval heretics and should be prosecuted in the same manner – thus perpetuating the idea of a continuous, masterminded, “Inquisition” (Peters 1988: 123).
Within the climate of religious persecution that clouded much of the sixteenth century, martyrdom became a Protestant narrative of religious struggle against the Catholic Church, especially Catholic
Spain
. Reformers presented “The Inquisition” as a unified, papal-dominated process that lasted from the thirteenth century through the seventeenth century. They created accounts of Protestant martyr
s and a “hidden” Church, which produced extreme anti-Catholic attitudes (Peters 1988: 123). Additionally, European political resentment against Spain
, which was the greatest power in Europe
at the time, took focus on “The Inquisition.” This resentment and the resulting anti-“Inquisition” propaganda
that was published came to a head during the revolt of the Netherlands
against Spain
(Peters 1988: 144).
“printing press
and propaganda
turned to the service of political reform, with The Inquisition as a major focus, on…a wide scale and with…devastating effects” (Peters 1988: 144). Even though the Dutch
organized their own state-run inquisitions, it was feared that King Philip II
would implement a new “Spanish Inquisition” in the Netherlands
to eliminate Protestantism
. Popular literature, circulating pamphlets, and other images painted the picture of a widespread, awful “Spanish Inquisition.” Eventually, “The Inquisition” became viewed as the primary instrument of Catholic
tyranny, not only of Protestants, but also of freedom of thought and religion in general.
However, exporting the Inquisition to the Netherlands was never in the plans of the Spanish Habsburg rulers, at least after the time of Charles V
.
, a close relative of an inquisitor and ferocious enemy of the Spanish Inquisition, published A Discovery and Plaine Declaration of Sundry Subtill Practices of the Holy Inquisition of Spain under the pseudonym
Reginaldus Gonzalvus Montanus (Peters 1988: 133). This document, along with a number of successive publications, was reprinted and translated throughout Europe
and became the definitive source on “The Inquisition” for hundreds of years. “Montanus portray[ed] every victim of the Inquisition as innocent, every Inquisition official as venal and deceitful, [and] every step in its procedure as a violation of natural and rational law” (Peters 1988: 134). The majority of the “histories” about “The Inquisition” written after 1567 relied on Montanus as their main source.
, published in 1581 (Peters 1988: 153). Written by the French Huguenot
Pierre Loyseleur de Villiers, the Apologie also narrated an horrific “Spanish Inquisition.” This document preserved and reinforced all of the anti-“Inquisition” propaganda
generated at the beginning and throughout the Dutch revolt
(Peters 1988: 153).
, under the rule of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I and threatened with military attacks from Spain
, found a new surge of nationalism
being fueled by anti-Catholic propaganda
centered on a series of books and pamphlets that detailed the horror of the “Spanish Inquisition” (Peters 1988: 139-144). Peters writes, “An image of Spain
circulated through late sixteenth-century Europe
, borne by means of political and religious propaganda
that blackened the characters of Spaniards and their ruler to such an extent that Spain
became the symbol of all forces of repression, brutality, religious and political intolerance, and intellectual and artistic backwardness for the next four centuries. Spaniards…have termed this process and the image that resulted from it as ‘The Black Legend
,’ la leyenda negra” (Peters 1988: 131).
philosophes as the worst of any religious evil to ever come out of Europe
(Peters 1988: 155-154). Additionally, writers, artists, and sculptors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used “The Inquisition” as one of their main inspirations, retaliating against “The Inquisition’s” suppression of creativity, literature, and art (Peters 1988: 189). These artistic images have arguably become some of the most long-lasting and effective perpetuators of “The Inquisition” myth.
Historiography
Historiography refers either to the study of the history and methodology of history as a discipline, or to a body of historical work on a specialized topic...
project that started to emerge in the 1970s, with the opening of formerly closed archives, the development of new historical methodologies
Cultural history
The term cultural history refers both to an academic discipline and to its subject matter.Cultural history, as a discipline, at least in its common definition since the 1970s, often combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at popular cultural traditions and cultural...
, and, in Spain, the death of Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco y Bahamonde was a Spanish general, dictator and head of state of Spain from October 1936 , and de facto regent of the nominally restored Kingdom of Spain from 1947 until his death in November, 1975...
in 1975. New works of historical revisionism
Historical revisionism
In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of orthodox views on evidence, motivations, and decision-making processes surrounding a historical event...
changed our knowledge of the history of the Roman and Spanish Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
s.
Writers associated with this project share the view of Edward Peters, a prominent historian in the field, who states: "The Inquisition was an image assembled from a body of legends and myths which, between the twentieth and the sixteenth centuries, established the perceived character of inquisitorial tribunals and influenced all ensuing efforts to recover their historical reality."
Significant works
The two most significant and extensively-cited sources of this revised analysis of the historiographyHistoriography
Historiography refers either to the study of the history and methodology of history as a discipline, or to a body of historical work on a specialized topic...
of the inquisitorial proceedings are Inquisition (1988) by Edward Peters and The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision (1997) by Henry Kamen
Henry Kamen
Henry A. Kamen is a British historian born in Rangoon on Oct 4. 1936. He studied at the University of Oxford, earning his doctorate at St. Antony's College. He subsequently taught at the University of Warwick and various universities in Spain. In 1970, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal...
. These works focus on exposing and correcting what they argue are popular modern misconceptions about the inquisitions and historical misinterpretations of their activities. The following text presents Peters’ and Kamen’s ideas.
Understanding inquisitions
Because the inquisitorial process was not based on tolerant principles and doctrineDoctrine
Doctrine is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system...
s such as freedom of thought and freedom of religion that became prominent in Western thinking during the eighteenth century, modern society has an inherent difficulty in understanding the inquisitorial institutions. From the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
well into the seventeenth century in Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, the law stated that the worst offence that could be committed was that which threatened the unity and security of the Catholic Church, and most importantly, the salvation
Salvation
Within religion salvation is the phenomenon of being saved from the undesirable condition of bondage or suffering experienced by the psyche or soul that has arisen as a result of unskillful or immoral actions generically referred to as sins. Salvation may also be called "deliverance" or...
of souls.
Regardless of the century, inquisitions were ecclesiastical investigations conducted either directly by the Catholic Church or by secular authorities with the support of the Church. These investigations were undertaken at varying times in varying regions under the authority of the local bishop and his designates or under the sponsorship of papal-appointed legates. The purpose of each inquisition was specific to the outstanding circumstances of the region in which it was held. Investigations usually involved a legal process, the goal of which was to obtain a confession and reconciliation with the Church from those who were accused of heresy or of participating in activities contrary to Church Canon law
Canon law (Catholic Church)
The canon law of the Catholic Church, is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code and principles of legal interpretation. It lacks the necessary binding force present in most modern day legal systems. The academic...
. The objectives of the inquisitions were to secure the repentance of the accused and to maintain the authority of the Church. Inquisitions were conducted with the collaboration of secular authorities. If an investigation resulted in a person being convicted of heresy and unwillingness to repent punishment was administered by the secular authorities.
Cathars and Waldensians
The two heresies that gave birth to the FrenchFrance in the Middle Ages
France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Louis the Pious in 840 to the middle of the 15th century...
medieval inquisition
Medieval Inquisition
The Medieval Inquisition is a series of Inquisitions from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition and later the Papal Inquisition...
s were that of the Cathars (also known as the Albigensians) and the Waldensians
Waldensians
Waldensians, Waldenses or Vaudois are names for a Christian movement of the later Middle Ages, descendants of which still exist in various regions, primarily in North-Western Italy. There is considerable uncertainty about the earlier history of the Waldenses because of a lack of extant source...
. The Cathars essentially believed that a “good god” created everything heavenly while an “evil god” – the God of the Old Testament
Old Testament
The Old Testament, of which Christians hold different views, is a Christian term for the religious writings of ancient Israel held sacred and inspired by Christians which overlaps with the 24-book canon of the Masoretic Text of Judaism...
– created the material world with the Church acting as its vehicle (Horvat 1998: 4). The Waldensians rejected the sacramental authority of the Church and its clerics and encouraged apostolic poverty
Apostolic poverty
Apostolic poverty is a doctrine professed in the thirteenth century by the newly formed religious orders, known as the mendicant orders, in direct response to calls for reform in the Roman Catholic Church...
(Peters 1988: 43). These movements became particularly popular in Southern France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
as well as Northern Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and parts of Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
. Protestant reformers in the sixteenth century often pointed to these movements as part of an underground reformed Church that had been the victim of persecution for centuries even though the Cathars had an unquestionably non-Reformed, dualistic perception of God (Peters 1988: 123).
The "Grand Program"
During the eleventh century, a new wave of religiosity swept through Europe. It claimed that the prospect of salvationSalvation
Within religion salvation is the phenomenon of being saved from the undesirable condition of bondage or suffering experienced by the psyche or soul that has arisen as a result of unskillful or immoral actions generically referred to as sins. Salvation may also be called "deliverance" or...
in the world would greatly increase if the world were reformed. In addition, the papacy itself underwent reform at the end of the eleventh century and the Church began devising its “grand program of sanctifying the world” (Peters 1988: 40). This “grand program” was a combination of the Church’s need to reform its institutional life, free itself from secular control, and to build a Christian society. There was also a growing opinion that those who rebelled from the church's beliefs (heretics) or those who behaved in a manner that was “un-Christian” were not simply souls led astray in a “temptation-filled world, but [were] subverters of the world’s new course” (Peters 1988: 40).
Until the late twelfth century, the investigation of heresy
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
was considered the responsibility of local churches and it was held that local secular authorities would prosecute heretics. However, in 1179, the Church’s “grand program of sanctifying the world” saw the creation of The Third Lateran Council that included a canon condemning heretics (Peters 1988: 47). In 1184, Pope Lucius III
Pope Lucius III
Pope Lucius III , born Ubaldo, was pope from 1 September 1181 to his death.A native of the independent republic of Lucca, he was born ca. 1100 as Ubaldo, son of Orlando. He is commonly referred to as a member of the aristocratic family of Allucingoli, but this is not proven...
issued the Ad abolendam
Ad abolendam
Ad abolendam was a decretal and bull of Pope Lucius III, written at Verona in November 1184. It was developed after the Council of Verona settled some jurisdictional differences between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa...
, labeled "the founding charter of the inquisition," that called for those found as heretics by the local church to be turned over to secular courts (Peters 1988: 47). Finally, in 1199, Pope Innocent III
Pope Innocent III
Pope Innocent III was Pope from 8 January 1198 until his death. His birth name was Lotario dei Conti di Segni, sometimes anglicised to Lothar of Segni....
equated heresy with treason and in 1208 called for a “crusade” against the Albigensians (Peters 1988: 50).
The Albigensian Crusade
According to Peters the violence of the following “Albigensian Crusade” was not in line with the reforms and plans of Innocent, who stressed confession, reform of the clergyClergy
Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. A clergyman, churchman or cleric is a member of the clergy, especially one who is a priest, preacher, pastor, or other religious professional....
and laity
Laity
In religious organizations, the laity comprises all people who are not in the clergy. A person who is a member of a religious order who is not ordained legitimate clergy is considered as a member of the laity, even though they are members of a religious order .In the past in Christian cultures, the...
, and pastoral teachings to oppose heresy (Peters 1988: 50-51). Peters asserts that the violence was due to the “crusade” being under the control of mobs, petty rulers, and local bishops who did not uphold Innocent’s ideas, armies from northern France swept through the south and essentially eradicated the Albigensians. The uncontainable, prejudicial passion of local mobs and heresy hunters, the violence of secular courts, and the bloodshed of the Albigensian crusade sparked a desire within the papacy to implement greater control over the prosecution of heresy. This desire led to the development of organized legal procedures for dealing with heretics (Peters 1988: 52-58).
Codes and torture
The new codes and procedures detailed how an inquisitorial court was to function. If the accused renounced their heresy and returned to the Church, forgiveness was granted and a penance was imposed. If the accused upheld their heresy, they were excommunicated and turned over to secular authorities. The penalties for heresy, though not as severe as the secular courts of Europe at the time, were codified within the ecclesiastic courts as well (e.g. confiscation of property, turning heretics over to the secular courts for punishment) (Horvat 1998: 7; Peters 1988: 58-67). Additionally, the various “key terms” of the inquisitorial courts were defined at this time, including, for example, “heretics,” “believers,” “those suspect of heresy,” “those simply suspected,” “those vehemently suspected,” and “those most vehemently suspected” (Peters 1988: 63).Generally, inquisitorial courts functioned much like the secular courts of the time, though their sentences and penances were less cruel. (Peters 1988: 65) A number of procedures and protections restricted the torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
of the accused, although much torture could be inflicted, and capital punishment was executed by secular authorities due to the clerical prohibition on shedding blood. (Peters 1988: 45) Torture was used to extract confession, rather than as a form of punishment as used by secular courts. Any confession made following or during torture had to be freely repeated the next day without torture or it was considered invalid (Peters 1988: 65). “Technically, therefore, torture was strictly a means of obtaining the only full proof available…[The inquisitors’] tasks were not only – or even primarily – to convict the contumacious heretic, but…to preserve the unity of the Church” (Peters 1988: 65).
After the suppression of the Albigensian heresy in southern France in the thirteenth century, inquisitorial trials diminished in the face of more pressing local needs, and any lingering trials were left to secular authorities. Inquisitorial courts conducted under local episcopacies worked closely with local secular authorities and dealt with local circumstances. Regional control of the inquisitorial process and regional concerns became dominant (Peters 1988: 74). By the mid to late fourteenth century papal-commissioned inquisitions had been dissolved in many parts of Europe.
Antisemitism and the "conversos"
Antisemitic attitudes increased all over Europe during the late thirteenth century and throughout the fourteenth century. England and France expelled their Jewish populations in 1290 and 1306 respectively (Peters 1988: 79). At the same time, during the ReconquistaReconquista
The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...
, Spain’s anti-Jewish sentiment steadily increased. This prejudice climaxed in the summer of 1391 when violent anti-Jewish riots broke out in Spanish cities like Barcelona
Barcelona
Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain after Madrid, and the capital of Catalonia, with a population of 1,621,537 within its administrative limits on a land area of...
(Peters 1988: 82). These mob riots led to major forced conversions of Jews to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. To distinguish them from non-converted or long-established Christian families, new converts were labeled conversos, or New Christians. These distinctions formed part of the limpieza de sangre
Limpieza de sangre
Limpieza de sangre , Limpeza de sangue or Neteja de sang , meaning "cleanliness of blood", played an important role in modern Iberian history....
("blood purity") doctrine.
Peters writes,
“From the mid fifteenth century on, religious anti-Semitism changed into ethnic anti-Semitism, with little difference seen between Jews and conversos except for the fact that conversos were regarded as worse than Jews because, as ostensible Christians, they had acquired privileges and positions that were denied to Jews. The result of this new ethnic anti-Semitism was the invocation of an inquisition to ferret out the false conversos who had, by becoming formal Christians, placed themselves under its authority” (Peters 1988: 84).
It was a heated mixture of this racial and religious prejudice against the conversos that ignited what later became known as the “Spanish InquisitionSpanish InquisitionThe Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition , commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition , was a tribunal established in 1480 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the Medieval...
.”
Papal Bull
Spanish monarchs FerdinandFerdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, jure uxoris King of Castile and then regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of...
and Isabella
Isabella I of Castile
Isabella I was Queen of Castile and León. She and her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon brought stability to both kingdoms that became the basis for the unification of Spain. Later the two laid the foundations for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor...
requested a papal bull
Papal bull
A Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a Pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it....
establishing an inquisition in Spain in 1478 in response to the unrest and mob violence against the conversos. Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV , born Francesco della Rovere, was Pope from 1471 to 1484. His accomplishments as Pope included the establishment of the Sistine Chapel; the group of artists that he brought together introduced the Early Renaissance into Rome with the first masterpiece of the city's new artistic age,...
granted a bull permitting the monarchs to select and appoint two or three priests over forty years of age to act as inquisitors (Peters 1988: 85). In 1483, Ferdinand and Isabella established a state council to administer the inquisition with the Dominican Friar Tomás de Torquemada
Tomás de Torquemada
Tomás de Torquemada, O.P. was a fifteenth century Spanish Dominican friar, first Inquisitor General of Spain, and confessor to Isabella I of Castile. He was described by the Spanish chronicler Sebastián de Olmedo as "The hammer of heretics, the light of Spain, the saviour of his country, the...
acting as its president, even though Sixtus IV protested the activities of the inquisition in Aragon
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
and its treatment of the conversos. Torquemada eventually assumed the title of Inquisitor-General (Peters 1988: 89).
The main heresy prosecuted during the period of inquisitions in Spain was the alleged secret practice of Judaism
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
among the conversos. From the establishment of the inquisitions up to 1530, it is estimated that approximately 2,000 “heretics” were turned over to the secular authorities for execution in Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
(Kamen 1997: 74). Many of those convicted of heresy were conversos who fled Spain, often to Italy where conversos were not subject to prejudice
Prejudice
Prejudice is making a judgment or assumption about someone or something before having enough knowledge to be able to do so with guaranteed accuracy, or "judging a book by its cover"...
(Peters 1988: 110).
There were so few Protestants in Spain that widespread persecution of Protestantism was not physically possible. In the 1560s, a little over one hundred people in Spain were convicted of Protestantism and were turned over to the secular authorities for execution. From 1560 to 1599, two hundred more people were accused of being followers of Martin Luther
Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...
. “Most of them were in no sense Protestants...Irreligious sentiments, drunken mockery, anticlerical expressions, were all captiously classified by the inquisitors (or by those who denounced the cases) as ‘Lutheran
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
’” (Kamen 1997: 98).
Procedure and torture
EvidenceEvidence
Evidence in its broadest sense includes everything that is used to determine or demonstrate the truth of an assertion. Giving or procuring evidence is the process of using those things that are either presumed to be true, or were themselves proven via evidence, to demonstrate an assertion's truth...
and witness
Witness
A witness is someone who has firsthand knowledge about an event, or in the criminal justice systems usually a crime, through his or her senses and can help certify important considerations about the crime or event. A witness who has seen the event first hand is known as an eyewitness...
testimony
Testimony
In law and in religion, testimony is a solemn attestation as to the truth of a matter. All testimonies should be well thought out and truthful. It was the custom in Ancient Rome for the men to place their right hand on a Bible when taking an oath...
was gathered before an arrest was made. Once an arrest was made, the accused was given several opportunities to admit to any heretical behavior before the charges against him/her were identified. If the accused did not admit to any wrongdoing, the inquisitors dictated the charges and the accused was required to respond to them immediately (Peters 1988: 93). Torture was used; however, it was allowed solely in cases that involved charges of religious heresy only. Because many inquisitorial trials did not involve heresy alone, torture was relatively rare. Additionally, the restrictions on torture in the inquisitorial courts were much more stringent than those that regulated the torture in the secular courts. Torture was only used for extracting confession
Confession
This article is for the religious practice of confessing one's sins.Confession is the acknowledgment of sin or wrongs...
s during a trial and was not used as punishment
Punishment
Punishment is the authoritative imposition of something negative or unpleasant on a person or animal in response to behavior deemed wrong by an individual or group....
after sentencing. If torture was utilized, the accused was required to repeat their repentance freely and without torture (Peters 1988: 92-93). The Inquisition also had a rule that they were only allowed to use torture once, however, they were able to 'suspend' sessions and resume them the following day, so that this rule was effectively negated.
As seen in the French inquisitions, the purpose of Spanish inquisitorial torture was to gain either information or confession, not to punish. It was used in a relatively small percentage of trials, since of course the threat of torture if no confession was given was often enough to induce one, and was usually a last resort (Kamen 1997: 174-192). The “scenes of sadism conjured up by popular writers on the inquisition have little basis in reality, though the whole procedure was unpleasant enough [even] to arouse periodic protests from Spaniards” (Kamen 1997: 189).
The auto de fe
The auto de fe that followed trials is the most infamous and misunderstood part of the inquisitions in Spain. The auto de fe involved prayer, a Catholic mass (liturgy)Mass (liturgy)
"Mass" is one of the names by which the sacrament of the Eucharist is called in the Roman Catholic Church: others are "Eucharist", the "Lord's Supper", the "Breaking of Bread", the "Eucharistic assembly ", the "memorial of the Lord's Passion and Resurrection", the "Holy Sacrifice", the "Holy and...
, a public procession of those found guilty, and a reading of their sentences (Peters 1988: 93-94). Artistic representations of the auto de fe usually depict torture and the burning at the stake. These paintings became a major source for creating the violent image popularly associated with the Spanish inquisitions. However, this type of activity never took place during an auto de fe, which was in essence a religious act. Torture was not administered after a trial concluded and executions were always held after and separate from the auto de fe (Kamen 1997: 192-213). Because the autos de fe officially separate torture and execution, all these events should be considered separate. Although some torture (routine throughout the continent at the time) may have been caused indirectly by the church it is not officially responsible for the murders committed during the inquisition.(Kamen 1997: 218)
Between 1550 and 1800, the inquisitions in Spain focused on not only Protestants, but also the conversos, the supervision of their own clergy, the general problem of non-mainstream religious beliefs among Catholics, and “blasphemous” or “scandalous” behavior (Peters 1988: 86). Spanish inquisitions were not exceptionally different from other European courts of the time in their prosecution of these offences, as many of these charges were viewed as part of a broad class of moral
Moral
A moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim...
crimes that raised legitimate concern to spiritual and secular courts in an age when religion was regarded as the fundamental foundation of society (Peters 1988: 87).
Context
Increasing trends in regionalism, the criticism of ecclesiastic abuses, the Avignon PapacyAvignon Papacy
The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven Popes resided in Avignon, in modern-day France. This arose from the conflict between the Papacy and the French crown....
, and the Great Schism all contributed to the emergence of new religious dissent and unrest in fourteenth and fifteenth century Italy. Furthermore, widespread ecclesiastical and clerical reform advanced through the last decades of the fifteenth century, and by the second decade of the sixteenth century, reform movements prevailed in many parts of Europe (Peters 1988: 106).
The protests raised by Martin Luther
Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...
that began in 1517 did not initially receive much attention from the papacy (Peters 1988: 107). Luther and his supporters concreted the principles of the Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
during the 1520s, sparking the development of many reform movements in various regions of Italy. By the time of the pontificate of Paul III, the Reform movement had swept much of Europe away from the Catholic Church. In response, Paul III issued the Licet ab initio, establishing inquisitions in Rome in 1542 (Peters 1988: 108). These inquisitions consisted of six cardinals given the authority to investigate heresy and to appoint deputies when they deemed necessary.
The creation of the Holy Office
Although the Roman inquisitions worked moderately and guardedly during the remainder of the pontificate of Paul III, they became an essential part of the structure of Rome when Paul IVPope Paul IV
Pope Paul IV, C.R. , né Giovanni Pietro Carafa, was Pope from 23 May 1555 until his death.-Early life:Giovanni Pietro Carafa was born in Capriglia Irpina, near Avellino, into a prominent noble family of Naples...
, who became pope in 1555, launched the Counter-Reformation
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
that Paul III began (Peters 1988: 108). Later, in 1588, Pope Sixtus V
Pope Sixtus V
Pope Sixtus V , born Felice Peretti di Montalto, was Pope from 1585 to 1590.-Early life:The chronicler Andrija Zmajević states that Felice's family originated from modern-day Montenegro...
officially organized the inquisitions into the Congregation of the Holy Roman and Universal Inquisition or Holy Office (Peters 1988: 109). It is important to note, however, that this was only one of fifteen administrative departments of the papal government and was not the sole operating body of the Church.
"Heresies" of the Italian Inquisitions
Even though the inquisitions in Spain prosecuted a small quantity of Reformers, the Roman inquisitions were the first to target intentionally and specifically the “heresy” of Protestantism. These inquisitions and their subordinate tribunals were generally successful in keeping any substantial Protestant influence from spreading throughout Italy (Peters 1988: 110). Protestants in the decades and centuries to come would use this relatively short-lived persecution as the basis for their accusations about the awful “Inquisition.” Protestant movements were reduced by around 1600, so for the duration of the seventeenth century the Roman inquisitions turned their focus to offences other than Protestantism, notably “magical” heresy (Peters 1988: 111).In many trials involving “witchcraft
Witchcraft
Witchcraft, in historical, anthropological, religious, and mythological contexts, is the alleged use of supernatural or magical powers. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft...
” or “sorcery,” “the inquisitors understood very well that the lack of catechesis or consistent pastoral guidance could often result in misunderstandings of doctrine and liturgy, and they showed tolerance
Toleration
Toleration is "the practice of deliberately allowing or permitting a thing of which one disapproves. One can meaningfully speak of tolerating, ie of allowing or permitting, only if one is in a position to disallow”. It has also been defined as "to bear or endure" or "to nourish, sustain or preserve"...
of all but the most unavoidably serious circumstances. Thus, although both the Spanish and Roman inquisitions prosecuted the offenses of witchcraft and sorcery very early and vigorously, they also were the first courts to be skeptical of the evidence and mechanism of witchcraft accusations, and they consistently offered the most lenient treatment to marginal cases” (Peters 1988: 111).
Italian historian Andrea Del Col estimates that out of 62,000 cases judged by Inquisition in Italy after 1542 only 2% (ca. 1250) ended with death sentence.
Evolution of the Holy Office
By the turn of the eighteenth century, the Congregation of the Holy Office had virtually no power or influence outside the Papal StatesPapal States
The Papal State, State of the Church, or Pontifical States were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia .The Papal States comprised territories under...
(Peters 1988: 119). Its main function shifted yet again to the investigation of clerical immorality and corruption and to the censoring
Censorship
thumb|[[Book burning]] following the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 coup]] that installed the [[Military government of Chile |Pinochet regime]] in Chile...
of printed books, the latter of which was the key responsibility of the Congregation of the Index (Peters 1988: 119). By 1860, the restrictions placed upon ecclesiastical authority and the emerging national Italian state only further reduced the activities of the Holy Office. With its powers reduced to the weakened Papal State, the Office became an advisory committee to the late nineteenth century popes, where it played a far greater advisory than executive role (Peters 1988: 120).
In 1965 Pope Paul VI
Pope Paul VI
Paul VI , born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini , reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 21 June 1963 until his death on 6 August 1978. Succeeding Pope John XXIII, who had convened the Second Vatican Council, he decided to continue it...
changed the Office’s name to The Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith and abolished the Congregation of the Index entirely in 1966. Since then, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith has functioned as a papal advisor on theological matters and on matters of ecclesiastical discipline. “Although its work is regular, the Congregation can now hardly be thought of as an Inquisition” (Peters 1988: 120).
The Creation of "The Inquisition"
The modern day notion of a unified and horrible “Inquisition” is an assemblage of the “body of legends and myths which, between the sixteenth and the twentieth centuries, established the perceived character of inquisitorial tribunals and influenced all ensuing efforts to recover their historical reality” (Peters 1988: 122). It was the relatively limited persecution of Protestants, mostly by the inquisitions in SpainSpain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, that provoked the first image of “The Inquisition” as the most violent and suppressive vehicle of the Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
against Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
. Later, philosophical critics of religious persecution and the Catholic Church only furthered this image during the Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
(Peters 1988: 122).
"A Protestant Vision..."
What made it possible for the Reformers to characterize “The Inquisition” was the clerical organization and support of the inquisitions in SpainSpain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, their “united” success in keeping Protestant doctrines out of their countries, and the fear of “The Inquisition” being initiated in other parts of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
. “As a Protestant vision of Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
history took shape in the sixteenth century, the contemporary inquisitions were identified with the inquisitorial tribunals of the medieval past, and the Protestant Reformers with earlier victims of The Inquisition ” (Peters 1988: 122). Additionally, Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
defenders of the inquisitorial process used the same argument – that the Reformers were no different from medieval heretics and should be prosecuted in the same manner – thus perpetuating the idea of a continuous, masterminded, “Inquisition” (Peters 1988: 123).
Within the climate of religious persecution that clouded much of the sixteenth century, martyrdom became a Protestant narrative of religious struggle against the Catholic Church, especially Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
. Reformers presented “The Inquisition” as a unified, papal-dominated process that lasted from the thirteenth century through the seventeenth century. They created accounts of Protestant martyr
Martyr
A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.-Meaning:...
s and a “hidden” Church, which produced extreme anti-Catholic attitudes (Peters 1988: 123). Additionally, European political resentment against Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, which was the greatest power in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
at the time, took focus on “The Inquisition.” This resentment and the resulting anti-“Inquisition” propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
that was published came to a head during the revolt of the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
against Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
(Peters 1988: 144).
The Revolt of the Netherlands
By around 1550, the DutchNetherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
“printing press
Printing press
A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium , thereby transferring the ink...
and propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
turned to the service of political reform, with The Inquisition as a major focus, on…a wide scale and with…devastating effects” (Peters 1988: 144). Even though the Dutch
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
organized their own state-run inquisitions, it was feared that King Philip II
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
would implement a new “Spanish Inquisition” in the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
to eliminate Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
. Popular literature, circulating pamphlets, and other images painted the picture of a widespread, awful “Spanish Inquisition.” Eventually, “The Inquisition” became viewed as the primary instrument of Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
tyranny, not only of Protestants, but also of freedom of thought and religion in general.
However, exporting the Inquisition to the Netherlands was never in the plans of the Spanish Habsburg rulers, at least after the time of Charles V
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
.
Montanus
In 1567, the Spanish Protestant Antonio del CorroAntonio del Corro
Antonio del Corro was a Spanish monk who became a Protestant convert. A noted Calvinist preacher and theologian, he taught at the University of Oxford and wrote the first Spanish grammar in English....
, a close relative of an inquisitor and ferocious enemy of the Spanish Inquisition, published A Discovery and Plaine Declaration of Sundry Subtill Practices of the Holy Inquisition of Spain under the pseudonym
Pseudonym
A pseudonym is a name that a person assumes for a particular purpose and that differs from his or her original orthonym...
Reginaldus Gonzalvus Montanus (Peters 1988: 133). This document, along with a number of successive publications, was reprinted and translated throughout Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and became the definitive source on “The Inquisition” for hundreds of years. “Montanus portray[ed] every victim of the Inquisition as innocent, every Inquisition official as venal and deceitful, [and] every step in its procedure as a violation of natural and rational law” (Peters 1988: 134). The majority of the “histories” about “The Inquisition” written after 1567 relied on Montanus as their main source.
William of Orange
Also cited as one of the most famous documents supporting the myth of “The Inquisition” is the Apologie of William of OrangeWilliam the Silent
William I, Prince of Orange , also widely known as William the Silent , or simply William of Orange , was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. He was born in the House of...
, published in 1581 (Peters 1988: 153). Written by the French Huguenot
Huguenot
The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France during the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the 17th century, people who formerly would have been called Huguenots have instead simply been called French Protestants, a title suggested by their German co-religionists, the...
Pierre Loyseleur de Villiers, the Apologie also narrated an horrific “Spanish Inquisition.” This document preserved and reinforced all of the anti-“Inquisition” propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
generated at the beginning and throughout the Dutch revolt
Dutch Revolt
The Dutch Revolt or the Revolt of the Netherlands This article adopts 1568 as the starting date of the war, as this was the year of the first battles between armies. However, since there is a long period of Protestant vs...
(Peters 1988: 153).
The Black Legend
During this time, EnglandEngland
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, under the rule of the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I and threatened with military attacks from Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, found a new surge of nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
being fueled by anti-Catholic propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
centered on a series of books and pamphlets that detailed the horror of the “Spanish Inquisition” (Peters 1988: 139-144). Peters writes, “An image of Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
circulated through late sixteenth-century Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, borne by means of political and religious propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
that blackened the characters of Spaniards and their ruler to such an extent that Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
became the symbol of all forces of repression, brutality, religious and political intolerance, and intellectual and artistic backwardness for the next four centuries. Spaniards…have termed this process and the image that resulted from it as ‘The Black Legend
Black Legend
The Black Legend refers to a style of historical writing that demonizes Spain and in particular the Spanish Empire in a politically motivated attempt to morally disqualify Spain and its people, and to incite animosity against Spanish rule...
,’ la leyenda negra” (Peters 1988: 131).
The Enlightenment and Art
By the seventeenth century, “The Inquisition” provided political and philosophical thinkers with an ideal symbol of religious intolerance. These philosophers and politicians passionately denounced “The Inquisition,” citing it as the cause for all the political and economic failures in countries where “Inquisitions” were held. From these debates on toleration, “The Inquisition” was presented by FrenchFrance
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
philosophes as the worst of any religious evil to ever come out of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
(Peters 1988: 155-154). Additionally, writers, artists, and sculptors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries used “The Inquisition” as one of their main inspirations, retaliating against “The Inquisition’s” suppression of creativity, literature, and art (Peters 1988: 189). These artistic images have arguably become some of the most long-lasting and effective perpetuators of “The Inquisition” myth.
See also
- InquisitionInquisitionThe Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
- Cardinal Ximenes
- Congregation for the Doctrine of the FaithCongregation for the Doctrine of the FaithThe Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith , previously known as the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition , and after 1904 called the Supreme...
- Execution by burningExecution by burningDeath by burning is death brought about by combustion. As a form of capital punishment, burning has a long history as a method in crimes such as treason, heresy, and witchcraft....
- List of Grand Inquisitors of SpainGrand InquisitorGrand Inquisitor is the lead official of an Inquisition. The most famous Inquisitor General is the Spanish Dominican Tomás de Torquemada, who spearheaded the Spanish Inquisition.-List of Spanish Grand Inquisitors:-Castile:-Aragon:...
- Historical revisionismHistorical revisionismIn historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of orthodox views on evidence, motivations, and decision-making processes surrounding a historical event...
- History of the Jews in SpainHistory of the Jews in SpainSpanish Jews once constituted one of the largest and most prosperous Jewish communities under Muslim and Christian rule in Spain, before the majority, together with resident Muslims, were forced to convert to Catholicism, be expelled or be killed when Spain became united under the Catholic Monarchs...
- Medieval InquisitionMedieval InquisitionThe Medieval Inquisition is a series of Inquisitions from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition and later the Papal Inquisition...
- Mexican InquisitionMexican InquisitionThe Mexican Inquisition was an extension of the Spanish Inquisition into the New World. The Spanish Conquest of Mexico was not only a political event for the Spanish, but a religious event as well. In the early 16th century, the Reformation, the Counter-Reformation and the Inquisition were in full...
- Peruvian InquisitionPeruvian InquisitionThe Peruvian Inquisition was established on January 9, 1570 and ended in 1820. It was reinstated under King Felipe II of Spain in 1569. The Holy Office and tribunal of the Peruvian Inquisition were located in Lima, Peru....
- Portuguese InquisitionPortuguese InquisitionThe Portuguese Inquisition was formally established in Portugal in 1536 at the request of the King of Portugal, João III. Manuel I had asked for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515 to fulfill the commitment of marriage with Maria of Aragon, but it was only after his death that the Pope...
- Roman InquisitionRoman InquisitionThe Roman Inquisition was a system of tribunals developed by the Holy See during the second half of the 16th century, responsible for prosecuting individuals accused of a wide array of crimes related to heresy, including Protestantism, sorcery, immorality, blasphemy, Judaizing and witchcraft, as...
- Spanish InquisitionSpanish InquisitionThe Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition , commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition , was a tribunal established in 1480 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the Medieval...
- Histoire de l'Inquisition en FranceHistoire de l'Inquisition en FranceHistoire de l'Inquisition en France is a book published in 1829 by Etienne Leon de Lamonthe-Langan, supposedly on the basis of his unprecedented access to Church archives in Toulouse, granted by one Bishop Hyacinthe Sermet...
Resources
- Peters, Edward. Inquisition. New York: The Free Press, 1988.
- Bradley, Gerard. “One Cheer for Inquisitions.” Catholic Dossier. Vol. 2, No. 6 (Nov-Dec, 1996).
- Carroll, Anne W. “The Inquisition.” Christ the King: Lord of History. Rockford Illinois: Tan Books and Publishers Inc, 1994. 207-211.
- Hitchock, James. “Inquisition.” Catholic Dossier. Vol. 2, No. 6 (Nov-Dec, 1996).
- Horvat, Marian. “The Holy Inquisition: Myth or Reality.” Catholic Family News. (Mar, 1998).
- Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition : A Historical Revision. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997.
- Kelly, Henry A. “Inquisition and the Prosecution of Heresy: Misconceptions and Abuses.” Church History. Vol. 58, No. 4 (Dec, 1989). 439-451.
- Madden, Thomas F.Thomas MaddenThomas F. Madden is an American historian, a former Chair of the History Department at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri, and Director of Saint Louis University's Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies...
“The Real Inquisition: Investigating the Popular Myth.” National Review OnlineNational ReviewNational Review is a biweekly magazine founded by the late author William F. Buckley, Jr., in 1955 and based in New York City. It describes itself as "America's most widely read and influential magazine and web site for conservative news, commentary, and opinion."Although the print version of the...
. June 18, 2004. - O’Connell, Marvin R. “The Spanish Inquisition: Fact Versus Fiction.” Catholic Dossier. Vol. 2, No. 6 (Nov-Dec, 1996).
- Parker, Geoffrey. “Some Recent Work on the Inquisition in Spain and Italy.” The Journal of Modern History. Vol. 54, No. 3 (Sept, 1982). 519-532.
- Rice, Ellen. “The Myth of the Spanish Inquisition.” Catholic Dossier. Vol. 2, No. 6 (Nov-Dec, 1996).
- Sanchez, M. G. Anti-Spanish Sentiment in English Literary and Political Writing. (PhD Diss, University of Leeds, 2004).
- Van Hove, S.J., Fr. Brian. “Beyond the Myth of The Inquisition: Ours is ‘The Golden Age’.” Faith and Reason. (Winter, 1992).
External links
- FAQ on the Inquisition by James Hannam