Outline of cell biology
Encyclopedia
Cell biology
Cell biology
Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
(formerly cytology, from the Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
kytos, "container") – academic discipline that studies cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s – their physiological
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle
Cell cycle
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
, division
Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
and death
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...
. This is done both on a microscopic
Microscope
A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy...
and molecular
Molecule
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their electrical charge...
level. Cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
biology research extends to both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms like human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s.
Essence of cell biology
- Main article: Cell biologyCell biologyCell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
- CellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
– the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is sometimes called the building block of life.- Etymology of "cell" – comes from the LatinLatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
cellula, meaning, a small room. This name was chosen by Robert HookeRobert HookeRobert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath.His adult life comprised three distinct periods: as a scientific inquirer lacking money; achieving great wealth and standing through his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty following the great fire of 1666, but...
in a book he published in 1665 when he compared the corkCork (material)Cork is an impermeable, buoyant material, a prime-subset of bark tissue that is harvested for commercial use primarily from Quercus suber , which is endemic to southwest Europe and northwest Africa...
cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in.
- Etymology of "cell" – comes from the Latin
- Cell theoryCell theoryCell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 17th century was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology...
- Theory which states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. - Cell biologyCell biologyCell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
- (formerly cytology) The study of cells. - Cell divisionCell divisionCell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
- The process of one parent cell separating into two or more daughter cells. - Endosymbiotic theoryEndosymbiotic theoryThe endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids , and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts...
- The evolutionary theory that certain eukaryotic organelles originated as separate prokaryotic organisms which were taken inside the cell as endosymbionts. - Cellular respirationCellular respirationCellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
- The metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell membrane to get biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells' waste products. - Lipid bilayerLipid bilayerThe lipid bilayer is a thin membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around cells. The cell membrane of almost all living organisms and many viruses are made of a lipid bilayer, as are the membranes surrounding the cell nucleus...
- A membrane composed of lipid molecules (usually phospholipids). The lipid bilayer is a critical component of all biological membranes, particularly cell membranes this is not all true and realiable
- Cell
Aspects of cells
- HomeostasisHomeostasisHomeostasis is the property of a system that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition of properties like temperature or pH...
- The property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living organism, that regulates its internal environmentMilieu interieurMilieu intérieur or interior milieu, from the French, milieu intérieur, is a term coined by Claude Bernard to refer to the extra-cellular fluid environment, and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular living organisms.-Origin:Claude...
so as to maintain a stable, constant condition. - LifeLifeLife is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
- A condition of growth through metabolism, reproduction, and the power of adaptation to environment through changes originating internally. - MicroscopicMicroscopicThe microscopic scale is the scale of size or length used to describe objects smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked eye and which require a lens or microscope to see them clearly.-History:...
- A term used to described those objects, like cells, which are too small to be seen easily by the naked eye and which require a lens or microscope to see them clearly. - Unicellular - Organisms which are composed of only one cell.
- MulticellularMulticellular organismMulticellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms. Most life that can be seen with the the naked eye is multicellular, as are all animals and land plants.-Evolutionary history:Multicellularity has evolved independently dozens of times...
- Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having differentiated cells that perform specialized functions. - TissuesTissue (biology)Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
- A collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. - Cellular differentiationCellular differentiationIn developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...
- A concept in developmental biology whereby less specialized cells become a more specialized cell type in multicellular organisms.
By organism
- EukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
- Organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures enclosed within membranes, including plantPlantPlants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s, animalAnimalAnimals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
s, fungi, and protistProtistProtists are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. Historically, protists were treated as the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms, but this group is contested in modern taxonomy...
s.- Animal cell - Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Animalia, characteristically having no cell wall or chloroplasts.
- Plant cellPlant cellPlant cells are eukaryotic cells that differ in several key respects from the cells of other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features include:...
- Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Plantae and having chloroplasts, celluloseCelluloseCellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
cell walls, and large central vacuoles. - Fungal hyphaHyphaA hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
- The basic cellular unit of organisms in kingdom fungi. Typically tubular, multinucleated, and with a chitinChitinChitin n is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and is found in many places throughout the natural world...
ous cell wall. - ProtistProtistProtists are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. Historically, protists were treated as the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms, but this group is contested in modern taxonomy...
a - A highly variable kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which are mostly unicellular and not plants, animals, or fungi.
- ProkaryoteProkaryoteThe prokaryotes are a group of organisms that lack a cell nucleus , or any other membrane-bound organelles. The organisms that have a cell nucleus are called eukaryotes. Most prokaryotes are unicellular, but a few such as myxobacteria have multicellular stages in their life cycles...
- A group of organisms whose cells lack a membrane-bound cell nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelles, including bacteriaBacteriaBacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
and archaeaArchaeaThe Archaea are a group of single-celled microorganisms. A single individual or species from this domain is called an archaeon...
.- Bacterial cellsBacterial cell structureBacteria, despite their simplicity, contain a well-developed cell structure which is responsible for many of their unique biological properties. Many structural features are unique to bacteria and are not found among archaea or eukaryotes...
- A prokaryotic cell belonging to the mostly unicellular Domain Bacteria. - Archea cell - A cell belonging to the prokaryotic and single-celled microorganisms in Domain Archea.
- Bacterial cells
By function
- GameteGameteA gamete is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually...
- A haploid reproductive cell. Sperm and ova are gametes. Gametes fuse with another gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually.- SpermSpermThe term sperm is derived from the Greek word sperma and refers to the male reproductive cells. In the types of sexual reproduction known as anisogamy and oogamy, there is a marked difference in the size of the gametes with the smaller one being termed the "male" or sperm cell...
- Male reproductive cell (a gamete). - OvumOvumAn ovum is a haploid female reproductive cell or gamete. Both animals and embryophytes have ova. The term ovule is used for the young ovum of an animal, as well as the plant structure that carries the female gametophyte and egg cell and develops into a seed after fertilization...
- Female reproductive cell (a gamete).
- Sperm
- ZygoteZygoteA zygote , or zygocyte, is the initial cell formed when two gamete cells are joined by means of sexual reproduction. In multicellular organisms, it is the earliest developmental stage of the embryo...
- A cell that is the result of fertilization (the fusing of two gametes).- EggEgg (biology)An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
- The zygote of most birds and reptiles, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. The largest existing single cells currently known are (fertilized) eggs.
- Egg
- Meristemic cellMeristemA meristem is the tissue in most plants consisting of undifferentiated cells , found in zones of the plant where growth can take place....
- Undifferentiated plants cells analogous to animal stem cells. - Stem cellStem cellThis article is about the cell type. For the medical therapy, see Stem Cell TreatmentsStem cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms, that can divide and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells...
- Undifferentiated cells found in most multi-cellular organisms which are capable of retaining the ability to reinvigorate themselves through mitotic cell division and can differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types. - Germ cellGerm cellA germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually. In many animals, the germ cells originate near the gut of an embryo and migrate to the developing gonads. There, they undergo cell division of two types, mitosis and meiosis, followed by...
- GameteGameteA gamete is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually...
s and gonocytes, these are often . Germ cells should not be confused with "germs" (pathogenPathogenA pathogen gignomai "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus that causes disease in its animal or plant host...
s). - Somatic cellSomatic cellA somatic cell is any biological cell forming the body of an organism; that is, in a multicellular organism, any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell...
- any cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s forming the body of an organism, as opposed to germlineGermlineIn biology and genetics, the germline of a mature or developing individual is the line of germ cells that have genetic material that may be passed to a child.For example, gametes such as the sperm or the egg, are part of the germline...
cells.
General cellular anatomy
- Cellular compartmentCellular compartmentCellular compartments in cell biology comprise all closed parts within a cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. Most organelles are compartments like mitochondria, chloroplasts , peroxisomes, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cell nucleus or the Golgi apparatus...
- All closed parts within a cell whose lumen is usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. - OrganelleOrganelleIn cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer....
s - a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane or traditionally any subcellular functional unit.
Organelles
- Cell nucleusCell nucleusIn cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these...
- a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryoticEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
cellsCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
. It contains most of the cell's genetic materialGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
, organized as multiple long linear DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
molecules in complex with a large variety of proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s, such as histoneHistoneIn biology, histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene regulation...
s, to form chromosomeChromosomeA chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
s. - MitochondrionMitochondrionIn cell biology, a mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These organelles range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter...
- a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Often called "cellular power plants", mitochondria generate most of cells' supply of adenosine triphosphateAdenosine triphosphateAdenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
(ATP), the body's main source of energyChemical energyChemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or, to transform other chemical substances...
. - ChloroplastChloroplastChloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis.Chloroplasts are green...
- organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. - LysosomeLysosomethumb|350px|Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. [[Organelle]]s: [[nucleoli]] [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] [[ribosomes]] [[vesicle |vesicle]] rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]]...
- organelles that contain digestive enzymeDigestive enzyme'Digestive enzymes' are enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tract of animals where they aid in the digestion of food as well as inside the cells,...
s (acid hydrolaseHydrolaseIn biochemistry, a hydrolase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a chemical bond. For example, an enzyme that catalyzed the following reaction is a hydrolase:-Nomenclature:...
s). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed virusVirusA virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es or bacteriaBacteriaBacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
. - VesicleVesicle (biology)A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes , or...
- a relatively small intracellular, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances . - Golgi apparatusGolgi apparatusThe Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi, after whom the Golgi apparatus is named....
- a eukaryotic organelle that processes and packages macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell; it is a part of the endomembrane systemEndomembrane systemThe endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles...
. - Endoplasmic reticulumEndoplasmic reticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle of cells in eukaryotic organisms that forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae...
- an organelle composed of an interconnected network of tubules, vesiclesVesicle (biology)A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes , or...
and cisternaCisternaA cisterna comprises a flattened membrane disk that makes up the Golgi apparatus. A typical Golgi has anywhere from 3 to 7 cisternae stacked upon each other like a stack of dinner plates, but there are usually around 6...
e.- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - sections of endoplasmic reticulum which are not studded with ribosomes which is connected to the nuclear envelopeNuclear envelopeA nuclear envelope is a double lipid bilayer that encloses the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. The nuclear envelope also serves as the physical barrier, separating the contents of the nucleus from the cytosol...
. It is has functions in several metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and calcium concentration, drug detoxification, and attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins. - Rough endoplasmic reticulum - sections of the endoplasmic reticulum which are studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). Its primary function is the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins.
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - sections of endoplasmic reticulum which are not studded with ribosomes which is connected to the nuclear envelope
- PeroxisomePeroxisomePeroxisomes are organelles found in virtually all eukaryotic cells. They are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids, polyamines, and biosynthesis of plasmalogens, etherphospholipids critical for the normal function of mammalian brains...
- ubiquitous organelleOrganelleIn cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer....
s in eukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
s that participate in the metabolism of fatty acids and other metabolites. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
of toxic peroxides. - VacuoleVacuoleA vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain...
- membrane-bound compartments within some eukaryotic cells that can serve a variety of secretory, excretory, and storage functions. - NucleolusNucleolusThe nucleolus is a non-membrane bound structure composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the nucleus. Ribosomal RNA is transcribed and assembled within the nucleolus...
- a roughly spherical sub-organelle of the cell nucleus. Its main function is to produce and assemble ribosome components (i.e. RNA, proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s). - RibosomeRibosomeA ribosome is a component of cells that assembles the twenty specific amino acid molecules to form the particular protein molecule determined by the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule....
- complexes of RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
and proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
that are found in all cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s. Ribosomes build proteins from the genetic instructions held within messenger RNAMessenger RNAMessenger RNA is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein...
. - CentrosomeCentrosomeIn cell biology, the centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression. It was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883...
- the main microtubule organizing center of animal cells as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.
Structures
- Cell membraneCell membraneThe cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
- (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma or "phospholipid bilayer") is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells; it contains a wide array of functional macromolecules. - Cell wallCell wallThe cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
- a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural support, protection, and acts as a filtering mechanism. - CytoskeletonCytoskeletonThe cytoskeleton is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within a cell's cytoplasm and is made out of protein. The cytoskeleton is present in all cells; it was once thought to be unique to eukaryotes, but recent research has identified the prokaryotic cytoskeleton...
- is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within the cytoplasm it is composed of three types of fibers: microfilamentMicrofilamentMicrofilaments are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton, a structure found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. These linear polymers of actin subunits are flexible and relatively strong, resisting buckling by multi-piconewton compressive forces and filament fracture by nanonewton...
s, intermediate filamentIntermediate filamentIntermediate filaments are a family of related proteins that share common structural and sequence features. Intermediate filaments have an average diameter of 10 nanometers, which is between that of 7 nm actin , and that of 25 nm microtubules, although they were initially designated...
s, and microtubuleMicrotubuleMicrotubules are a component of the cytoskeleton. These rope-like polymers of tubulin can grow as long as 25 micrometers and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of microtubule is about 25 nm. Microtubules are important for maintaining cell structure, providing platforms for intracellular...
s. - CentrioleCentrioleA Centriole is a barrel-shaped cell structure found in most animal eukaryotic cells, though it is absent in higher plants and most fungi. The walls of each centriole are usually composed of nine triplets of microtubules...
- A barrel shaped microtubule structure found in most eukaryotic cells other than those of plants and fungi. - Spindle fiber - The structure that separates the chromosomes into the daughter cells during cell division.
- CytoplasmCytoplasmThe cytoplasm is a small gel-like substance residing between the cell membrane holding all the cell's internal sub-structures , except for the nucleus. All the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms are contained within the cytoplasm...
- a gelatinous, semi-transparent fluid that fills most cells, it includes all cytosol, organelles and cytoplasmic inclusions. - CytosolCytosolThe cytosol or intracellular fluid is the liquid found inside cells, that is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into compartments....
- is the internal fluid of the cell, and where a portion of cell metabolism occurs. - Inclusions - chemical substances found suspended directly in the cytosol.
- ChromosomeChromosomeA chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
- organized structures of DNA and proteins that are found in cells. - PlasmidPlasmidIn microbiology and genetics, a plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and can replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA. They are double-stranded and, in many cases, circular...
- an extrachromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA and capable of sexual replication, it is typically ring shaped and found in bacteria.
Molecules
- DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. - RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
-Ribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid made from a long chain of nucleotide , in a cell it is typically transcribed from DNA. - Enzymes - Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (i.e. accelerate) the rates of specific chemical reactions within cells.
Cellular metabolism
- Metabolic pathwayMetabolic pathwayIn biochemistry, metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal chemical is modified by a series of chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function...
- A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell which ultimately lead to sequestering of energy. - GlycolysisGlycolysisGlycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+...
- The foundational process of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. - Citric acid cycleCitric acid cycleThe citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle , the Krebs cycle, or the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle — is a series of chemical reactions which is used by all aerobic living organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and...
- Also known as the Krebs cycle, an important aerobic metabolic pathway. - Alcoholic fermentation - The anaerobic metabolic process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and thereby producing ethanol, and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products.
- Lactic acid fermentationLactic acid fermentationLactic acid fermentation is a biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic byproduct lactate. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such as muscle cells, in the...
- An anaerobic metabolic process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic waste product lactic acid. - Electron transport chainElectron transport chainAn electron transport chain couples electron transfer between an electron donor and an electron acceptor with the transfer of H+ ions across a membrane. The resulting electrochemical proton gradient is used to generate chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate...
- a biochemical process which associates electron carriers (such as NADH and FADH2) and mediating biochemical reactions that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is a major energy intermediate in living organisms. Typically occurs across a cellular membrane. - PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
- The conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms.- Calvin cycleCalvin cycleThe Calvin cycle or Calvin–Benson-Bassham cycle or reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle or CBB cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms...
- A series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is one of the light-independent reactions or dark reactions. - Z scheme reactions - A series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the grana of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is one of the light-dependent reactions or light reactions.
- Calvin cycle
- ChemosynthesisChemosynthesisIn biochemistry, chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic molecules or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis...
- The biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules (usually carbon dioxide or methane) and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic molecules (e.g. hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis. - ATPAdenosine triphosphateAdenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
- A multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a "molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer. - NADHNicotinamide adenine dinucleotideNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD, is a coenzyme found in all living cells. The compound is a dinucleotide, since it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine base and the other nicotinamide.In metabolism, NAD is involved...
- A coenzyme found in all living cells which serves as an important electronElectronThe electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
carrier in metabolic processes. - Pyruvate - Is the "energy-molecule" output of the aerobic metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis.
- GlucoseGlucoseGlucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
- an important simple sugarSugarSugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
used by cells as a source of energy and as a metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Cellular reproduction
- InterphaseInterphaseInterphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for cell division. In preparation for cell division, it increases its size and makes a copy of its DNA...
- The stages of the cell cycle that prepare the cell for division. - Binary fission - The process of cell division used by prokaryotes.
- Cell cycleCell cycleThe cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
- The series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its replication. - Meosis - The process of cell division used to create gametes in sexually reproductive eukaryotes.
- MitosisMitosisMitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly...
- In eukaryotes, the process of division of the nucleus and genetic material.- ProphaseProphaseProphase, from the ancient Greek πρό and φάσις , is a stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome in which the chromatin becomes visible. This process, called chromatin condensation, is mediated by the condensin complex...
- The stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to breakup. - MetaphaseMetaphaseMetaphase, from the ancient Greek μετά and φάσις , is a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which condensed & highly coiled chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells...
- The stage of mitosis in which condensed chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells. - AnaphaseAnaphaseAnaphase, from the ancient Greek ἀνά and φάσις , is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell....
- The stage of mitosis when chromatidChromatidA chromatid is one of the two identical copies of DNA making up a duplicated chromosome, which are joined at their centromeres, for the process of cell division . They are called sister chromatids so long as they are joined by the centromeres...
s (identical copies of chromosomes) separate as they are pulled towards opposite poles within the cell. - TelophaseTelophaseTelophase from the ancient Greek "τελος" and "φασις" , is a stage in both meiosis and mitosis in a eukaryotic cell. During telophase, the effects of prophase and prometaphase events are reversed. Two daughter nuclei form in the cell. The nuclear envelopes of the daughter cells are formed from the...
- The stage of mitosis when the nucleus reforms and chromosomes unravel into longer chromatin structures for reentry into interphase.
- Prophase
- CytokinesisCytokinesisCytokinesis is the process in which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells. It usually initiates during the late stages of mitosis, and sometimes meiosis, splitting a binucleate cell in two, to ensure that chromosome number is maintained from one generation...
- The process cells use to divide their cytoplasm and organelles.
Miscellaneous cellular processes
- OsmosisOsmosisOsmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, aiming to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides...
- the diffusion of water through a cell wall or membrane or any partially-permeable barrier from a solution of low solute concentration to a solution with high solute concentration. - Passive transportPassive transportPassive transport means moving biochemicals and other atomic or molecular substances across membranes. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve chemical energy, because, unlike in an active transport, the transport across membrane is always coupled with the growth of entropy of the...
- Movement of molecules into and out of cells without the input of cellular energy. - Active transportActive transportActive transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient . In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine...
- Movement of molecules into and out of cells with the input of cellular energy. - Phagocytosis - the process a cell uses when engulfing solid particles into the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome, or "food vacuole."
- Programmed cell deathProgrammed cell deathProgrammed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
- The death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program (ex. Apoptosis or AutophagyAutophagyIn cell biology, autophagy, or autophagocytosis, is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. It is a tightly regulated process that plays a normal part in cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance...
). - ApoptosisApoptosisApoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...
- a series of biochemical events leading to a characteristic cell morphology and death, which is not caused by damage to the cell. - AutophagyAutophagyIn cell biology, autophagy, or autophagocytosis, is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. It is a tightly regulated process that plays a normal part in cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance...
- The process whereby cells "eat" their own internal components or microbial invaders. - Cell senescence - The phenomenon where normal diploid differentiated cells lose the ability to divide after about 50 cell divisions.
- Cell signalingCell signalingCell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue...
- Regulation of cell behavior by signals from outside. - AdhesionCell adhesionCellular adhesion is the binding of a cell to a surface, extracellular matrix or another cell using cell adhesion molecules such as selectins, integrins, and cadherins. Correct cellular adhesion is essential in maintaining multicellular structure...
- Holding together cells and tissues. - MotilityMotilityMotility is a biological term which refers to the ability to move spontaneously and actively, consuming energy in the process. Most animals are motile but the term applies to single-celled and simple multicellular organisms, as well as to some mechanisms of fluid flow in multicellular organs, in...
and cell migrationCell migrationCell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing and immune responses all require the orchestrated movement of cells in particular directions to specific locations...
- The various means for a cell to move, guided by cues in its environment - Cytoplasmic streamingCytoplasmic streamingCytoplasmic streaming is the directed flow of cytosol and organelles around large fungal and plant cells. This movement aids in the delivery of nutrients, metabolites, genetic information, and other materials to all parts of the cell...
- flowing of cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. - TranscriptionTranscription (genetics)Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct enzymes...
- Fundamental process of gene expression through turning DNA segment into a functional unit of RNA. - DNA repairDNA repairDNA repair refers to a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome. In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as UV light and radiation can cause DNA damage, resulting in as many as 1...
- The process used by cells to fix damaged DNA sections.
Applied cell biology concepts
- Cell therapyCell therapyCell therapy describes the process of introducing new cells into a tissue in order to treat a disease. Cell therapies often focus on the treatment of hereditary diseases, with or without the addition of gene therapy...
- the process of introducing new cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s into a tissueBiological tissueTissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
in order to treat a diseaseDiseaseA disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
. - CloningCloningCloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments , cells , or...
- processes used to create copies of DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
fragments (molecular cloning), cellsCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
(cell cloning), or organisms. - Cell disruptionCell disruptionCell disruption is a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.- Choice of disruption method:The production of biologically-interesting molecules using cloning and culturing methods allows the study and manufacture of relevant molecules.Except for excreted molecules,...
- a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.
Laboratory procedures
- Cell cultureCell cultureCell culture is the complex process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions. In practice, the term "cell culture" has come to refer to the culturing of cells derived from singlecellular eukaryotes, especially animal cells. However, there are also cultures of plants, fungi and microbes,...
- Cell disruptionCell disruptionCell disruption is a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.- Choice of disruption method:The production of biologically-interesting molecules using cloning and culturing methods allows the study and manufacture of relevant molecules.Except for excreted molecules,...
, cell disruption by nitrogen decompressionCell disruption by nitrogen decompressionCell disruption by rapid decompression is one of several methods of cell disruption and is also called explosive decompression or cell bomb.- Applications :The technique is used to:* Homogenize cells and tissues* Release intact organelles... - Cell fractionationCell fractionationCell fractionation is the separation of homogeneous sets, usually organelles, from a heterogeneous population of cells.-Steps:There are three principal steps involved:#Disruption of cells and liberation of organelles.#Macro Filtration...
- Cell incubator
- Cyto-StainCyto-StainCyto-Stain, or CytoStain, is commercially available mix of staining dyes for polychromatic staining in histology. It provides results comparable to Papanicolaou staining, but in less number of operations and in shorter time...
- Fluorescent-activated cell sorting
- Hfr cellHfr cellAn Hfr cell is a bacterium with a conjugative plasmid integrated into its genomic DNA. Hfr is the abbreviation for high frequency recombination, which was first characterized by Luca Cavalli-Sforza...
- high frequency recombination - Spinner (Cell Culture)Spinner (Cell Culture)A Spinner is a type of bioreactor which features an impeller, stirrer or similar device to agitate the contents...
History of cell biology
- Main article: History of cell biology and see also Cell biologists below
The history of cell biology is intertwined with the history of biochemistry
History of biochemistry
The history of biochemistry spans approximately 400 years. Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the word "biochemistry" was first proposed in 1903 by Carl Neuberg, a German chemist....
and the history of molecular biology
History of molecular biology
The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and virology...
. Other articles pertaining to the history of cell biology include:
- History of cell theory, embryology and germ theory
- History of biochemistry, microbiology, and molecular biology
- History of the optical microscope
- Timeline of microscope technologyTimeline of microscope technologyTimeline of microscope technology* 1590 - Dutch spectacle-makers Hans Jansen and his son Zacharias Jansen, claimed by later writers to have invented a compound microscope....
Past
- Karl August Möbius - In 1884 first observed the structures that would later be called "organelles".
- Bengt LidforssBengt LidforssBengt Lidforss was a prominent Swedish socialist, and an accomplished natural scientist and writer.- Biography :...
- Coined the word "organells" which later became "organelle". - Robert HookeRobert HookeRobert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath.His adult life comprised three distinct periods: as a scientific inquirer lacking money; achieving great wealth and standing through his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty following the great fire of 1666, but...
- Coined the word "cell" after looking at cork under a microscope. - Anton van LeeuwenhoekAnton van LeeuwenhoekAntonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist...
- First observed microscopic single celled organisms in apparently clean water. - Hans Adolf KrebsHans Adolf KrebsSir Hans Adolf Krebs was a German-born British physician and biochemist. Krebs is best known for his identification of two important metabolic cycles: the urea cycle and the citric acid cycle...
- Discovered the citric acid cycleCitric acid cycleThe citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle , the Krebs cycle, or the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle — is a series of chemical reactions which is used by all aerobic living organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and...
in 1937. - Konstantin MereschkowskiKonstantin MereschkowskiKonstantin Mereschcowsky was a prominent Russian biologist, botanist and advocate of eugenics active mainly around Kazan, whose research on lichens led him to propose the theory of symbiogenesis - that larger, more complex cells evolved from the symbiotic relationship between less complex ones...
- Russian botanist who in 1905 described the Theory of EndosymbiosisEndosymbiotic theoryThe endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids , and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts...
. - Edmund Beecher WilsonEdmund Beecher WilsonEdmund Beecher Wilson was a pioneering American zoologist and geneticist. He wrote one of the most famous textbooks in the history of modern biology, The Cell.- Career :...
- Known as America's first cellular biologist, discovered the sex chromosome arrangement in humans. - Albert ClaudeAlbert ClaudeAlbert Claude was a Belgian biologist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 with Christian de Duve and George Emil Palade. He studied engineering, and then medicine...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - Theodor BoveriTheodor Boveri-External links:* Fritz Baltzer. . excerpt from . University of California Press, Berkeley; pp. 85–97....
- In 1888 identified the centrosome and described it as the 'special organ of cell division.' - Peter D. MitchellPeter D. MitchellPeter Dennis Mitchell, FRS was a British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.Mitchell was born in Mitcham, Surrey, England....
- British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.
Current
- Lynn MargulisLynn MargulisLynn Margulis was an American biologist and University Professor in the Department of Geosciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She is best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions to the endosymbiotic theory, which is now generally accepted...
- An American biologist best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions and support of the endosymbiotic theory. - Günter BlobelGünter Blobel-Biography:Blobel was born in Waltersdorf in the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia. In January 1945 his family fled from native Silesia from the advancing Red Army. On their way to the West they passed through the beautiful old city of Dresden, which left deep impressions in the young boy...
- An American biologist who won a Nobel Prize for protein targetingProtein targetingProtein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Sorting targets can be the inner space of an organelle, any of several interior membranes, the cell's outer membrane, or its exterior via secretion...
in cells. - Peter AgrePeter AgrePeter Agre is an American medical doctor, professor, and molecular biologist who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of aquaporins. Aquaporins are water-channel proteins that move water molecules through the cell membrane...
- An American chemist who won a Nobel Prize for discovering cellular aquaporins. - Christian de DuveChristian de DuveChristian René, viscount de Duve is a Nobel Prize-winning cytologist and biochemist. De Duve was born in Thames Ditton, Surrey, Great Britain, as a son of Belgian refugees. They returned to Belgium in 1920...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - George Emil PaladeGeorge Emil PaladeGeorge Emil Palade was a Romanian cell biologist. Described as "the most influential cell biologist ever", in 1974 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine, together with Albert Claude and Christian de Duve. The prize was granted for his innovations in electron microscopy and...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - Ira MellmanIra MellmanIra Mellman, Ph.D. is an American cell biologist who discovered endosomes. He serves as Vice President of Research Oncology at Genentech in South San Francisco, California.-Research:...
- an American cell biologist who discovered endosomes. - Paul NursePaul NurseSir Paul Maxime Nurse, PRS is a British geneticist and cell biologist. He was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Leland H. Hartwell and R...
- Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. - Leland H. HartwellLeland H. HartwellLeland Harrison Hartwell is former president and director of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington. He shared the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Paul Nurse and R...
- Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. - R. Timothy Hunt - Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases.
- Geoffrey M. CooperGeoffrey M. CooperGeoffrey M. Cooper is a chairman and professor of biology at Boston University. He earned his Ph.D. at the University of Miami in 1973 working with nobel laureate Howard Temin. His work includes cellular growth control, cancer, and signal transduction...
- Professor of cell biology at Boston University.
Closely allied sciences
- CytochemistryCytochemistryCytochemistry is the biochemistry of cells, especially that of the macromolecules responsible for cell structure and function...
- the biochemistryBiochemistryBiochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
of cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s, especially that of the macromoleculeMacromoleculeA macromolecule is a very large molecule commonly created by some form of polymerization. In biochemistry, the term is applied to the four conventional biopolymers , as well as non-polymeric molecules with large molecular mass such as macrocycles...
s responsible for cell structureStructureStructure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
and function. - CytopathologyCytopathologyCytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. A common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, used as a screening tool, to detect precancerous cervical lesions and prevent cervical...
- a branch of pathologyPathologyPathology is the precise study and diagnosis of disease. The word pathology is from Ancient Greek , pathos, "feeling, suffering"; and , -logia, "the study of". Pathologization, to pathologize, refers to the process of defining a condition or behavior as pathological, e.g. pathological gambling....
that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The most common use of cytopathology is the Pap smearPap smearThe Papanicolaou test is a screening test used in to detect pre-cancerous and cancerous processes in the endocervical canal of the female reproductive system. Changes can be treated, thus preventing cervical cancer...
, used to detect cervical cancer at an early treatable stage. - GeneticsGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
- the scienceScienceScience is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
of heredityHeredityHeredity is the passing of traits to offspring . This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause some species to evolve...
and variationGenetic variationGenetic variation, variation in alleles of genes, occurs both within and among populations. Genetic variation is important because it provides the “raw material” for natural selection. Genetic variation is brought about by mutation, a change in a chemical structure of a gene. Polyploidy is an...
in living organismOrganismIn biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s. - BiochemistryBiochemistryBiochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
- the study of the chemicalChemistryChemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
processes in living organismOrganismIn biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s. It deals with the structureStructureStructure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
and function of cellular components, such as proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s, carbohydrateCarbohydrateA carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
s, lipidLipidLipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
s, nucleic acidNucleic acidNucleic acids are biological molecules essential for life, and include DNA and RNA . Together with proteins, nucleic acids make up the most important macromolecules; each is found in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information...
s, and other biomoleculeBiomoleculeA biomolecule is any molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large polymeric molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products...
s. - Molecular biologyMolecular biologyMolecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
- the study of biologyBiologyBiology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
at a molecular level, including the various systems of a cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
, including the interactions between DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
, RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
and protein biosynthesisProtein biosynthesisProtein biosynthesis is the process in which cells build or manufacture proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process, beginning with amino acid synthesis and transcription of nuclear DNA into messenger RNA, which is then...
and learning how these interactions are regulated. - Developmental biologyDevelopmental biologyDevelopmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...
- the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop, including the genetic control of cell growthCell growthThe term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
, differentiationCellular differentiationIn developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...
and "morphogenesisMorphogenesisMorphogenesis , is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape...
," which is the process that gives rise to tissueBiological tissueTissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
s, organOrgan (anatomy)In biology, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in structural unit to serve a common function. Usually there is a main tissue and sporadic tissues . The main tissue is the one that is unique for the specific organ. For example, main tissue in the heart is the myocardium, while sporadic are...
s and anatomyAnatomyAnatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
. - MicrobiologyMicrobiologyMicrobiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters or no cell at all . This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes...
- the study of microorganismMicroorganismA microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters, or no cell at all...
s, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms as well as virusVirusA virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es. - Cellular microbiologyCellular microbiologyCellular microbiology is a discipline that bridges microbiology and cell biology.The term "cellular microbiology" was coined in 1996 in a Science article...
- a discipline bridging microbiology and cell biology.
Cell biology lists
- Cell typeCell typeA cell type is a distinct morphological or functional form of cell. When a cell switches state from one cell type to another, it undergoes cellular differentiation. A list of distinct cell types in the adult human body may include several hundred distinct types.-References:...
- List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
- List of human clusters of differentiation
- List of proteins
- List of important publications in cell biology
Further reading
- Young John K Introduction to Cell Biology (2010), ISBN 978-981-4307-31-4 & ISBN 978-981-4307-32-1(pbk)
External links
- Cells Alive - educational website.
- Cell Biology topics from University of Texas Medical Branch Cell Biology Graduate Program
Theoretical topics
- Cell (biology)Cell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
- Cell adhesionCell adhesionCellular adhesion is the binding of a cell to a surface, extracellular matrix or another cell using cell adhesion molecules such as selectins, integrins, and cadherins. Correct cellular adhesion is essential in maintaining multicellular structure...
, cell adhesion moleculeCell adhesion moleculeCell Adhesion Molecules are proteins located on the cell surface involved with the binding with other cells or with the extracellular matrix in the process called cell adhesion....
, Intercellular adhesion moleculeIntercellular adhesion moleculeIntercellular adhesion molecules are members of the family of cell adhesion molecules. They include the following:* ICAM-1 * ICAM2* ICAM3* ICAM4* ICAM5... - Cell capsuleCell capsuleThe cell capsule is a very large structure of some prokaryotic cells, such as bacterial cells. It is a layer that lies outside the cell wall of bacteria. It is a well organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases....
- Cellular compartmentCellular compartmentCellular compartments in cell biology comprise all closed parts within a cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. Most organelles are compartments like mitochondria, chloroplasts , peroxisomes, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cell nucleus or the Golgi apparatus...
- Cell cycleCell cycleThe cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
, Cell cycle checkpointCell cycle checkpointCell cycle checkpoints are control mechanisms that ensure the fidelity of cell division in eukaryotic cells. These checkpoints verify whether the processes at each phase of the cell cycle have been accurately completed before progression into the next phase... - Cell death: programmed cell deathProgrammed cell deathProgrammed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
, necrosisNecrosisNecrosis is the premature death of cells in living tissue. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, toxins, or trauma. This is in contrast to apoptosis, which is a naturally occurring cause of cellular death...
, apoptosisApoptosisApoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation... - Cell divisionCell divisionCell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
- Cell envelopeCell envelopeThe cell envelope is the cell membrane and cell wall plus an outer membrane, if one is present.Most bacterial cell envelopes fall into two major categories: Gram positive and Gram negative. These are differentiated by their Gram staining characteristics....
- Cellular fermentation
- CytogeneticsCytogeneticsCytogenetics is a branch of genetics that is concerned with the study of the structure and function of the cell, especially the chromosomes. It includes routine analysis of G-Banded chromosomes, other cytogenetic banding techniques, as well as molecular cytogenetics such as fluorescent in situ...
- Cell growthCell growthThe term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
- Cellular infiltrationCellular infiltrationCellular infiltration is migration of cells from their sources of origin, or direct extension of cells as a result of unusual growth and multiplication, thereby resulting in fairly well-defined foci, irregular accumulations, or diffusely distributed individual cells in the connective tissue and...
- Cell-mediated immunityCell-mediated immunityCell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells , antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen...
- Cell membraneCell membraneThe cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
, intracellular membranesIntracellular membranesIntracellular membranes are membranes inside the plasmalemma of the cell, comprising its endomembranous system. Typical examples include the nuclear envelope and the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.... - Cell migrationCell migrationCell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing and immune responses all require the orchestrated movement of cells in particular directions to specific locations...
- Cellular pathology, cytopathologyCytopathologyCytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. A common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, used as a screening tool, to detect precancerous cervical lesions and prevent cervical...
- Cellular respirationCellular respirationCellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
- Cell signalingCell signalingCell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue...
, Cell Signaling Networks, Hedgehog (cell signaling), Intercellular communication - Cell theoryCell theoryCell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 17th century was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology...
, cellular life - Cell wallCell wallThe cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
- Extra-cellular digestionExtra-cellular digestionExtra-cellular digestion is a process where saprobionts feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food which is in the digestive system spaces. The enzymes catalyse the food into molecules small enough for them to be phagocytosed...
- ExtracellularExtracellularIn cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word extracellular means "outside the cell". This space is usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid...
, Extracellular matrixExtracellular matrixIn biology, the extracellular matrix is the extracellular part of animal tissue that usually provides structural support to the animal cells in addition to performing various other important functions. The extracellular matrix is the defining feature of connective tissue in animals.Extracellular...
, IntracellularIntracellularNot to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell".It is used in contrast to extracellular... - Granule (cell biology)Granule (cell biology)In cell biology, a granule is a small particle. It can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.-Leukocytes:...
- Inner cell massInner cell massIn early embryogenesis of most eutherian mammals, the inner cell mass is the mass of cells inside the primordial embryo that will eventually give rise to the definitive structures of the fetus...
: ectodermEctodermThe "ectoderm" is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the mesoderm and endoderm , with the ectoderm as the most exterior layer...
, endodermEndodermEndoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and mesoderm , with the endoderm as the intermost layer...
, mesodermMesodermIn all bilaterian animals, the mesoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and endoderm , with the mesoderm as the middle layer between them.The mesoderm forms mesenchyme , mesothelium, non-epithelial blood corpuscles and...
, trophoblastTrophoblastTrophoblasts are cells forming the outer layer of a blastocyst, which provide nutrients to the embryo and develop into a large part of the placenta. They are formed during the first stage of pregnancy and are the first cells to differentiate from the fertilized egg... - Lamellae (cell biology)Lamellae (cell biology)A lamella, in cell biology, is used to describe numerous plate or disc-like structures at both a tissue and cellular level.An example of this begin an extension of a thylakoid within a chloroplast, linking a thylakoid within one granum to one in another. They are the sites of photosystem I...
- Non-cellular lifeNon-cellular lifeNon-cellular life is life that exists without a cellular structure. This term presumes the phylogenetic scientific classification of viruses as lifeforms....
Cell types and distinctions
- AmeloblastAmeloblastAmeloblasts are cells, present only during tooth development, that deposit tooth enamel, the hard outermost layer of the tooth that forms the chewing surface....
- AmoeboidAmoeboidAmoeboids are single-celled life-forms characterized by an irregular shape."Amoeboid" and "amœba" are often used interchangeably even by biologists, and especially refer to a creature moving by using pseudopodia. Most references to "amoebas" or "amoebae" are to amoeboids in general rather than to...
- Animal cell
- Brain cellBrain CellBrain Cell is a mail art project begun by Ryosuke Cohen in June 1985. The project is basically a networked art project where individual artists create their own 30x42cm work of art with stamps, drawings, stickers and so forth. This is sent to Cohen, who prints each cell - 150 copies each - with a...
- ChondrocyteChondrocyteChondrocytes are the only cells found in cartilage. They produce and maintain the cartilaginous matrix, which consists mainly of collagen and proteoglycans...
- Clara cellClara cellClara cells are dome-shaped cells with short microvilli found in the small airways of the lungs.Clara cells are found in the ciliated simple epithelium...
- Collar cell: choanocyteChoanocyteChoanocytes are cells that line the interior of Asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid body type sponges that contain a central flagellum surrounded by a collar of microvilli which are connected by a thin membrane. It is the closest family member to the free-living ancestor called choanoflagellate...
- ColloblastColloblastColloblasts are a cell type found in ctenophores. They are widespread in the tentacles of these animals and are used to capture prey. Colloblasts consist of a coiled spiral filament that is embedded in the epidermis and an axial filament with a granular dome. The apical surface of these cells...
- ChromatophoreChromatophoreChromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells found in amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, and cephalopods. They are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in cold-blooded animals and are generated in the neural crest during embryonic development...
- Dendritic cellDendritic cellDendritic cells are immune cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the surface to other cells of the immune system. That is, dendritic cells function as antigen-presenting cells...
- ElectroplaquesElectric organIn biology, the electric organ is an organ common to all electric fish used for the purposes of creating an electric field. The electric organ is derived from modified nerve or muscle tissue...
- Endocrine cellEndocrine systemIn physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. It derives from the Greek words "endo"...
: alpha cellAlpha cellAlpha cells are endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. They make up 33-46% of the human islet cells and are responsible for synthesizing and secreting the peptide hormone glucagon, which elevates the glucose levels in the blood....
, beta cellBeta cellBeta cells are a type of cell in the pancreas located in the so-called islets of Langerhans. They make up 65-80% of the cells in the islets.-Function:...
, delta cellDelta cellDelta cells are somatostatin-producing cells.They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas....
, islets of LangerhansIslets of LangerhansThe islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells. Discovered in 1869 by German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans at the age of 22, the islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas...
, PP cellPP cellF cells are pancreatic polypeptide producing cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. They are very few in number and are polygonal in shape....
- neuroendocrine cellNeuroendocrine cellNeuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration...
: chromaffin cellChromaffin cellChromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the medulla of the adrenal gland and in other ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system. They are modified post-synaptic sympathetic neurons that receive sympathetic input...
, magnocellular partMagnocellular partMagnocellular cells, also called M-cells, are neurons located within the magnocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. The cells are part of the visual system...
, magnocellular neurosecretory cellMagnocellular neurosecretory cellMagnocellular neurosecretory cells are large cells within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. They are also found in smaller numbers in accessory cell groups between these two nuclei, the largest one being the nucleus circularis... - peptidePeptidePeptides are short polymers of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. They are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, typically containing less than 50 monomer units. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond...
hormone secreting: chief cellChief cellIn general, a chief cell is a cell which releases a precursor enzyme. There are two types of chief cells which are most commonly referenced:...
, parathyroid chief cellParathyroid chief cellParathyroid chief cells are cells in the parathyroid glands which produce parathyroid hormone.... - target cellTarget cell-Hematology:In hematology, target cells are very abnormal red blood cells, that have a bullseye appearance . These target cells are associated with Hemoglobin C disease, Asplenia, Liver Disease, Thalassemia and severe Iron deficiency anemia...
- neuroendocrine cell
- EpidermalEpidermis (botany)The epidermis is a single-layered group of cells that covers plants' leaves, flowers, roots and stems. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions, it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds,...
: keratinocyteKeratinocyteKeratinocytes are the predominant cell type in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the human skin, constituting 95% of the cells found there. Those keratinocytes found in the basal layer of the skin are sometimes referred to as "basal cells" or "basal keratinocytes"...
, melanocyteMelanocyte-External links: - "Eye: fovea, RPE" - "Integument: pigmented skin"...
, prickle cellPrickle cellA prickle cell is an epidermal cell which lies above the basal cell layer, constituting a stratum spinosum, which forms innumerable intercellular bridges. These intercellular bridges give the stratum spinosum a rough appearance to which the cells of which it is composed owe their name... - Epithelial: A549 cellA549 cellA549 cells are adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells. A549 cells fall under the squamous subdivision of epithelial cells, associated with the diffusion of water, electrolytes, and other substances. The A549 cell line was first developed in 1972 by D. J. Giard, et al...
, cell junctionCell junctionA cell junction is a type of structure that exists within the tissue of a some multicellular organism . Cell junctions consist of protein complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix...
, goblet cellGoblet cellGoblet cells are glandular simple columnar epithelial cells whose sole function is to secrete mucin, which dissolves in water to form mucus. They use both apocrine and merocrine methods for secretion....
, squamous cell, thyroid epithelial cellThyroid epithelial cellThyroid epithelial cells are cells in the thyroid gland that are responsible for the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, that is, thyroxine and triiodothyronine .-Function:... - Erythrocyte - red blood cell - reticular cellReticular cellA reticular cell is a type of fibroblast that synthesises type III collagen and uses it to produce reticular fibers. The cell surrounds the fibers with its cytoplasm, isolating it from other tissue components and cells....
, reticulocyteReticulocyteReticulocytes are immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red cells in the human body.Reticulocytes develop and mature in the red bone marrow and then circulate for about a day in the blood stream before developing into mature red blood cells. Like mature red blood cells,...
, normoblastNormoblastAn erythroblast is a type of red blood cell which still retains a cell nucleus. It is the immediate precursor of a normal erythrocyte.-Nomenclature:...
- ReticulocyteReticulocyteReticulocytes are immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red cells in the human body.Reticulocytes develop and mature in the red bone marrow and then circulate for about a day in the blood stream before developing into mature red blood cells. Like mature red blood cells,...
: pluripotential hemopoietic stem cellPluripotential hemopoietic stem cellHematopoietic stem cells , also spelled Hæmatopoietic stem cells, are multipotent stem cells that give rise to all the blood cell types from the myeloid , and lymphoid lineages...
, megakaryoblastMegakaryoblastA megakaryoblast is a precursor cell to a promegakaryocyte, which in turn becomes a megakaryocyte during haematopoiesis. It is the beginning of the thrombocytic series....
, megakaryocyteMegakaryocyteThe megakaryocyte is a bone marrow cell responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes , which are necessary for normal blood clotting...
- Reticulocyte
- EukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
- FibroblastFibroblastA fibroblast is a type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, the structural framework for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing...
: 3T3 cells3T3 cells3T3 cells come from a cell line established in 1962 by two scientists then at the Department of Pathology in the New York University School of Medicine, George Todaro and Howard Green. The 3T3 cell line has become the standard fibroblast cell line... - Flame cellFlame cellright|frameA flame cell is a specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater invertebrates, including flatworms , rotifers and nemerteans; these are the simplest animals to have a dedicated excretory system. Flame cells function like a kidney, removing waste materials...
- GametocyteGametocyteA gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called spermatocytes, and female gametocytes are called oocytes....
: Chinese Hamster Ovary cellChinese Hamster Ovary cellChinese hamster ovary cells are a cell line derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster. They are often used in biological and medical research and commercially in the production of therapeutic proteins. They were introduced in the 1960s and grow as a cultured monolayer...
, germ cellGerm cellA germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually. In many animals, the germ cells originate near the gut of an embryo and migrate to the developing gonads. There, they undergo cell division of two types, mitosis and meiosis, followed by...
, granulosa cellGranulosa cellA granulosa cell or follicular cell is a somatic cell of the sex cord that is closely associated with the developing female gamete in the ovary of mammals.-Anatomy and function:...
, interstitial cellInterstitial cellInterstitial cell refers to any one of a number of different types of cells characterized by their interstitial nature Examples include:...
, Leydig cellLeydig cellLeydig cells, also known as interstitial cells of Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testicle. They produce testosterone in the presence of luteinizing hormone...
, oocyteOocyteAn oocyte, ovocyte, or rarely ocyte, is a female gametocyte or germ cell involved in reproduction. In other words, it is an immature ovum, or egg cell. An oocyte is produced in the ovary during female gametogenesis. The female germ cells produce a primordial germ cell which undergoes a mitotic...
, spermatocyteSpermatocyteA spermatocyte is a male gametocyte, derived from a spermatogonium, which is in the developmental stage of spermatogenesis during which meiosis occurs. It is located in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.-Spermatogenesis:... - Gastric cell: D cell, enterochromaffin-like cellEnterochromaffin-like cellEnterochromaffin-like cells or ECL cells are a type of neuroendocrine cells found in the gastric glands of the gastric mucosa beneath the epithelium, in particular in the vicinity of parietal cells. They are also considered a type of enteroendocrine cell....
, G cellG cellIn anatomy, the G cell is a type of cell in the stomach that secretes gastrin. It works in conjunction with gastric chief cells and parietal cells.G cells are found deep within the gastric glands of the stomach antrum, and occasionally in the pancreas....
, parietal cellParietal cellParietal cells, or oxyntic cells, are the stomach epithelium cells that secrete gastric acid and intrinsic factor.Acetylcholine and gastrin . The histamine receptors act by increasing intracellular cAMP, whereas the muscarinic and gastrin receptors increase intracellular Ca2+ levels... - Glial cellGlial cellGlial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia , are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the brain, and for neurons in other parts of the nervous system such as in the autonomous nervous system...
: Bergmann glia, microgliaMicrogliaMicroglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system . Microglia constitute 20% of the total glial cell population within the brain...
, oligodendrocyteOligodendrocyteOligodendrocytes , or oligodendroglia , are a type of brain cell. They are a variety of neuroglia. Their main function is the insulation of axons in the central nervous system of some vertebrates...
, oligodendrocyte precursor cellOligodendrocyte precursor cellOligodendrocyte precursor cells in nervous tissue cells precede oligodendrocytes, and may also be able to generate neurons and astrocytes. The principal function of oligodendrocytes is to provide support to axons and to produce the Myelin sheath, which insulates and lowers the effective...
, Müller cell, Schwann cellSchwann cellSchwann cells or neurolemmocytes are the principal glia of the peripheral nervous system . Glial cells function to support neurons and in the PNS, also include satellite cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, enteric glia and glia that reside at sensory nerve endings, such as the Pacinian corpuscle...
- Macroglia: astrocyteAstrocyteAstrocytes , also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord...
- Macroglia: astrocyte
- Glomus cellGlomus cellA glomus cell is a peripheral chemoreceptor, located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies, that helps the body regulate breathing. When there is a decrease in the blood's pH, a decrease in oxygen , or an increase in carbon dioxide , the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies signal the medulla...
- Granule cellGranule cellIn neuroscience, granule cells refer to tiny neurons that are around 10 micrometres in diameter. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum , the dentate gyrus of the...
- HEK cellHEK cellHuman Embryonic Kidney 293 cells, also often referred to as HEK 293, 293 cells, or less precisely as HEK cells are a specific cell line originally derived from human embryonic kidney cells grown in tissue culture. HEK 293 cells are very easy to grow and transfect very readily and have been...
: 293 cells - HepatocyteHepatocyteA hepatocyte is a cell of the main tissue of the liver. Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the liver's cytoplasmic mass.These cells are involved in:* Protein synthesis* Protein storage* Transformation of carbohydrates...
- HeterokaryonHeterokaryonA heterokaryon is a cell that contains multiple, genetically different nuclei. This can occur naturally, such as in the mycelium of fungi during sexual reproduction, or artificially as formed by the experimental fusion of two genetically different cells. A medical example is a heterokaryon composed...
- Hofbauer cellHofbauer cellHofbauer cells are oval cells found in the placenta, which are of mesenchymal origin, within the core of the chorionic villous, particularly numerous in early pregnancy. They are believed to be a type of macrophage and are most likely involved in preventing the transmission of pathogens from the...
- LeukocytesWhite blood cellWhite blood cells, or leukocytes , are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a...
- white blood cell- granulocyteGranulocyteGranulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm. They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the varying shapes of the nucleus, which is usually lobed into three segments...
: basophilBasophil granulocyteBasophil granulocytes, sometimes referred to as basophils, are the least common of the granulocytes, representing about 0.01% to 0.3% of circulating white blood cells....
, eosinophilEosinophil granulocyteEosinophil granulocytes, usually called eosinophils or eosinophiles , are white blood cells that are one of the immune system components responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. Along with mast cells, they also control mechanisms associated with...
, neutrophilNeutrophil granulocyteNeutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals and form an essential part of the innate immune system. They are generally referred to as either neutrophils or polymorphonuclear neutrophils , and are subdivided into segmented neutrophils and banded neutrophils... - lymphocyteLymphocyteA lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system.Under the microscope, lymphocytes can be divided into large lymphocytes and small lymphocytes. Large granular lymphocytes include natural killer cells...
: B cellB cellB cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response . The principal functions of B cells are to make antibodies against antigens, perform the role of antigen-presenting cells and eventually develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction...
, B-cell receptorB-cell receptorThe B-cell receptor is a transmembrane receptor protein located on the outer surface of B-cells. The receptor's binding moiety is composed of a membrane-bound antibody that, like all antibodies, has a unique and randomly-determined antigen-binding site...
, effector cell, memory B cellMemory B cellMemory B cells are a B cell sub-type that are formed following primary infection.-Primary response, paratopes, and epitopes:In wake of first infection involving a particular antigen, the responding naïve cells proliferate to produce a colony of cells, most of which differentiate into the plasma...
, memory T cellsMemory T cellsMemory T cells are a subset of infection- as well as potentially cancer-fighting T cells that have previously encountered and responded to their cognate antigen; thus, the term antigen-experienced T cell is often applied. Such T cells can recognize foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses,...
, plasma cellPlasma cellPlasma cells, also called plasma B cells, plasmocytes, and effector B cells, are white blood cells which produce large volumes of antibodies. They are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system...
, T cellT cellT cells or T lymphocytes belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells , by the presence of a T cell receptor on the cell surface. They are...
, T helper cellT helper cellT helper cells are a sub-group of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in the adaptive immune system. These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; they cannot kill infected host cells or pathogens. Rather, they help other...
, cytotoxic T cellCytotoxic T cellA cytotoxic T cell belongs to a sub-group of T lymphocytes that are capable of inducing the death of infected somatic or tumor cells; they kill cells that are infected with viruses , or are otherwise damaged or...
, regulatory T cellRegulatory T cellRegulatory T cells , sometimes known as suppressor T cells, are a specialized subpopulation of T cells which suppresses activation of the immune system and thereby maintains tolerance to self-antigens. The existence of regulatory T cells was the subject of significant controversy among...
, natural killer cellNatural killer cellNatural killer cells are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte that constitute a major component of the innate immune system. NK cells play a major role in the rejection of tumors and cells infected by viruses...
, T cell receptorT cell receptorThe T cell receptor or TCR is a molecule found on the surface of T lymphocytes that is responsible for recognizing antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules... - monocyteMonocyteMonocytes are a type of white blood cell and are part of the innate immune system of vertebrates including all mammals , birds, reptiles, and fish. Monocytes play multiple roles in immune function...
: dendritic cellDendritic cellDendritic cells are immune cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the surface to other cells of the immune system. That is, dendritic cells function as antigen-presenting cells...
, histiocyteHistiocyteA histiocyte is a cell that is part of the mononuclear phagocyte system . The mononuclear phagocytic system is part of the organism's immune system...
, Kupffer cellKupffer cellKupffer cells, also known as Browicz-Kupffer cells and stellate macrophages, are specialized macrophages located in the liver lining the walls of the sinusoids that form part of the reticuloendothelial system .-History:The cells were first observed by Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer in 1876...
, Langerhans cellLangerhans cellLangerhans cells are dendritic cells of the skin and mucosa, and contain large granules called Birbeck granules. They are present in all layers of the epidermis, but are most prominant in the stratum spinosum. They also occur in the papillary dermis, particularly around blood vessels, as well as...
, macrophageMacrophageMacrophages are cells produced by the differentiation of monocytes in tissues. Human macrophages are about in diameter. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes. Macrophages function in both non-specific defense as well as help initiate specific defense mechanisms of vertebrate animals...
, microgliaMicrogliaMicroglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system . Microglia constitute 20% of the total glial cell population within the brain...
, osteoclastOsteoclastAn osteoclast is a type of bone cell that removes bone tissue by removing its mineralized matrix and breaking up the organic bone . This process is known as bone resorption. Osteoclasts were discovered by Kolliker in 1873...
- granulocyte
- Mast cellMast cellA mast cell is a resident cell of several types of tissues and contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin...
- Mesangial cellMesangial cellMesangial cells are specialized cells around blood vessels in the kidneys, at the mesangium. They are specialized smooth muscle cells that function to regulate blood flow through the capillaries, usually divided into two types, each having a very distinct function and location:* Extraglomerular...
- Mesenchymal stem cellMesenchymal stem cellMesenchymal stem cells, or MSCs, are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types, including: osteoblasts , chondrocytes and adipocytes...
: adipocyteAdipocyteHowever, in some reports and textbooks, the number of fat cell increased in childhood and adolescence. The total number is constant in both obese and lean adult...
, chondrocyteChondrocyteChondrocytes are the only cells found in cartilage. They produce and maintain the cartilaginous matrix, which consists mainly of collagen and proteoglycans...
, myocyteMyocyteA myocyte is the type of cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts.Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long, long chains of sarcomeres, the contractile units of the cell....
, osteoblastOsteoblastOsteoblasts are mononucleate cells that are responsible for bone formation; in essence, osteoblasts are specialized fibroblasts that in addition to fibroblastic products, express bone sialoprotein and osteocalcin.Osteoblasts produce a matrix of osteoid, which is composed mainly of Type I collagen... - Mitral cellMitral cellMitral cells are neurons that are part of the olfactory system. They are located in the olfactory bulb in the mammalian central nervous system. They receive information from the axons of olfactory receptor neurons, forming synapses in neuropils called glomeruli...
, olfactory receptor neuronOlfactory receptor neuronAn olfactory receptor neuron , also called an olfactory sensory neuron , is a transduction cell within the olfactory system. J. Rospars, Dendritic integration in olfactory sensory neurons: a steady-state analysis of how the neuron structure and neuron environment influence the coding of odor... - MyoblastMyoblastA myoblast is a type of embryonic progenitor cell that gives rise to muscle cells .The muscle cells can be skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle....
: satellite cellsSatellite cellsMyosatellite cells or satellite cells are small mononuclear progenitor cells with virtually no cytoplasm found in mature muscle. They are found sandwiched between the basement membrane and sarcolemma of individual muscle fibers, and can be difficult to distinguish from the sub-sarcolemmal nuclei...
, myocyteMyocyteA myocyte is the type of cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts.Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long, long chains of sarcomeres, the contractile units of the cell....
: pericytePericyteA pericyte is a type of cell found in the central nervous system. These cells play an integral role in the maintenance of the blood brain barrier as well as several other homeostatic and hemostatic functions of the brain. Pericytes are also a key component of the neurovascular unit, which also... - Neural cellNeuronA neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
: basket cellBasket cellBasket cells are inhibitory GABAergic interneurons found in several brain regions: the molecular layer of the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and the cortex.-Cerebellum:...
, Betz cellBetz cellBetz cells are pyramidal cell neurons located within the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary motor cortex, M1. They are named after Vladimir Alekseyevich Betz, who described them in his work published in 1874. These neurons are the largest in the central nervous system, sometimes reaching...
, Cajal-Retzius cellCajal-Retzius cellThe term Cajal–Retzius cell is applied to reelin-producing neurons of the human embryonic marginal zone which display, as a salient feature, radial ascending processes that contact the pial surface, and a horizontal axon plexus located in the deep marginal zone...
, Golgi cellGolgi cellIn neuroscience, Golgi cells are inhibitory interneurons found within the granular layer of the cerebellum. They were first identified as inhibitory by Eccles et al in 1964....
, granule cellGranule cellIn neuroscience, granule cells refer to tiny neurons that are around 10 micrometres in diameter. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum , the dentate gyrus of the...
, grid cellsGrid cellsA grid cell is a type of neuron that has been found in the brains of rats and mice; and it is likely to exist in other animals including humans...
, Purkinje cellPurkinje cellFor the cells of the electrical conduction system of the heart, see Purkinje fibersPurkinje cells, or Purkinje neurons , are a class of GABAergic neurons located in the cerebellar cortex...
, pyramidal cellPyramidal cellPyramidal neurons are a type of neuron found in areas of the brain including cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and in the amygdala. Pyramidal neurons are the primary excitation units of the mammalian prefrontal cortex and the corticospinal tract. Pyramidal neurons were first discovered and...
, Renshaw cellRenshaw cellRenshaw cells are inhibitory interneurons found in the gray matter of the spinal cord, and are associated in two ways with an alpha motor neuron....
, stellate cellStellate cellIn neuroscience, stellate cells are neurons with several dendrites radiating from the cell body giving them a star shaped appearance. The three most common stellate cells are the inhibitory interneurons found within the molecular layer of the cerebellum, excitatory spiny stellate interneurons and... - OncologicalOncologyOncology is a branch of medicine that deals with cancer...
: erythroleukemiaErythroleukemiaAcute erythroid leukemia is a rare form of acute myeloid leukemia where the myeloproliferation is of erythroblastic precursors.It is defined at type "M6" under the FAB classification.-Types:...
, K562 cell, large cellLarge cellLarge cell is a term used in oncology. It does not refer to a particular type of cell; rather it refers to cells that are larger than would be normally expected for that type...
, oncocytes, oncocytomaOncocytomaAn oncocytoma is a tumor made up of oncocytes, a special kind of cells. -Presentation:An oncocytoma is an epithelial tumor composed of oncocytes, large eosinophilic cells having small, round, benign-appearing nuclei with large nucleoli....
, oxyphil cellOxyphil cellIn the parathyroid gland, the parathyroid oxyphil cell is larger and paler than the parathyroid chief cell.These cells can be found in clusters in the center of the section and at the periphery. Oxyphil cells appear at the onset of puberty, but have no known function...
, signet cell, small cell carcinomaSmall cell carcinomaSmall cell carcinoma is a type of highly malignant cancer that most commonly arises within the lung, although it can occasionally arise in other body sites, such as the cervix and prostate....
Cell biology
Cell biology
Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
(formerly cytology, from the Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
kytos, "container") – academic discipline that studies cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s – their physiological
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle
Cell cycle
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
, division
Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
and death
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...
. This is done both on a microscopic
Microscope
A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy...
and molecular
Molecule
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their electrical charge...
level. Cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
biology research extends to both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms like human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s.
Essence of cell biology
- Main article: Cell biologyCell biologyCell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
- CellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
– the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is sometimes called the building block of life.- Etymology of "cell" – comes from the LatinLatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
cellula, meaning, a small room. This name was chosen by Robert HookeRobert HookeRobert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath.His adult life comprised three distinct periods: as a scientific inquirer lacking money; achieving great wealth and standing through his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty following the great fire of 1666, but...
in a book he published in 1665 when he compared the corkCork (material)Cork is an impermeable, buoyant material, a prime-subset of bark tissue that is harvested for commercial use primarily from Quercus suber , which is endemic to southwest Europe and northwest Africa...
cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in.
- Etymology of "cell" – comes from the Latin
- Cell theoryCell theoryCell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 17th century was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology...
- Theory which states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. - Cell biologyCell biologyCell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
- (formerly cytology) The study of cells. - Cell divisionCell divisionCell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
- The process of one parent cell separating into two or more daughter cells. - Endosymbiotic theoryEndosymbiotic theoryThe endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids , and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts...
- The evolutionary theory that certain eukaryotic organelles originated as separate prokaryotic organisms which were taken inside the cell as endosymbionts. - Cellular respirationCellular respirationCellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
- The metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell membrane to get biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells' waste products. - Lipid bilayerLipid bilayerThe lipid bilayer is a thin membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around cells. The cell membrane of almost all living organisms and many viruses are made of a lipid bilayer, as are the membranes surrounding the cell nucleus...
- A membrane composed of lipid molecules (usually phospholipids). The lipid bilayer is a critical component of all biological membranes, particularly cell membranes this is not all true and realiable
- Cell
Aspects of cells
- HomeostasisHomeostasisHomeostasis is the property of a system that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition of properties like temperature or pH...
- The property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living organism, that regulates its internal environmentMilieu interieurMilieu intérieur or interior milieu, from the French, milieu intérieur, is a term coined by Claude Bernard to refer to the extra-cellular fluid environment, and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular living organisms.-Origin:Claude...
so as to maintain a stable, constant condition. - LifeLifeLife is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
- A condition of growth through metabolism, reproduction, and the power of adaptation to environment through changes originating internally. - MicroscopicMicroscopicThe microscopic scale is the scale of size or length used to describe objects smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked eye and which require a lens or microscope to see them clearly.-History:...
- A term used to described those objects, like cells, which are too small to be seen easily by the naked eye and which require a lens or microscope to see them clearly. - Unicellular - Organisms which are composed of only one cell.
- MulticellularMulticellular organismMulticellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms. Most life that can be seen with the the naked eye is multicellular, as are all animals and land plants.-Evolutionary history:Multicellularity has evolved independently dozens of times...
- Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having differentiated cells that perform specialized functions. - TissuesTissue (biology)Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
- A collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. - Cellular differentiationCellular differentiationIn developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...
- A concept in developmental biology whereby less specialized cells become a more specialized cell type in multicellular organisms.
By organism
- EukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
- Organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures enclosed within membranes, including plantPlantPlants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s, animalAnimalAnimals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
s, fungi, and protistProtistProtists are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. Historically, protists were treated as the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms, but this group is contested in modern taxonomy...
s.- Animal cell - Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Animalia, characteristically having no cell wall or chloroplasts.
- Plant cellPlant cellPlant cells are eukaryotic cells that differ in several key respects from the cells of other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features include:...
- Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Plantae and having chloroplasts, celluloseCelluloseCellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
cell walls, and large central vacuoles. - Fungal hyphaHyphaA hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
- The basic cellular unit of organisms in kingdom fungi. Typically tubular, multinucleated, and with a chitinChitinChitin n is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and is found in many places throughout the natural world...
ous cell wall. - ProtistProtistProtists are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. Historically, protists were treated as the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms, but this group is contested in modern taxonomy...
a - A highly variable kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which are mostly unicellular and not plants, animals, or fungi.
- ProkaryoteProkaryoteThe prokaryotes are a group of organisms that lack a cell nucleus , or any other membrane-bound organelles. The organisms that have a cell nucleus are called eukaryotes. Most prokaryotes are unicellular, but a few such as myxobacteria have multicellular stages in their life cycles...
- A group of organisms whose cells lack a membrane-bound cell nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelles, including bacteriaBacteriaBacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
and archaeaArchaeaThe Archaea are a group of single-celled microorganisms. A single individual or species from this domain is called an archaeon...
.- Bacterial cellsBacterial cell structureBacteria, despite their simplicity, contain a well-developed cell structure which is responsible for many of their unique biological properties. Many structural features are unique to bacteria and are not found among archaea or eukaryotes...
- A prokaryotic cell belonging to the mostly unicellular Domain Bacteria. - Archea cell - A cell belonging to the prokaryotic and single-celled microorganisms in Domain Archea.
- Bacterial cells
By function
- GameteGameteA gamete is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually...
- A haploid reproductive cell. Sperm and ova are gametes. Gametes fuse with another gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually.- SpermSpermThe term sperm is derived from the Greek word sperma and refers to the male reproductive cells. In the types of sexual reproduction known as anisogamy and oogamy, there is a marked difference in the size of the gametes with the smaller one being termed the "male" or sperm cell...
- Male reproductive cell (a gamete). - OvumOvumAn ovum is a haploid female reproductive cell or gamete. Both animals and embryophytes have ova. The term ovule is used for the young ovum of an animal, as well as the plant structure that carries the female gametophyte and egg cell and develops into a seed after fertilization...
- Female reproductive cell (a gamete).
- Sperm
- ZygoteZygoteA zygote , or zygocyte, is the initial cell formed when two gamete cells are joined by means of sexual reproduction. In multicellular organisms, it is the earliest developmental stage of the embryo...
- A cell that is the result of fertilization (the fusing of two gametes).- EggEgg (biology)An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
- The zygote of most birds and reptiles, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. The largest existing single cells currently known are (fertilized) eggs.
- Egg
- Meristemic cellMeristemA meristem is the tissue in most plants consisting of undifferentiated cells , found in zones of the plant where growth can take place....
- Undifferentiated plants cells analogous to animal stem cells. - Stem cellStem cellThis article is about the cell type. For the medical therapy, see Stem Cell TreatmentsStem cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms, that can divide and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells...
- Undifferentiated cells found in most multi-cellular organisms which are capable of retaining the ability to reinvigorate themselves through mitotic cell division and can differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types. - Germ cellGerm cellA germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually. In many animals, the germ cells originate near the gut of an embryo and migrate to the developing gonads. There, they undergo cell division of two types, mitosis and meiosis, followed by...
- GameteGameteA gamete is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually...
s and gonocytes, these are often . Germ cells should not be confused with "germs" (pathogenPathogenA pathogen gignomai "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus that causes disease in its animal or plant host...
s). - Somatic cellSomatic cellA somatic cell is any biological cell forming the body of an organism; that is, in a multicellular organism, any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell...
- any cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s forming the body of an organism, as opposed to germlineGermlineIn biology and genetics, the germline of a mature or developing individual is the line of germ cells that have genetic material that may be passed to a child.For example, gametes such as the sperm or the egg, are part of the germline...
cells.
General cellular anatomy
- Cellular compartmentCellular compartmentCellular compartments in cell biology comprise all closed parts within a cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. Most organelles are compartments like mitochondria, chloroplasts , peroxisomes, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cell nucleus or the Golgi apparatus...
- All closed parts within a cell whose lumen is usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. - OrganelleOrganelleIn cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer....
s - a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane or traditionally any subcellular functional unit.
Organelles
- Cell nucleusCell nucleusIn cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these...
- a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryoticEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
cellsCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
. It contains most of the cell's genetic materialGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
, organized as multiple long linear DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
molecules in complex with a large variety of proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s, such as histoneHistoneIn biology, histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene regulation...
s, to form chromosomeChromosomeA chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
s. - MitochondrionMitochondrionIn cell biology, a mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These organelles range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter...
- a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Often called "cellular power plants", mitochondria generate most of cells' supply of adenosine triphosphateAdenosine triphosphateAdenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
(ATP), the body's main source of energyChemical energyChemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or, to transform other chemical substances...
. - ChloroplastChloroplastChloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis.Chloroplasts are green...
- organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. - LysosomeLysosomethumb|350px|Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. [[Organelle]]s: [[nucleoli]] [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] [[ribosomes]] [[vesicle |vesicle]] rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]]...
- organelles that contain digestive enzymeDigestive enzyme'Digestive enzymes' are enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tract of animals where they aid in the digestion of food as well as inside the cells,...
s (acid hydrolaseHydrolaseIn biochemistry, a hydrolase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a chemical bond. For example, an enzyme that catalyzed the following reaction is a hydrolase:-Nomenclature:...
s). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed virusVirusA virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es or bacteriaBacteriaBacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
. - VesicleVesicle (biology)A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes , or...
- a relatively small intracellular, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances . - Golgi apparatusGolgi apparatusThe Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi, after whom the Golgi apparatus is named....
- a eukaryotic organelle that processes and packages macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell; it is a part of the endomembrane systemEndomembrane systemThe endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles...
. - Endoplasmic reticulumEndoplasmic reticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle of cells in eukaryotic organisms that forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae...
- an organelle composed of an interconnected network of tubules, vesiclesVesicle (biology)A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes , or...
and cisternaCisternaA cisterna comprises a flattened membrane disk that makes up the Golgi apparatus. A typical Golgi has anywhere from 3 to 7 cisternae stacked upon each other like a stack of dinner plates, but there are usually around 6...
e.- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - sections of endoplasmic reticulum which are not studded with ribosomes which is connected to the nuclear envelopeNuclear envelopeA nuclear envelope is a double lipid bilayer that encloses the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. The nuclear envelope also serves as the physical barrier, separating the contents of the nucleus from the cytosol...
. It is has functions in several metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and calcium concentration, drug detoxification, and attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins. - Rough endoplasmic reticulum - sections of the endoplasmic reticulum which are studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). Its primary function is the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins.
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - sections of endoplasmic reticulum which are not studded with ribosomes which is connected to the nuclear envelope
- PeroxisomePeroxisomePeroxisomes are organelles found in virtually all eukaryotic cells. They are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids, polyamines, and biosynthesis of plasmalogens, etherphospholipids critical for the normal function of mammalian brains...
- ubiquitous organelleOrganelleIn cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer....
s in eukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
s that participate in the metabolism of fatty acids and other metabolites. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
of toxic peroxides. - VacuoleVacuoleA vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain...
- membrane-bound compartments within some eukaryotic cells that can serve a variety of secretory, excretory, and storage functions. - NucleolusNucleolusThe nucleolus is a non-membrane bound structure composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the nucleus. Ribosomal RNA is transcribed and assembled within the nucleolus...
- a roughly spherical sub-organelle of the cell nucleus. Its main function is to produce and assemble ribosome components (i.e. RNA, proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s). - RibosomeRibosomeA ribosome is a component of cells that assembles the twenty specific amino acid molecules to form the particular protein molecule determined by the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule....
- complexes of RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
and proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
that are found in all cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s. Ribosomes build proteins from the genetic instructions held within messenger RNAMessenger RNAMessenger RNA is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein...
. - CentrosomeCentrosomeIn cell biology, the centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression. It was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883...
- the main microtubule organizing center of animal cells as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.
Structures
- Cell membraneCell membraneThe cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
- (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma or "phospholipid bilayer") is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells; it contains a wide array of functional macromolecules. - Cell wallCell wallThe cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
- a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural support, protection, and acts as a filtering mechanism. - CytoskeletonCytoskeletonThe cytoskeleton is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within a cell's cytoplasm and is made out of protein. The cytoskeleton is present in all cells; it was once thought to be unique to eukaryotes, but recent research has identified the prokaryotic cytoskeleton...
- is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within the cytoplasm it is composed of three types of fibers: microfilamentMicrofilamentMicrofilaments are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton, a structure found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. These linear polymers of actin subunits are flexible and relatively strong, resisting buckling by multi-piconewton compressive forces and filament fracture by nanonewton...
s, intermediate filamentIntermediate filamentIntermediate filaments are a family of related proteins that share common structural and sequence features. Intermediate filaments have an average diameter of 10 nanometers, which is between that of 7 nm actin , and that of 25 nm microtubules, although they were initially designated...
s, and microtubuleMicrotubuleMicrotubules are a component of the cytoskeleton. These rope-like polymers of tubulin can grow as long as 25 micrometers and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of microtubule is about 25 nm. Microtubules are important for maintaining cell structure, providing platforms for intracellular...
s. - CentrioleCentrioleA Centriole is a barrel-shaped cell structure found in most animal eukaryotic cells, though it is absent in higher plants and most fungi. The walls of each centriole are usually composed of nine triplets of microtubules...
- A barrel shaped microtubule structure found in most eukaryotic cells other than those of plants and fungi. - Spindle fiber - The structure that separates the chromosomes into the daughter cells during cell division.
- CytoplasmCytoplasmThe cytoplasm is a small gel-like substance residing between the cell membrane holding all the cell's internal sub-structures , except for the nucleus. All the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms are contained within the cytoplasm...
- a gelatinous, semi-transparent fluid that fills most cells, it includes all cytosol, organelles and cytoplasmic inclusions. - CytosolCytosolThe cytosol or intracellular fluid is the liquid found inside cells, that is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into compartments....
- is the internal fluid of the cell, and where a portion of cell metabolism occurs. - Inclusions - chemical substances found suspended directly in the cytosol.
- ChromosomeChromosomeA chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
- organized structures of DNA and proteins that are found in cells. - PlasmidPlasmidIn microbiology and genetics, a plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and can replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA. They are double-stranded and, in many cases, circular...
- an extrachromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA and capable of sexual replication, it is typically ring shaped and found in bacteria.
Molecules
- DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. - RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
-Ribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid made from a long chain of nucleotide , in a cell it is typically transcribed from DNA. - Enzymes - Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (i.e. accelerate) the rates of specific chemical reactions within cells.
Cellular metabolism
- Metabolic pathwayMetabolic pathwayIn biochemistry, metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal chemical is modified by a series of chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function...
- A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell which ultimately lead to sequestering of energy. - GlycolysisGlycolysisGlycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+...
- The foundational process of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. - Citric acid cycleCitric acid cycleThe citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle , the Krebs cycle, or the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle — is a series of chemical reactions which is used by all aerobic living organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and...
- Also known as the Krebs cycle, an important aerobic metabolic pathway. - Alcoholic fermentation - The anaerobic metabolic process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and thereby producing ethanol, and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products.
- Lactic acid fermentationLactic acid fermentationLactic acid fermentation is a biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic byproduct lactate. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such as muscle cells, in the...
- An anaerobic metabolic process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic waste product lactic acid. - Electron transport chainElectron transport chainAn electron transport chain couples electron transfer between an electron donor and an electron acceptor with the transfer of H+ ions across a membrane. The resulting electrochemical proton gradient is used to generate chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate...
- a biochemical process which associates electron carriers (such as NADH and FADH2) and mediating biochemical reactions that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is a major energy intermediate in living organisms. Typically occurs across a cellular membrane. - PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
- The conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms.- Calvin cycleCalvin cycleThe Calvin cycle or Calvin–Benson-Bassham cycle or reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle or CBB cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms...
- A series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is one of the light-independent reactions or dark reactions. - Z scheme reactions - A series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the grana of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is one of the light-dependent reactions or light reactions.
- Calvin cycle
- ChemosynthesisChemosynthesisIn biochemistry, chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic molecules or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis...
- The biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules (usually carbon dioxide or methane) and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic molecules (e.g. hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis. - ATPAdenosine triphosphateAdenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
- A multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a "molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer. - NADHNicotinamide adenine dinucleotideNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD, is a coenzyme found in all living cells. The compound is a dinucleotide, since it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine base and the other nicotinamide.In metabolism, NAD is involved...
- A coenzyme found in all living cells which serves as an important electronElectronThe electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
carrier in metabolic processes. - Pyruvate - Is the "energy-molecule" output of the aerobic metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis.
- GlucoseGlucoseGlucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
- an important simple sugarSugarSugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
used by cells as a source of energy and as a metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Cellular reproduction
- InterphaseInterphaseInterphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for cell division. In preparation for cell division, it increases its size and makes a copy of its DNA...
- The stages of the cell cycle that prepare the cell for division. - Binary fission - The process of cell division used by prokaryotes.
- Cell cycleCell cycleThe cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
- The series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its replication. - Meosis - The process of cell division used to create gametes in sexually reproductive eukaryotes.
- MitosisMitosisMitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly...
- In eukaryotes, the process of division of the nucleus and genetic material.- ProphaseProphaseProphase, from the ancient Greek πρό and φάσις , is a stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome in which the chromatin becomes visible. This process, called chromatin condensation, is mediated by the condensin complex...
- The stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to breakup. - MetaphaseMetaphaseMetaphase, from the ancient Greek μετά and φάσις , is a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which condensed & highly coiled chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells...
- The stage of mitosis in which condensed chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells. - AnaphaseAnaphaseAnaphase, from the ancient Greek ἀνά and φάσις , is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell....
- The stage of mitosis when chromatidChromatidA chromatid is one of the two identical copies of DNA making up a duplicated chromosome, which are joined at their centromeres, for the process of cell division . They are called sister chromatids so long as they are joined by the centromeres...
s (identical copies of chromosomes) separate as they are pulled towards opposite poles within the cell. - TelophaseTelophaseTelophase from the ancient Greek "τελος" and "φασις" , is a stage in both meiosis and mitosis in a eukaryotic cell. During telophase, the effects of prophase and prometaphase events are reversed. Two daughter nuclei form in the cell. The nuclear envelopes of the daughter cells are formed from the...
- The stage of mitosis when the nucleus reforms and chromosomes unravel into longer chromatin structures for reentry into interphase.
- Prophase
- CytokinesisCytokinesisCytokinesis is the process in which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells. It usually initiates during the late stages of mitosis, and sometimes meiosis, splitting a binucleate cell in two, to ensure that chromosome number is maintained from one generation...
- The process cells use to divide their cytoplasm and organelles.
Miscellaneous cellular processes
- OsmosisOsmosisOsmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, aiming to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides...
- the diffusion of water through a cell wall or membrane or any partially-permeable barrier from a solution of low solute concentration to a solution with high solute concentration. - Passive transportPassive transportPassive transport means moving biochemicals and other atomic or molecular substances across membranes. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve chemical energy, because, unlike in an active transport, the transport across membrane is always coupled with the growth of entropy of the...
- Movement of molecules into and out of cells without the input of cellular energy. - Active transportActive transportActive transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient . In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine...
- Movement of molecules into and out of cells with the input of cellular energy. - Phagocytosis - the process a cell uses when engulfing solid particles into the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome, or "food vacuole."
- Programmed cell deathProgrammed cell deathProgrammed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
- The death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program (ex. Apoptosis or AutophagyAutophagyIn cell biology, autophagy, or autophagocytosis, is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. It is a tightly regulated process that plays a normal part in cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance...
). - ApoptosisApoptosisApoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...
- a series of biochemical events leading to a characteristic cell morphology and death, which is not caused by damage to the cell. - AutophagyAutophagyIn cell biology, autophagy, or autophagocytosis, is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. It is a tightly regulated process that plays a normal part in cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance...
- The process whereby cells "eat" their own internal components or microbial invaders. - Cell senescence - The phenomenon where normal diploid differentiated cells lose the ability to divide after about 50 cell divisions.
- Cell signalingCell signalingCell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue...
- Regulation of cell behavior by signals from outside. - AdhesionCell adhesionCellular adhesion is the binding of a cell to a surface, extracellular matrix or another cell using cell adhesion molecules such as selectins, integrins, and cadherins. Correct cellular adhesion is essential in maintaining multicellular structure...
- Holding together cells and tissues. - MotilityMotilityMotility is a biological term which refers to the ability to move spontaneously and actively, consuming energy in the process. Most animals are motile but the term applies to single-celled and simple multicellular organisms, as well as to some mechanisms of fluid flow in multicellular organs, in...
and cell migrationCell migrationCell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing and immune responses all require the orchestrated movement of cells in particular directions to specific locations...
- The various means for a cell to move, guided by cues in its environment - Cytoplasmic streamingCytoplasmic streamingCytoplasmic streaming is the directed flow of cytosol and organelles around large fungal and plant cells. This movement aids in the delivery of nutrients, metabolites, genetic information, and other materials to all parts of the cell...
- flowing of cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. - TranscriptionTranscription (genetics)Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct enzymes...
- Fundamental process of gene expression through turning DNA segment into a functional unit of RNA. - DNA repairDNA repairDNA repair refers to a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome. In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as UV light and radiation can cause DNA damage, resulting in as many as 1...
- The process used by cells to fix damaged DNA sections.
Applied cell biology concepts
- Cell therapyCell therapyCell therapy describes the process of introducing new cells into a tissue in order to treat a disease. Cell therapies often focus on the treatment of hereditary diseases, with or without the addition of gene therapy...
- the process of introducing new cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s into a tissueBiological tissueTissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
in order to treat a diseaseDiseaseA disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
. - CloningCloningCloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments , cells , or...
- processes used to create copies of DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
fragments (molecular cloning), cellsCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
(cell cloning), or organisms. - Cell disruptionCell disruptionCell disruption is a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.- Choice of disruption method:The production of biologically-interesting molecules using cloning and culturing methods allows the study and manufacture of relevant molecules.Except for excreted molecules,...
- a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.
Laboratory procedures
- Cell cultureCell cultureCell culture is the complex process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions. In practice, the term "cell culture" has come to refer to the culturing of cells derived from singlecellular eukaryotes, especially animal cells. However, there are also cultures of plants, fungi and microbes,...
- Cell disruptionCell disruptionCell disruption is a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.- Choice of disruption method:The production of biologically-interesting molecules using cloning and culturing methods allows the study and manufacture of relevant molecules.Except for excreted molecules,...
, cell disruption by nitrogen decompressionCell disruption by nitrogen decompressionCell disruption by rapid decompression is one of several methods of cell disruption and is also called explosive decompression or cell bomb.- Applications :The technique is used to:* Homogenize cells and tissues* Release intact organelles... - Cell fractionationCell fractionationCell fractionation is the separation of homogeneous sets, usually organelles, from a heterogeneous population of cells.-Steps:There are three principal steps involved:#Disruption of cells and liberation of organelles.#Macro Filtration...
- Cell incubator
- Cyto-StainCyto-StainCyto-Stain, or CytoStain, is commercially available mix of staining dyes for polychromatic staining in histology. It provides results comparable to Papanicolaou staining, but in less number of operations and in shorter time...
- Fluorescent-activated cell sorting
- Hfr cellHfr cellAn Hfr cell is a bacterium with a conjugative plasmid integrated into its genomic DNA. Hfr is the abbreviation for high frequency recombination, which was first characterized by Luca Cavalli-Sforza...
- high frequency recombination - Spinner (Cell Culture)Spinner (Cell Culture)A Spinner is a type of bioreactor which features an impeller, stirrer or similar device to agitate the contents...
History of cell biology
- Main article: History of cell biology and see also Cell biologists below
The history of cell biology is intertwined with the history of biochemistry
History of biochemistry
The history of biochemistry spans approximately 400 years. Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the word "biochemistry" was first proposed in 1903 by Carl Neuberg, a German chemist....
and the history of molecular biology
History of molecular biology
The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and virology...
. Other articles pertaining to the history of cell biology include:
- History of cell theory, embryology and germ theory
- History of biochemistry, microbiology, and molecular biology
- History of the optical microscope
- Timeline of microscope technologyTimeline of microscope technologyTimeline of microscope technology* 1590 - Dutch spectacle-makers Hans Jansen and his son Zacharias Jansen, claimed by later writers to have invented a compound microscope....
Past
- Karl August Möbius - In 1884 first observed the structures that would later be called "organelles".
- Bengt LidforssBengt LidforssBengt Lidforss was a prominent Swedish socialist, and an accomplished natural scientist and writer.- Biography :...
- Coined the word "organells" which later became "organelle". - Robert HookeRobert HookeRobert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath.His adult life comprised three distinct periods: as a scientific inquirer lacking money; achieving great wealth and standing through his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty following the great fire of 1666, but...
- Coined the word "cell" after looking at cork under a microscope. - Anton van LeeuwenhoekAnton van LeeuwenhoekAntonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist...
- First observed microscopic single celled organisms in apparently clean water. - Hans Adolf KrebsHans Adolf KrebsSir Hans Adolf Krebs was a German-born British physician and biochemist. Krebs is best known for his identification of two important metabolic cycles: the urea cycle and the citric acid cycle...
- Discovered the citric acid cycleCitric acid cycleThe citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle , the Krebs cycle, or the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle — is a series of chemical reactions which is used by all aerobic living organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and...
in 1937. - Konstantin MereschkowskiKonstantin MereschkowskiKonstantin Mereschcowsky was a prominent Russian biologist, botanist and advocate of eugenics active mainly around Kazan, whose research on lichens led him to propose the theory of symbiogenesis - that larger, more complex cells evolved from the symbiotic relationship between less complex ones...
- Russian botanist who in 1905 described the Theory of EndosymbiosisEndosymbiotic theoryThe endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids , and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts...
. - Edmund Beecher WilsonEdmund Beecher WilsonEdmund Beecher Wilson was a pioneering American zoologist and geneticist. He wrote one of the most famous textbooks in the history of modern biology, The Cell.- Career :...
- Known as America's first cellular biologist, discovered the sex chromosome arrangement in humans. - Albert ClaudeAlbert ClaudeAlbert Claude was a Belgian biologist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 with Christian de Duve and George Emil Palade. He studied engineering, and then medicine...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - Theodor BoveriTheodor Boveri-External links:* Fritz Baltzer. . excerpt from . University of California Press, Berkeley; pp. 85–97....
- In 1888 identified the centrosome and described it as the 'special organ of cell division.' - Peter D. MitchellPeter D. MitchellPeter Dennis Mitchell, FRS was a British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.Mitchell was born in Mitcham, Surrey, England....
- British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.
Current
- Lynn MargulisLynn MargulisLynn Margulis was an American biologist and University Professor in the Department of Geosciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She is best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions to the endosymbiotic theory, which is now generally accepted...
- An American biologist best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions and support of the endosymbiotic theory. - Günter BlobelGünter Blobel-Biography:Blobel was born in Waltersdorf in the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia. In January 1945 his family fled from native Silesia from the advancing Red Army. On their way to the West they passed through the beautiful old city of Dresden, which left deep impressions in the young boy...
- An American biologist who won a Nobel Prize for protein targetingProtein targetingProtein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Sorting targets can be the inner space of an organelle, any of several interior membranes, the cell's outer membrane, or its exterior via secretion...
in cells. - Peter AgrePeter AgrePeter Agre is an American medical doctor, professor, and molecular biologist who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of aquaporins. Aquaporins are water-channel proteins that move water molecules through the cell membrane...
- An American chemist who won a Nobel Prize for discovering cellular aquaporins. - Christian de DuveChristian de DuveChristian René, viscount de Duve is a Nobel Prize-winning cytologist and biochemist. De Duve was born in Thames Ditton, Surrey, Great Britain, as a son of Belgian refugees. They returned to Belgium in 1920...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - George Emil PaladeGeorge Emil PaladeGeorge Emil Palade was a Romanian cell biologist. Described as "the most influential cell biologist ever", in 1974 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine, together with Albert Claude and Christian de Duve. The prize was granted for his innovations in electron microscopy and...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - Ira MellmanIra MellmanIra Mellman, Ph.D. is an American cell biologist who discovered endosomes. He serves as Vice President of Research Oncology at Genentech in South San Francisco, California.-Research:...
- an American cell biologist who discovered endosomes. - Paul NursePaul NurseSir Paul Maxime Nurse, PRS is a British geneticist and cell biologist. He was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Leland H. Hartwell and R...
- Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. - Leland H. HartwellLeland H. HartwellLeland Harrison Hartwell is former president and director of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington. He shared the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Paul Nurse and R...
- Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. - R. Timothy Hunt - Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases.
- Geoffrey M. CooperGeoffrey M. CooperGeoffrey M. Cooper is a chairman and professor of biology at Boston University. He earned his Ph.D. at the University of Miami in 1973 working with nobel laureate Howard Temin. His work includes cellular growth control, cancer, and signal transduction...
- Professor of cell biology at Boston University.
Closely allied sciences
- CytochemistryCytochemistryCytochemistry is the biochemistry of cells, especially that of the macromolecules responsible for cell structure and function...
- the biochemistryBiochemistryBiochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
of cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s, especially that of the macromoleculeMacromoleculeA macromolecule is a very large molecule commonly created by some form of polymerization. In biochemistry, the term is applied to the four conventional biopolymers , as well as non-polymeric molecules with large molecular mass such as macrocycles...
s responsible for cell structureStructureStructure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
and function. - CytopathologyCytopathologyCytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. A common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, used as a screening tool, to detect precancerous cervical lesions and prevent cervical...
- a branch of pathologyPathologyPathology is the precise study and diagnosis of disease. The word pathology is from Ancient Greek , pathos, "feeling, suffering"; and , -logia, "the study of". Pathologization, to pathologize, refers to the process of defining a condition or behavior as pathological, e.g. pathological gambling....
that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The most common use of cytopathology is the Pap smearPap smearThe Papanicolaou test is a screening test used in to detect pre-cancerous and cancerous processes in the endocervical canal of the female reproductive system. Changes can be treated, thus preventing cervical cancer...
, used to detect cervical cancer at an early treatable stage. - GeneticsGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
- the scienceScienceScience is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
of heredityHeredityHeredity is the passing of traits to offspring . This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause some species to evolve...
and variationGenetic variationGenetic variation, variation in alleles of genes, occurs both within and among populations. Genetic variation is important because it provides the “raw material” for natural selection. Genetic variation is brought about by mutation, a change in a chemical structure of a gene. Polyploidy is an...
in living organismOrganismIn biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s. - BiochemistryBiochemistryBiochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
- the study of the chemicalChemistryChemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
processes in living organismOrganismIn biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s. It deals with the structureStructureStructure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
and function of cellular components, such as proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s, carbohydrateCarbohydrateA carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
s, lipidLipidLipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
s, nucleic acidNucleic acidNucleic acids are biological molecules essential for life, and include DNA and RNA . Together with proteins, nucleic acids make up the most important macromolecules; each is found in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information...
s, and other biomoleculeBiomoleculeA biomolecule is any molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large polymeric molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products...
s. - Molecular biologyMolecular biologyMolecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
- the study of biologyBiologyBiology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
at a molecular level, including the various systems of a cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
, including the interactions between DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
, RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
and protein biosynthesisProtein biosynthesisProtein biosynthesis is the process in which cells build or manufacture proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process, beginning with amino acid synthesis and transcription of nuclear DNA into messenger RNA, which is then...
and learning how these interactions are regulated. - Developmental biologyDevelopmental biologyDevelopmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...
- the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop, including the genetic control of cell growthCell growthThe term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
, differentiationCellular differentiationIn developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...
and "morphogenesisMorphogenesisMorphogenesis , is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape...
," which is the process that gives rise to tissueBiological tissueTissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
s, organOrgan (anatomy)In biology, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in structural unit to serve a common function. Usually there is a main tissue and sporadic tissues . The main tissue is the one that is unique for the specific organ. For example, main tissue in the heart is the myocardium, while sporadic are...
s and anatomyAnatomyAnatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
. - MicrobiologyMicrobiologyMicrobiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters or no cell at all . This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes...
- the study of microorganismMicroorganismA microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters, or no cell at all...
s, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms as well as virusVirusA virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es. - Cellular microbiologyCellular microbiologyCellular microbiology is a discipline that bridges microbiology and cell biology.The term "cellular microbiology" was coined in 1996 in a Science article...
- a discipline bridging microbiology and cell biology.
Cell biology lists
- Cell typeCell typeA cell type is a distinct morphological or functional form of cell. When a cell switches state from one cell type to another, it undergoes cellular differentiation. A list of distinct cell types in the adult human body may include several hundred distinct types.-References:...
- List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
- List of human clusters of differentiation
- List of proteins
- List of important publications in cell biology
Further reading
- Young John K Introduction to Cell Biology (2010), ISBN 978-981-4307-31-4 & ISBN 978-981-4307-32-1(pbk)
External links
- Cells Alive - educational website.
- Cell Biology topics from University of Texas Medical Branch Cell Biology Graduate Program
Theoretical topics
- Cell (biology)Cell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
- Cell adhesionCell adhesionCellular adhesion is the binding of a cell to a surface, extracellular matrix or another cell using cell adhesion molecules such as selectins, integrins, and cadherins. Correct cellular adhesion is essential in maintaining multicellular structure...
, cell adhesion moleculeCell adhesion moleculeCell Adhesion Molecules are proteins located on the cell surface involved with the binding with other cells or with the extracellular matrix in the process called cell adhesion....
, Intercellular adhesion moleculeIntercellular adhesion moleculeIntercellular adhesion molecules are members of the family of cell adhesion molecules. They include the following:* ICAM-1 * ICAM2* ICAM3* ICAM4* ICAM5... - Cell capsuleCell capsuleThe cell capsule is a very large structure of some prokaryotic cells, such as bacterial cells. It is a layer that lies outside the cell wall of bacteria. It is a well organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases....
- Cellular compartmentCellular compartmentCellular compartments in cell biology comprise all closed parts within a cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. Most organelles are compartments like mitochondria, chloroplasts , peroxisomes, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cell nucleus or the Golgi apparatus...
- Cell cycleCell cycleThe cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
, Cell cycle checkpointCell cycle checkpointCell cycle checkpoints are control mechanisms that ensure the fidelity of cell division in eukaryotic cells. These checkpoints verify whether the processes at each phase of the cell cycle have been accurately completed before progression into the next phase... - Cell death: programmed cell deathProgrammed cell deathProgrammed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
, necrosisNecrosisNecrosis is the premature death of cells in living tissue. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, toxins, or trauma. This is in contrast to apoptosis, which is a naturally occurring cause of cellular death...
, apoptosisApoptosisApoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation... - Cell divisionCell divisionCell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
- Cell envelopeCell envelopeThe cell envelope is the cell membrane and cell wall plus an outer membrane, if one is present.Most bacterial cell envelopes fall into two major categories: Gram positive and Gram negative. These are differentiated by their Gram staining characteristics....
- Cellular fermentation
- CytogeneticsCytogeneticsCytogenetics is a branch of genetics that is concerned with the study of the structure and function of the cell, especially the chromosomes. It includes routine analysis of G-Banded chromosomes, other cytogenetic banding techniques, as well as molecular cytogenetics such as fluorescent in situ...
- Cell growthCell growthThe term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
- Cellular infiltrationCellular infiltrationCellular infiltration is migration of cells from their sources of origin, or direct extension of cells as a result of unusual growth and multiplication, thereby resulting in fairly well-defined foci, irregular accumulations, or diffusely distributed individual cells in the connective tissue and...
- Cell-mediated immunityCell-mediated immunityCell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells , antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen...
- Cell membraneCell membraneThe cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
, intracellular membranesIntracellular membranesIntracellular membranes are membranes inside the plasmalemma of the cell, comprising its endomembranous system. Typical examples include the nuclear envelope and the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.... - Cell migrationCell migrationCell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing and immune responses all require the orchestrated movement of cells in particular directions to specific locations...
- Cellular pathology, cytopathologyCytopathologyCytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. A common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, used as a screening tool, to detect precancerous cervical lesions and prevent cervical...
- Cellular respirationCellular respirationCellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
- Cell signalingCell signalingCell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue...
, Cell Signaling Networks, Hedgehog (cell signaling), Intercellular communication - Cell theoryCell theoryCell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 17th century was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology...
, cellular life - Cell wallCell wallThe cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
- Extra-cellular digestionExtra-cellular digestionExtra-cellular digestion is a process where saprobionts feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food which is in the digestive system spaces. The enzymes catalyse the food into molecules small enough for them to be phagocytosed...
- ExtracellularExtracellularIn cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word extracellular means "outside the cell". This space is usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid...
, Extracellular matrixExtracellular matrixIn biology, the extracellular matrix is the extracellular part of animal tissue that usually provides structural support to the animal cells in addition to performing various other important functions. The extracellular matrix is the defining feature of connective tissue in animals.Extracellular...
, IntracellularIntracellularNot to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell".It is used in contrast to extracellular... - Granule (cell biology)Granule (cell biology)In cell biology, a granule is a small particle. It can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.-Leukocytes:...
- Inner cell massInner cell massIn early embryogenesis of most eutherian mammals, the inner cell mass is the mass of cells inside the primordial embryo that will eventually give rise to the definitive structures of the fetus...
: ectodermEctodermThe "ectoderm" is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the mesoderm and endoderm , with the ectoderm as the most exterior layer...
, endodermEndodermEndoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and mesoderm , with the endoderm as the intermost layer...
, mesodermMesodermIn all bilaterian animals, the mesoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and endoderm , with the mesoderm as the middle layer between them.The mesoderm forms mesenchyme , mesothelium, non-epithelial blood corpuscles and...
, trophoblastTrophoblastTrophoblasts are cells forming the outer layer of a blastocyst, which provide nutrients to the embryo and develop into a large part of the placenta. They are formed during the first stage of pregnancy and are the first cells to differentiate from the fertilized egg... - Lamellae (cell biology)Lamellae (cell biology)A lamella, in cell biology, is used to describe numerous plate or disc-like structures at both a tissue and cellular level.An example of this begin an extension of a thylakoid within a chloroplast, linking a thylakoid within one granum to one in another. They are the sites of photosystem I...
- Non-cellular lifeNon-cellular lifeNon-cellular life is life that exists without a cellular structure. This term presumes the phylogenetic scientific classification of viruses as lifeforms....
Cell types and distinctions
- AmeloblastAmeloblastAmeloblasts are cells, present only during tooth development, that deposit tooth enamel, the hard outermost layer of the tooth that forms the chewing surface....
- AmoeboidAmoeboidAmoeboids are single-celled life-forms characterized by an irregular shape."Amoeboid" and "amœba" are often used interchangeably even by biologists, and especially refer to a creature moving by using pseudopodia. Most references to "amoebas" or "amoebae" are to amoeboids in general rather than to...
- Animal cell
- Brain cellBrain CellBrain Cell is a mail art project begun by Ryosuke Cohen in June 1985. The project is basically a networked art project where individual artists create their own 30x42cm work of art with stamps, drawings, stickers and so forth. This is sent to Cohen, who prints each cell - 150 copies each - with a...
- ChondrocyteChondrocyteChondrocytes are the only cells found in cartilage. They produce and maintain the cartilaginous matrix, which consists mainly of collagen and proteoglycans...
- Clara cellClara cellClara cells are dome-shaped cells with short microvilli found in the small airways of the lungs.Clara cells are found in the ciliated simple epithelium...
- Collar cell: choanocyteChoanocyteChoanocytes are cells that line the interior of Asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid body type sponges that contain a central flagellum surrounded by a collar of microvilli which are connected by a thin membrane. It is the closest family member to the free-living ancestor called choanoflagellate...
- ColloblastColloblastColloblasts are a cell type found in ctenophores. They are widespread in the tentacles of these animals and are used to capture prey. Colloblasts consist of a coiled spiral filament that is embedded in the epidermis and an axial filament with a granular dome. The apical surface of these cells...
- ChromatophoreChromatophoreChromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells found in amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, and cephalopods. They are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in cold-blooded animals and are generated in the neural crest during embryonic development...
- Dendritic cellDendritic cellDendritic cells are immune cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the surface to other cells of the immune system. That is, dendritic cells function as antigen-presenting cells...
- ElectroplaquesElectric organIn biology, the electric organ is an organ common to all electric fish used for the purposes of creating an electric field. The electric organ is derived from modified nerve or muscle tissue...
- Endocrine cellEndocrine systemIn physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. It derives from the Greek words "endo"...
: alpha cellAlpha cellAlpha cells are endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. They make up 33-46% of the human islet cells and are responsible for synthesizing and secreting the peptide hormone glucagon, which elevates the glucose levels in the blood....
, beta cellBeta cellBeta cells are a type of cell in the pancreas located in the so-called islets of Langerhans. They make up 65-80% of the cells in the islets.-Function:...
, delta cellDelta cellDelta cells are somatostatin-producing cells.They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas....
, islets of LangerhansIslets of LangerhansThe islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells. Discovered in 1869 by German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans at the age of 22, the islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas...
, PP cellPP cellF cells are pancreatic polypeptide producing cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. They are very few in number and are polygonal in shape....
- neuroendocrine cellNeuroendocrine cellNeuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration...
: chromaffin cellChromaffin cellChromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the medulla of the adrenal gland and in other ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system. They are modified post-synaptic sympathetic neurons that receive sympathetic input...
, magnocellular partMagnocellular partMagnocellular cells, also called M-cells, are neurons located within the magnocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. The cells are part of the visual system...
, magnocellular neurosecretory cellMagnocellular neurosecretory cellMagnocellular neurosecretory cells are large cells within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. They are also found in smaller numbers in accessory cell groups between these two nuclei, the largest one being the nucleus circularis... - peptidePeptidePeptides are short polymers of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. They are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, typically containing less than 50 monomer units. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond...
hormone secreting: chief cellChief cellIn general, a chief cell is a cell which releases a precursor enzyme. There are two types of chief cells which are most commonly referenced:...
, parathyroid chief cellParathyroid chief cellParathyroid chief cells are cells in the parathyroid glands which produce parathyroid hormone.... - target cellTarget cell-Hematology:In hematology, target cells are very abnormal red blood cells, that have a bullseye appearance . These target cells are associated with Hemoglobin C disease, Asplenia, Liver Disease, Thalassemia and severe Iron deficiency anemia...
- neuroendocrine cell
- EpidermalEpidermis (botany)The epidermis is a single-layered group of cells that covers plants' leaves, flowers, roots and stems. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions, it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds,...
: keratinocyteKeratinocyteKeratinocytes are the predominant cell type in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the human skin, constituting 95% of the cells found there. Those keratinocytes found in the basal layer of the skin are sometimes referred to as "basal cells" or "basal keratinocytes"...
, melanocyteMelanocyte-External links: - "Eye: fovea, RPE" - "Integument: pigmented skin"...
, prickle cellPrickle cellA prickle cell is an epidermal cell which lies above the basal cell layer, constituting a stratum spinosum, which forms innumerable intercellular bridges. These intercellular bridges give the stratum spinosum a rough appearance to which the cells of which it is composed owe their name... - Epithelial: A549 cellA549 cellA549 cells are adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells. A549 cells fall under the squamous subdivision of epithelial cells, associated with the diffusion of water, electrolytes, and other substances. The A549 cell line was first developed in 1972 by D. J. Giard, et al...
, cell junctionCell junctionA cell junction is a type of structure that exists within the tissue of a some multicellular organism . Cell junctions consist of protein complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix...
, goblet cellGoblet cellGoblet cells are glandular simple columnar epithelial cells whose sole function is to secrete mucin, which dissolves in water to form mucus. They use both apocrine and merocrine methods for secretion....
, squamous cell, thyroid epithelial cellThyroid epithelial cellThyroid epithelial cells are cells in the thyroid gland that are responsible for the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, that is, thyroxine and triiodothyronine .-Function:... - Erythrocyte - red blood cell - reticular cellReticular cellA reticular cell is a type of fibroblast that synthesises type III collagen and uses it to produce reticular fibers. The cell surrounds the fibers with its cytoplasm, isolating it from other tissue components and cells....
, reticulocyteReticulocyteReticulocytes are immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red cells in the human body.Reticulocytes develop and mature in the red bone marrow and then circulate for about a day in the blood stream before developing into mature red blood cells. Like mature red blood cells,...
, normoblastNormoblastAn erythroblast is a type of red blood cell which still retains a cell nucleus. It is the immediate precursor of a normal erythrocyte.-Nomenclature:...
- ReticulocyteReticulocyteReticulocytes are immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red cells in the human body.Reticulocytes develop and mature in the red bone marrow and then circulate for about a day in the blood stream before developing into mature red blood cells. Like mature red blood cells,...
: pluripotential hemopoietic stem cellPluripotential hemopoietic stem cellHematopoietic stem cells , also spelled Hæmatopoietic stem cells, are multipotent stem cells that give rise to all the blood cell types from the myeloid , and lymphoid lineages...
, megakaryoblastMegakaryoblastA megakaryoblast is a precursor cell to a promegakaryocyte, which in turn becomes a megakaryocyte during haematopoiesis. It is the beginning of the thrombocytic series....
, megakaryocyteMegakaryocyteThe megakaryocyte is a bone marrow cell responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes , which are necessary for normal blood clotting...
- Reticulocyte
- EukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
- FibroblastFibroblastA fibroblast is a type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, the structural framework for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing...
: 3T3 cells3T3 cells3T3 cells come from a cell line established in 1962 by two scientists then at the Department of Pathology in the New York University School of Medicine, George Todaro and Howard Green. The 3T3 cell line has become the standard fibroblast cell line... - Flame cellFlame cellright|frameA flame cell is a specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater invertebrates, including flatworms , rotifers and nemerteans; these are the simplest animals to have a dedicated excretory system. Flame cells function like a kidney, removing waste materials...
- GametocyteGametocyteA gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called spermatocytes, and female gametocytes are called oocytes....
: Chinese Hamster Ovary cellChinese Hamster Ovary cellChinese hamster ovary cells are a cell line derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster. They are often used in biological and medical research and commercially in the production of therapeutic proteins. They were introduced in the 1960s and grow as a cultured monolayer...
, germ cellGerm cellA germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually. In many animals, the germ cells originate near the gut of an embryo and migrate to the developing gonads. There, they undergo cell division of two types, mitosis and meiosis, followed by...
, granulosa cellGranulosa cellA granulosa cell or follicular cell is a somatic cell of the sex cord that is closely associated with the developing female gamete in the ovary of mammals.-Anatomy and function:...
, interstitial cellInterstitial cellInterstitial cell refers to any one of a number of different types of cells characterized by their interstitial nature Examples include:...
, Leydig cellLeydig cellLeydig cells, also known as interstitial cells of Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testicle. They produce testosterone in the presence of luteinizing hormone...
, oocyteOocyteAn oocyte, ovocyte, or rarely ocyte, is a female gametocyte or germ cell involved in reproduction. In other words, it is an immature ovum, or egg cell. An oocyte is produced in the ovary during female gametogenesis. The female germ cells produce a primordial germ cell which undergoes a mitotic...
, spermatocyteSpermatocyteA spermatocyte is a male gametocyte, derived from a spermatogonium, which is in the developmental stage of spermatogenesis during which meiosis occurs. It is located in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.-Spermatogenesis:... - Gastric cell: D cell, enterochromaffin-like cellEnterochromaffin-like cellEnterochromaffin-like cells or ECL cells are a type of neuroendocrine cells found in the gastric glands of the gastric mucosa beneath the epithelium, in particular in the vicinity of parietal cells. They are also considered a type of enteroendocrine cell....
, G cellG cellIn anatomy, the G cell is a type of cell in the stomach that secretes gastrin. It works in conjunction with gastric chief cells and parietal cells.G cells are found deep within the gastric glands of the stomach antrum, and occasionally in the pancreas....
, parietal cellParietal cellParietal cells, or oxyntic cells, are the stomach epithelium cells that secrete gastric acid and intrinsic factor.Acetylcholine and gastrin . The histamine receptors act by increasing intracellular cAMP, whereas the muscarinic and gastrin receptors increase intracellular Ca2+ levels... - Glial cellGlial cellGlial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia , are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the brain, and for neurons in other parts of the nervous system such as in the autonomous nervous system...
: Bergmann glia, microgliaMicrogliaMicroglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system . Microglia constitute 20% of the total glial cell population within the brain...
, oligodendrocyteOligodendrocyteOligodendrocytes , or oligodendroglia , are a type of brain cell. They are a variety of neuroglia. Their main function is the insulation of axons in the central nervous system of some vertebrates...
, oligodendrocyte precursor cellOligodendrocyte precursor cellOligodendrocyte precursor cells in nervous tissue cells precede oligodendrocytes, and may also be able to generate neurons and astrocytes. The principal function of oligodendrocytes is to provide support to axons and to produce the Myelin sheath, which insulates and lowers the effective...
, Müller cell, Schwann cellSchwann cellSchwann cells or neurolemmocytes are the principal glia of the peripheral nervous system . Glial cells function to support neurons and in the PNS, also include satellite cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, enteric glia and glia that reside at sensory nerve endings, such as the Pacinian corpuscle...
- Macroglia: astrocyteAstrocyteAstrocytes , also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord...
- Macroglia: astrocyte
- Glomus cellGlomus cellA glomus cell is a peripheral chemoreceptor, located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies, that helps the body regulate breathing. When there is a decrease in the blood's pH, a decrease in oxygen , or an increase in carbon dioxide , the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies signal the medulla...
- Granule cellGranule cellIn neuroscience, granule cells refer to tiny neurons that are around 10 micrometres in diameter. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum , the dentate gyrus of the...
- HEK cellHEK cellHuman Embryonic Kidney 293 cells, also often referred to as HEK 293, 293 cells, or less precisely as HEK cells are a specific cell line originally derived from human embryonic kidney cells grown in tissue culture. HEK 293 cells are very easy to grow and transfect very readily and have been...
: 293 cells - HepatocyteHepatocyteA hepatocyte is a cell of the main tissue of the liver. Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the liver's cytoplasmic mass.These cells are involved in:* Protein synthesis* Protein storage* Transformation of carbohydrates...
- HeterokaryonHeterokaryonA heterokaryon is a cell that contains multiple, genetically different nuclei. This can occur naturally, such as in the mycelium of fungi during sexual reproduction, or artificially as formed by the experimental fusion of two genetically different cells. A medical example is a heterokaryon composed...
- Hofbauer cellHofbauer cellHofbauer cells are oval cells found in the placenta, which are of mesenchymal origin, within the core of the chorionic villous, particularly numerous in early pregnancy. They are believed to be a type of macrophage and are most likely involved in preventing the transmission of pathogens from the...
- LeukocytesWhite blood cellWhite blood cells, or leukocytes , are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a...
- white blood cell- granulocyteGranulocyteGranulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm. They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the varying shapes of the nucleus, which is usually lobed into three segments...
: basophilBasophil granulocyteBasophil granulocytes, sometimes referred to as basophils, are the least common of the granulocytes, representing about 0.01% to 0.3% of circulating white blood cells....
, eosinophilEosinophil granulocyteEosinophil granulocytes, usually called eosinophils or eosinophiles , are white blood cells that are one of the immune system components responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. Along with mast cells, they also control mechanisms associated with...
, neutrophilNeutrophil granulocyteNeutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals and form an essential part of the innate immune system. They are generally referred to as either neutrophils or polymorphonuclear neutrophils , and are subdivided into segmented neutrophils and banded neutrophils... - lymphocyteLymphocyteA lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system.Under the microscope, lymphocytes can be divided into large lymphocytes and small lymphocytes. Large granular lymphocytes include natural killer cells...
: B cellB cellB cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response . The principal functions of B cells are to make antibodies against antigens, perform the role of antigen-presenting cells and eventually develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction...
, B-cell receptorB-cell receptorThe B-cell receptor is a transmembrane receptor protein located on the outer surface of B-cells. The receptor's binding moiety is composed of a membrane-bound antibody that, like all antibodies, has a unique and randomly-determined antigen-binding site...
, effector cell, memory B cellMemory B cellMemory B cells are a B cell sub-type that are formed following primary infection.-Primary response, paratopes, and epitopes:In wake of first infection involving a particular antigen, the responding naïve cells proliferate to produce a colony of cells, most of which differentiate into the plasma...
, memory T cellsMemory T cellsMemory T cells are a subset of infection- as well as potentially cancer-fighting T cells that have previously encountered and responded to their cognate antigen; thus, the term antigen-experienced T cell is often applied. Such T cells can recognize foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses,...
, plasma cellPlasma cellPlasma cells, also called plasma B cells, plasmocytes, and effector B cells, are white blood cells which produce large volumes of antibodies. They are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system...
, T cellT cellT cells or T lymphocytes belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells , by the presence of a T cell receptor on the cell surface. They are...
, T helper cellT helper cellT helper cells are a sub-group of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in the adaptive immune system. These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; they cannot kill infected host cells or pathogens. Rather, they help other...
, cytotoxic T cellCytotoxic T cellA cytotoxic T cell belongs to a sub-group of T lymphocytes that are capable of inducing the death of infected somatic or tumor cells; they kill cells that are infected with viruses , or are otherwise damaged or...
, regulatory T cellRegulatory T cellRegulatory T cells , sometimes known as suppressor T cells, are a specialized subpopulation of T cells which suppresses activation of the immune system and thereby maintains tolerance to self-antigens. The existence of regulatory T cells was the subject of significant controversy among...
, natural killer cellNatural killer cellNatural killer cells are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte that constitute a major component of the innate immune system. NK cells play a major role in the rejection of tumors and cells infected by viruses...
, T cell receptorT cell receptorThe T cell receptor or TCR is a molecule found on the surface of T lymphocytes that is responsible for recognizing antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules... - monocyteMonocyteMonocytes are a type of white blood cell and are part of the innate immune system of vertebrates including all mammals , birds, reptiles, and fish. Monocytes play multiple roles in immune function...
: dendritic cellDendritic cellDendritic cells are immune cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the surface to other cells of the immune system. That is, dendritic cells function as antigen-presenting cells...
, histiocyteHistiocyteA histiocyte is a cell that is part of the mononuclear phagocyte system . The mononuclear phagocytic system is part of the organism's immune system...
, Kupffer cellKupffer cellKupffer cells, also known as Browicz-Kupffer cells and stellate macrophages, are specialized macrophages located in the liver lining the walls of the sinusoids that form part of the reticuloendothelial system .-History:The cells were first observed by Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer in 1876...
, Langerhans cellLangerhans cellLangerhans cells are dendritic cells of the skin and mucosa, and contain large granules called Birbeck granules. They are present in all layers of the epidermis, but are most prominant in the stratum spinosum. They also occur in the papillary dermis, particularly around blood vessels, as well as...
, macrophageMacrophageMacrophages are cells produced by the differentiation of monocytes in tissues. Human macrophages are about in diameter. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes. Macrophages function in both non-specific defense as well as help initiate specific defense mechanisms of vertebrate animals...
, microgliaMicrogliaMicroglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system . Microglia constitute 20% of the total glial cell population within the brain...
, osteoclastOsteoclastAn osteoclast is a type of bone cell that removes bone tissue by removing its mineralized matrix and breaking up the organic bone . This process is known as bone resorption. Osteoclasts were discovered by Kolliker in 1873...
- granulocyte
- Mast cellMast cellA mast cell is a resident cell of several types of tissues and contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin...
- Mesangial cellMesangial cellMesangial cells are specialized cells around blood vessels in the kidneys, at the mesangium. They are specialized smooth muscle cells that function to regulate blood flow through the capillaries, usually divided into two types, each having a very distinct function and location:* Extraglomerular...
- Mesenchymal stem cellMesenchymal stem cellMesenchymal stem cells, or MSCs, are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types, including: osteoblasts , chondrocytes and adipocytes...
: adipocyteAdipocyteHowever, in some reports and textbooks, the number of fat cell increased in childhood and adolescence. The total number is constant in both obese and lean adult...
, chondrocyteChondrocyteChondrocytes are the only cells found in cartilage. They produce and maintain the cartilaginous matrix, which consists mainly of collagen and proteoglycans...
, myocyteMyocyteA myocyte is the type of cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts.Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long, long chains of sarcomeres, the contractile units of the cell....
, osteoblastOsteoblastOsteoblasts are mononucleate cells that are responsible for bone formation; in essence, osteoblasts are specialized fibroblasts that in addition to fibroblastic products, express bone sialoprotein and osteocalcin.Osteoblasts produce a matrix of osteoid, which is composed mainly of Type I collagen... - Mitral cellMitral cellMitral cells are neurons that are part of the olfactory system. They are located in the olfactory bulb in the mammalian central nervous system. They receive information from the axons of olfactory receptor neurons, forming synapses in neuropils called glomeruli...
, olfactory receptor neuronOlfactory receptor neuronAn olfactory receptor neuron , also called an olfactory sensory neuron , is a transduction cell within the olfactory system. J. Rospars, Dendritic integration in olfactory sensory neurons: a steady-state analysis of how the neuron structure and neuron environment influence the coding of odor... - MyoblastMyoblastA myoblast is a type of embryonic progenitor cell that gives rise to muscle cells .The muscle cells can be skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle....
: satellite cellsSatellite cellsMyosatellite cells or satellite cells are small mononuclear progenitor cells with virtually no cytoplasm found in mature muscle. They are found sandwiched between the basement membrane and sarcolemma of individual muscle fibers, and can be difficult to distinguish from the sub-sarcolemmal nuclei...
, myocyteMyocyteA myocyte is the type of cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts.Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long, long chains of sarcomeres, the contractile units of the cell....
: pericytePericyteA pericyte is a type of cell found in the central nervous system. These cells play an integral role in the maintenance of the blood brain barrier as well as several other homeostatic and hemostatic functions of the brain. Pericytes are also a key component of the neurovascular unit, which also... - Neural cellNeuronA neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
: basket cellBasket cellBasket cells are inhibitory GABAergic interneurons found in several brain regions: the molecular layer of the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and the cortex.-Cerebellum:...
, Betz cellBetz cellBetz cells are pyramidal cell neurons located within the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary motor cortex, M1. They are named after Vladimir Alekseyevich Betz, who described them in his work published in 1874. These neurons are the largest in the central nervous system, sometimes reaching...
, Cajal-Retzius cellCajal-Retzius cellThe term Cajal–Retzius cell is applied to reelin-producing neurons of the human embryonic marginal zone which display, as a salient feature, radial ascending processes that contact the pial surface, and a horizontal axon plexus located in the deep marginal zone...
, Golgi cellGolgi cellIn neuroscience, Golgi cells are inhibitory interneurons found within the granular layer of the cerebellum. They were first identified as inhibitory by Eccles et al in 1964....
, granule cellGranule cellIn neuroscience, granule cells refer to tiny neurons that are around 10 micrometres in diameter. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum , the dentate gyrus of the...
, grid cellsGrid cellsA grid cell is a type of neuron that has been found in the brains of rats and mice; and it is likely to exist in other animals including humans...
, Purkinje cellPurkinje cellFor the cells of the electrical conduction system of the heart, see Purkinje fibersPurkinje cells, or Purkinje neurons , are a class of GABAergic neurons located in the cerebellar cortex...
, pyramidal cellPyramidal cellPyramidal neurons are a type of neuron found in areas of the brain including cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and in the amygdala. Pyramidal neurons are the primary excitation units of the mammalian prefrontal cortex and the corticospinal tract. Pyramidal neurons were first discovered and...
, Renshaw cellRenshaw cellRenshaw cells are inhibitory interneurons found in the gray matter of the spinal cord, and are associated in two ways with an alpha motor neuron....
, stellate cellStellate cellIn neuroscience, stellate cells are neurons with several dendrites radiating from the cell body giving them a star shaped appearance. The three most common stellate cells are the inhibitory interneurons found within the molecular layer of the cerebellum, excitatory spiny stellate interneurons and... - OncologicalOncologyOncology is a branch of medicine that deals with cancer...
: erythroleukemiaErythroleukemiaAcute erythroid leukemia is a rare form of acute myeloid leukemia where the myeloproliferation is of erythroblastic precursors.It is defined at type "M6" under the FAB classification.-Types:...
, K562 cell, large cellLarge cellLarge cell is a term used in oncology. It does not refer to a particular type of cell; rather it refers to cells that are larger than would be normally expected for that type...
, oncocytes, oncocytomaOncocytomaAn oncocytoma is a tumor made up of oncocytes, a special kind of cells. -Presentation:An oncocytoma is an epithelial tumor composed of oncocytes, large eosinophilic cells having small, round, benign-appearing nuclei with large nucleoli....
, oxyphil cellOxyphil cellIn the parathyroid gland, the parathyroid oxyphil cell is larger and paler than the parathyroid chief cell.These cells can be found in clusters in the center of the section and at the periphery. Oxyphil cells appear at the onset of puberty, but have no known function...
, signet cell, small cell carcinomaSmall cell carcinomaSmall cell carcinoma is a type of highly malignant cancer that most commonly arises within the lung, although it can occasionally arise in other body sites, such as the cervix and prostate....
Cell biology
Cell biology
Cell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
(formerly cytology, from the Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
kytos, "container") – academic discipline that studies cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s – their physiological
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle
Cell cycle
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
, division
Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
and death
Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...
. This is done both on a microscopic
Microscope
A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy...
and molecular
Molecule
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their electrical charge...
level. Cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
biology research extends to both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms like human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
s.
Essence of cell biology
- Main article: Cell biologyCell biologyCell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
- CellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
– the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is sometimes called the building block of life.- Etymology of "cell" – comes from the LatinLatinLatin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
cellula, meaning, a small room. This name was chosen by Robert HookeRobert HookeRobert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath.His adult life comprised three distinct periods: as a scientific inquirer lacking money; achieving great wealth and standing through his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty following the great fire of 1666, but...
in a book he published in 1665 when he compared the corkCork (material)Cork is an impermeable, buoyant material, a prime-subset of bark tissue that is harvested for commercial use primarily from Quercus suber , which is endemic to southwest Europe and northwest Africa...
cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in.
- Etymology of "cell" – comes from the Latin
- Cell theoryCell theoryCell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 17th century was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology...
- Theory which states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. - Cell biologyCell biologyCell biology is a scientific discipline that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level...
- (formerly cytology) The study of cells. - Cell divisionCell divisionCell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
- The process of one parent cell separating into two or more daughter cells. - Endosymbiotic theoryEndosymbiotic theoryThe endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids , and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts...
- The evolutionary theory that certain eukaryotic organelles originated as separate prokaryotic organisms which were taken inside the cell as endosymbionts. - Cellular respirationCellular respirationCellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
- The metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell membrane to get biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells' waste products. - Lipid bilayerLipid bilayerThe lipid bilayer is a thin membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around cells. The cell membrane of almost all living organisms and many viruses are made of a lipid bilayer, as are the membranes surrounding the cell nucleus...
- A membrane composed of lipid molecules (usually phospholipids). The lipid bilayer is a critical component of all biological membranes, particularly cell membranes this is not all true and realiable
- Cell
Aspects of cells
- HomeostasisHomeostasisHomeostasis is the property of a system that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition of properties like temperature or pH...
- The property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living organism, that regulates its internal environmentMilieu interieurMilieu intérieur or interior milieu, from the French, milieu intérieur, is a term coined by Claude Bernard to refer to the extra-cellular fluid environment, and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular living organisms.-Origin:Claude...
so as to maintain a stable, constant condition. - LifeLifeLife is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
- A condition of growth through metabolism, reproduction, and the power of adaptation to environment through changes originating internally. - MicroscopicMicroscopicThe microscopic scale is the scale of size or length used to describe objects smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked eye and which require a lens or microscope to see them clearly.-History:...
- A term used to described those objects, like cells, which are too small to be seen easily by the naked eye and which require a lens or microscope to see them clearly. - Unicellular - Organisms which are composed of only one cell.
- MulticellularMulticellular organismMulticellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms. Most life that can be seen with the the naked eye is multicellular, as are all animals and land plants.-Evolutionary history:Multicellularity has evolved independently dozens of times...
- Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having differentiated cells that perform specialized functions. - TissuesTissue (biology)Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
- A collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism. - Cellular differentiationCellular differentiationIn developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...
- A concept in developmental biology whereby less specialized cells become a more specialized cell type in multicellular organisms.
By organism
- EukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
- Organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures enclosed within membranes, including plantPlantPlants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s, animalAnimalAnimals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
s, fungi, and protistProtistProtists are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. Historically, protists were treated as the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms, but this group is contested in modern taxonomy...
s.- Animal cell - Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Animalia, characteristically having no cell wall or chloroplasts.
- Plant cellPlant cellPlant cells are eukaryotic cells that differ in several key respects from the cells of other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features include:...
- Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Plantae and having chloroplasts, celluloseCelluloseCellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
cell walls, and large central vacuoles. - Fungal hyphaHyphaA hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
- The basic cellular unit of organisms in kingdom fungi. Typically tubular, multinucleated, and with a chitinChitinChitin n is a long-chain polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and is found in many places throughout the natural world...
ous cell wall. - ProtistProtistProtists are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. Historically, protists were treated as the kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms, but this group is contested in modern taxonomy...
a - A highly variable kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which are mostly unicellular and not plants, animals, or fungi.
- ProkaryoteProkaryoteThe prokaryotes are a group of organisms that lack a cell nucleus , or any other membrane-bound organelles. The organisms that have a cell nucleus are called eukaryotes. Most prokaryotes are unicellular, but a few such as myxobacteria have multicellular stages in their life cycles...
- A group of organisms whose cells lack a membrane-bound cell nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelles, including bacteriaBacteriaBacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
and archaeaArchaeaThe Archaea are a group of single-celled microorganisms. A single individual or species from this domain is called an archaeon...
.- Bacterial cellsBacterial cell structureBacteria, despite their simplicity, contain a well-developed cell structure which is responsible for many of their unique biological properties. Many structural features are unique to bacteria and are not found among archaea or eukaryotes...
- A prokaryotic cell belonging to the mostly unicellular Domain Bacteria. - Archea cell - A cell belonging to the prokaryotic and single-celled microorganisms in Domain Archea.
- Bacterial cells
By function
- GameteGameteA gamete is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually...
- A haploid reproductive cell. Sperm and ova are gametes. Gametes fuse with another gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually.- SpermSpermThe term sperm is derived from the Greek word sperma and refers to the male reproductive cells. In the types of sexual reproduction known as anisogamy and oogamy, there is a marked difference in the size of the gametes with the smaller one being termed the "male" or sperm cell...
- Male reproductive cell (a gamete). - OvumOvumAn ovum is a haploid female reproductive cell or gamete. Both animals and embryophytes have ova. The term ovule is used for the young ovum of an animal, as well as the plant structure that carries the female gametophyte and egg cell and develops into a seed after fertilization...
- Female reproductive cell (a gamete).
- Sperm
- ZygoteZygoteA zygote , or zygocyte, is the initial cell formed when two gamete cells are joined by means of sexual reproduction. In multicellular organisms, it is the earliest developmental stage of the embryo...
- A cell that is the result of fertilization (the fusing of two gametes).- EggEgg (biology)An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
- The zygote of most birds and reptiles, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. The largest existing single cells currently known are (fertilized) eggs.
- Egg
- Meristemic cellMeristemA meristem is the tissue in most plants consisting of undifferentiated cells , found in zones of the plant where growth can take place....
- Undifferentiated plants cells analogous to animal stem cells. - Stem cellStem cellThis article is about the cell type. For the medical therapy, see Stem Cell TreatmentsStem cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms, that can divide and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells...
- Undifferentiated cells found in most multi-cellular organisms which are capable of retaining the ability to reinvigorate themselves through mitotic cell division and can differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types. - Germ cellGerm cellA germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually. In many animals, the germ cells originate near the gut of an embryo and migrate to the developing gonads. There, they undergo cell division of two types, mitosis and meiosis, followed by...
- GameteGameteA gamete is a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually...
s and gonocytes, these are often . Germ cells should not be confused with "germs" (pathogenPathogenA pathogen gignomai "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus that causes disease in its animal or plant host...
s). - Somatic cellSomatic cellA somatic cell is any biological cell forming the body of an organism; that is, in a multicellular organism, any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell...
- any cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s forming the body of an organism, as opposed to germlineGermlineIn biology and genetics, the germline of a mature or developing individual is the line of germ cells that have genetic material that may be passed to a child.For example, gametes such as the sperm or the egg, are part of the germline...
cells.
General cellular anatomy
- Cellular compartmentCellular compartmentCellular compartments in cell biology comprise all closed parts within a cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. Most organelles are compartments like mitochondria, chloroplasts , peroxisomes, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cell nucleus or the Golgi apparatus...
- All closed parts within a cell whose lumen is usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. - OrganelleOrganelleIn cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer....
s - a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane or traditionally any subcellular functional unit.
Organelles
- Cell nucleusCell nucleusIn cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these...
- a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryoticEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
cellsCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
. It contains most of the cell's genetic materialGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
, organized as multiple long linear DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
molecules in complex with a large variety of proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s, such as histoneHistoneIn biology, histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene regulation...
s, to form chromosomeChromosomeA chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
s. - MitochondrionMitochondrionIn cell biology, a mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These organelles range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometers in diameter...
- a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Often called "cellular power plants", mitochondria generate most of cells' supply of adenosine triphosphateAdenosine triphosphateAdenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
(ATP), the body's main source of energyChemical energyChemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or, to transform other chemical substances...
. - ChloroplastChloroplastChloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis.Chloroplasts are green...
- organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. - LysosomeLysosomethumb|350px|Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. [[Organelle]]s: [[nucleoli]] [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] [[ribosomes]] [[vesicle |vesicle]] rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]]...
- organelles that contain digestive enzymeDigestive enzyme'Digestive enzymes' are enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tract of animals where they aid in the digestion of food as well as inside the cells,...
s (acid hydrolaseHydrolaseIn biochemistry, a hydrolase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a chemical bond. For example, an enzyme that catalyzed the following reaction is a hydrolase:-Nomenclature:...
s). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed virusVirusA virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es or bacteriaBacteriaBacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
. - VesicleVesicle (biology)A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes , or...
- a relatively small intracellular, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances . - Golgi apparatusGolgi apparatusThe Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi, after whom the Golgi apparatus is named....
- a eukaryotic organelle that processes and packages macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell; it is a part of the endomembrane systemEndomembrane systemThe endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles...
. - Endoplasmic reticulumEndoplasmic reticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle of cells in eukaryotic organisms that forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae...
- an organelle composed of an interconnected network of tubules, vesiclesVesicle (biology)A vesicle is a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes , or...
and cisternaCisternaA cisterna comprises a flattened membrane disk that makes up the Golgi apparatus. A typical Golgi has anywhere from 3 to 7 cisternae stacked upon each other like a stack of dinner plates, but there are usually around 6...
e.- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - sections of endoplasmic reticulum which are not studded with ribosomes which is connected to the nuclear envelopeNuclear envelopeA nuclear envelope is a double lipid bilayer that encloses the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. The nuclear envelope also serves as the physical barrier, separating the contents of the nucleus from the cytosol...
. It is has functions in several metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and calcium concentration, drug detoxification, and attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins. - Rough endoplasmic reticulum - sections of the endoplasmic reticulum which are studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). Its primary function is the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins.
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - sections of endoplasmic reticulum which are not studded with ribosomes which is connected to the nuclear envelope
- PeroxisomePeroxisomePeroxisomes are organelles found in virtually all eukaryotic cells. They are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids, polyamines, and biosynthesis of plasmalogens, etherphospholipids critical for the normal function of mammalian brains...
- ubiquitous organelleOrganelleIn cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid bilayer....
s in eukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
s that participate in the metabolism of fatty acids and other metabolites. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
of toxic peroxides. - VacuoleVacuoleA vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain...
- membrane-bound compartments within some eukaryotic cells that can serve a variety of secretory, excretory, and storage functions. - NucleolusNucleolusThe nucleolus is a non-membrane bound structure composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the nucleus. Ribosomal RNA is transcribed and assembled within the nucleolus...
- a roughly spherical sub-organelle of the cell nucleus. Its main function is to produce and assemble ribosome components (i.e. RNA, proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s). - RibosomeRibosomeA ribosome is a component of cells that assembles the twenty specific amino acid molecules to form the particular protein molecule determined by the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule....
- complexes of RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
and proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
that are found in all cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s. Ribosomes build proteins from the genetic instructions held within messenger RNAMessenger RNAMessenger RNA is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein...
. - CentrosomeCentrosomeIn cell biology, the centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression. It was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883...
- the main microtubule organizing center of animal cells as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.
Structures
- Cell membraneCell membraneThe cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
- (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma or "phospholipid bilayer") is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells; it contains a wide array of functional macromolecules. - Cell wallCell wallThe cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
- a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural support, protection, and acts as a filtering mechanism. - CytoskeletonCytoskeletonThe cytoskeleton is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within a cell's cytoplasm and is made out of protein. The cytoskeleton is present in all cells; it was once thought to be unique to eukaryotes, but recent research has identified the prokaryotic cytoskeleton...
- is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within the cytoplasm it is composed of three types of fibers: microfilamentMicrofilamentMicrofilaments are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton, a structure found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. These linear polymers of actin subunits are flexible and relatively strong, resisting buckling by multi-piconewton compressive forces and filament fracture by nanonewton...
s, intermediate filamentIntermediate filamentIntermediate filaments are a family of related proteins that share common structural and sequence features. Intermediate filaments have an average diameter of 10 nanometers, which is between that of 7 nm actin , and that of 25 nm microtubules, although they were initially designated...
s, and microtubuleMicrotubuleMicrotubules are a component of the cytoskeleton. These rope-like polymers of tubulin can grow as long as 25 micrometers and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of microtubule is about 25 nm. Microtubules are important for maintaining cell structure, providing platforms for intracellular...
s. - CentrioleCentrioleA Centriole is a barrel-shaped cell structure found in most animal eukaryotic cells, though it is absent in higher plants and most fungi. The walls of each centriole are usually composed of nine triplets of microtubules...
- A barrel shaped microtubule structure found in most eukaryotic cells other than those of plants and fungi. - Spindle fiber - The structure that separates the chromosomes into the daughter cells during cell division.
- CytoplasmCytoplasmThe cytoplasm is a small gel-like substance residing between the cell membrane holding all the cell's internal sub-structures , except for the nucleus. All the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms are contained within the cytoplasm...
- a gelatinous, semi-transparent fluid that fills most cells, it includes all cytosol, organelles and cytoplasmic inclusions. - CytosolCytosolThe cytosol or intracellular fluid is the liquid found inside cells, that is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into compartments....
- is the internal fluid of the cell, and where a portion of cell metabolism occurs. - Inclusions - chemical substances found suspended directly in the cytosol.
- ChromosomeChromosomeA chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
- organized structures of DNA and proteins that are found in cells. - PlasmidPlasmidIn microbiology and genetics, a plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from, and can replicate independently of, the chromosomal DNA. They are double-stranded and, in many cases, circular...
- an extrachromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA and capable of sexual replication, it is typically ring shaped and found in bacteria.
Molecules
- DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. - RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
-Ribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid made from a long chain of nucleotide , in a cell it is typically transcribed from DNA. - Enzymes - Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (i.e. accelerate) the rates of specific chemical reactions within cells.
Cellular metabolism
- Metabolic pathwayMetabolic pathwayIn biochemistry, metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal chemical is modified by a series of chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function...
- A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell which ultimately lead to sequestering of energy. - GlycolysisGlycolysisGlycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+...
- The foundational process of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. - Citric acid cycleCitric acid cycleThe citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle , the Krebs cycle, or the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle — is a series of chemical reactions which is used by all aerobic living organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and...
- Also known as the Krebs cycle, an important aerobic metabolic pathway. - Alcoholic fermentation - The anaerobic metabolic process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and thereby producing ethanol, and carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products.
- Lactic acid fermentationLactic acid fermentationLactic acid fermentation is a biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic byproduct lactate. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such as muscle cells, in the...
- An anaerobic metabolic process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic waste product lactic acid. - Electron transport chainElectron transport chainAn electron transport chain couples electron transfer between an electron donor and an electron acceptor with the transfer of H+ ions across a membrane. The resulting electrochemical proton gradient is used to generate chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate...
- a biochemical process which associates electron carriers (such as NADH and FADH2) and mediating biochemical reactions that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is a major energy intermediate in living organisms. Typically occurs across a cellular membrane. - PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can...
- The conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms.- Calvin cycleCalvin cycleThe Calvin cycle or Calvin–Benson-Bassham cycle or reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle or CBB cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms...
- A series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is one of the light-independent reactions or dark reactions. - Z scheme reactions - A series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the grana of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is one of the light-dependent reactions or light reactions.
- Calvin cycle
- ChemosynthesisChemosynthesisIn biochemistry, chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic molecules or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis...
- The biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules (usually carbon dioxide or methane) and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic molecules (e.g. hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis. - ATPAdenosine triphosphateAdenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism...
- A multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a "molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer. - NADHNicotinamide adenine dinucleotideNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD, is a coenzyme found in all living cells. The compound is a dinucleotide, since it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine base and the other nicotinamide.In metabolism, NAD is involved...
- A coenzyme found in all living cells which serves as an important electronElectronThe electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
carrier in metabolic processes. - Pyruvate - Is the "energy-molecule" output of the aerobic metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis.
- GlucoseGlucoseGlucose is a simple sugar and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy and a metabolic intermediate...
- an important simple sugarSugarSugar is a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose, characterized by a sweet flavor.Sucrose in its refined form primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet...
used by cells as a source of energy and as a metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Cellular reproduction
- InterphaseInterphaseInterphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell spends the majority of its time and performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for cell division. In preparation for cell division, it increases its size and makes a copy of its DNA...
- The stages of the cell cycle that prepare the cell for division. - Binary fission - The process of cell division used by prokaryotes.
- Cell cycleCell cycleThe cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
- The series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its replication. - Meosis - The process of cell division used to create gametes in sexually reproductive eukaryotes.
- MitosisMitosisMitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly...
- In eukaryotes, the process of division of the nucleus and genetic material.- ProphaseProphaseProphase, from the ancient Greek πρό and φάσις , is a stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome in which the chromatin becomes visible. This process, called chromatin condensation, is mediated by the condensin complex...
- The stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to breakup. - MetaphaseMetaphaseMetaphase, from the ancient Greek μετά and φάσις , is a stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which condensed & highly coiled chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells...
- The stage of mitosis in which condensed chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells. - AnaphaseAnaphaseAnaphase, from the ancient Greek ἀνά and φάσις , is the stage of mitosis or meiosis when chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell....
- The stage of mitosis when chromatidChromatidA chromatid is one of the two identical copies of DNA making up a duplicated chromosome, which are joined at their centromeres, for the process of cell division . They are called sister chromatids so long as they are joined by the centromeres...
s (identical copies of chromosomes) separate as they are pulled towards opposite poles within the cell. - TelophaseTelophaseTelophase from the ancient Greek "τελος" and "φασις" , is a stage in both meiosis and mitosis in a eukaryotic cell. During telophase, the effects of prophase and prometaphase events are reversed. Two daughter nuclei form in the cell. The nuclear envelopes of the daughter cells are formed from the...
- The stage of mitosis when the nucleus reforms and chromosomes unravel into longer chromatin structures for reentry into interphase.
- Prophase
- CytokinesisCytokinesisCytokinesis is the process in which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells. It usually initiates during the late stages of mitosis, and sometimes meiosis, splitting a binucleate cell in two, to ensure that chromosome number is maintained from one generation...
- The process cells use to divide their cytoplasm and organelles.
Miscellaneous cellular processes
- OsmosisOsmosisOsmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, aiming to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides...
- the diffusion of water through a cell wall or membrane or any partially-permeable barrier from a solution of low solute concentration to a solution with high solute concentration. - Passive transportPassive transportPassive transport means moving biochemicals and other atomic or molecular substances across membranes. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve chemical energy, because, unlike in an active transport, the transport across membrane is always coupled with the growth of entropy of the...
- Movement of molecules into and out of cells without the input of cellular energy. - Active transportActive transportActive transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient . In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine...
- Movement of molecules into and out of cells with the input of cellular energy. - Phagocytosis - the process a cell uses when engulfing solid particles into the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome, or "food vacuole."
- Programmed cell deathProgrammed cell deathProgrammed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
- The death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program (ex. Apoptosis or AutophagyAutophagyIn cell biology, autophagy, or autophagocytosis, is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. It is a tightly regulated process that plays a normal part in cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance...
). - ApoptosisApoptosisApoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation...
- a series of biochemical events leading to a characteristic cell morphology and death, which is not caused by damage to the cell. - AutophagyAutophagyIn cell biology, autophagy, or autophagocytosis, is a catabolic process involving the degradation of a cell's own components through the lysosomal machinery. It is a tightly regulated process that plays a normal part in cell growth, development, and homeostasis, helping to maintain a balance...
- The process whereby cells "eat" their own internal components or microbial invaders. - Cell senescence - The phenomenon where normal diploid differentiated cells lose the ability to divide after about 50 cell divisions.
- Cell signalingCell signalingCell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue...
- Regulation of cell behavior by signals from outside. - AdhesionCell adhesionCellular adhesion is the binding of a cell to a surface, extracellular matrix or another cell using cell adhesion molecules such as selectins, integrins, and cadherins. Correct cellular adhesion is essential in maintaining multicellular structure...
- Holding together cells and tissues. - MotilityMotilityMotility is a biological term which refers to the ability to move spontaneously and actively, consuming energy in the process. Most animals are motile but the term applies to single-celled and simple multicellular organisms, as well as to some mechanisms of fluid flow in multicellular organs, in...
and cell migrationCell migrationCell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing and immune responses all require the orchestrated movement of cells in particular directions to specific locations...
- The various means for a cell to move, guided by cues in its environment - Cytoplasmic streamingCytoplasmic streamingCytoplasmic streaming is the directed flow of cytosol and organelles around large fungal and plant cells. This movement aids in the delivery of nutrients, metabolites, genetic information, and other materials to all parts of the cell...
- flowing of cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. - TranscriptionTranscription (genetics)Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct enzymes...
- Fundamental process of gene expression through turning DNA segment into a functional unit of RNA. - DNA repairDNA repairDNA repair refers to a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome. In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as UV light and radiation can cause DNA damage, resulting in as many as 1...
- The process used by cells to fix damaged DNA sections.
Applied cell biology concepts
- Cell therapyCell therapyCell therapy describes the process of introducing new cells into a tissue in order to treat a disease. Cell therapies often focus on the treatment of hereditary diseases, with or without the addition of gene therapy...
- the process of introducing new cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s into a tissueBiological tissueTissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
in order to treat a diseaseDiseaseA disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
. - CloningCloningCloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments , cells , or...
- processes used to create copies of DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
fragments (molecular cloning), cellsCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
(cell cloning), or organisms. - Cell disruptionCell disruptionCell disruption is a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.- Choice of disruption method:The production of biologically-interesting molecules using cloning and culturing methods allows the study and manufacture of relevant molecules.Except for excreted molecules,...
- a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.
Laboratory procedures
- Cell cultureCell cultureCell culture is the complex process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions. In practice, the term "cell culture" has come to refer to the culturing of cells derived from singlecellular eukaryotes, especially animal cells. However, there are also cultures of plants, fungi and microbes,...
- Cell disruptionCell disruptionCell disruption is a method or process for releasing biological molecules from inside a cell.- Choice of disruption method:The production of biologically-interesting molecules using cloning and culturing methods allows the study and manufacture of relevant molecules.Except for excreted molecules,...
, cell disruption by nitrogen decompressionCell disruption by nitrogen decompressionCell disruption by rapid decompression is one of several methods of cell disruption and is also called explosive decompression or cell bomb.- Applications :The technique is used to:* Homogenize cells and tissues* Release intact organelles... - Cell fractionationCell fractionationCell fractionation is the separation of homogeneous sets, usually organelles, from a heterogeneous population of cells.-Steps:There are three principal steps involved:#Disruption of cells and liberation of organelles.#Macro Filtration...
- Cell incubator
- Cyto-StainCyto-StainCyto-Stain, or CytoStain, is commercially available mix of staining dyes for polychromatic staining in histology. It provides results comparable to Papanicolaou staining, but in less number of operations and in shorter time...
- Fluorescent-activated cell sorting
- Hfr cellHfr cellAn Hfr cell is a bacterium with a conjugative plasmid integrated into its genomic DNA. Hfr is the abbreviation for high frequency recombination, which was first characterized by Luca Cavalli-Sforza...
- high frequency recombination - Spinner (Cell Culture)Spinner (Cell Culture)A Spinner is a type of bioreactor which features an impeller, stirrer or similar device to agitate the contents...
History of cell biology
- Main article: History of cell biology and see also Cell biologists below
The history of cell biology is intertwined with the history of biochemistry
History of biochemistry
The history of biochemistry spans approximately 400 years. Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the word "biochemistry" was first proposed in 1903 by Carl Neuberg, a German chemist....
and the history of molecular biology
History of molecular biology
The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and virology...
. Other articles pertaining to the history of cell biology include:
- History of cell theory, embryology and germ theory
- History of biochemistry, microbiology, and molecular biology
- History of the optical microscope
- Timeline of microscope technologyTimeline of microscope technologyTimeline of microscope technology* 1590 - Dutch spectacle-makers Hans Jansen and his son Zacharias Jansen, claimed by later writers to have invented a compound microscope....
Past
- Karl August Möbius - In 1884 first observed the structures that would later be called "organelles".
- Bengt LidforssBengt LidforssBengt Lidforss was a prominent Swedish socialist, and an accomplished natural scientist and writer.- Biography :...
- Coined the word "organells" which later became "organelle". - Robert HookeRobert HookeRobert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath.His adult life comprised three distinct periods: as a scientific inquirer lacking money; achieving great wealth and standing through his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty following the great fire of 1666, but...
- Coined the word "cell" after looking at cork under a microscope. - Anton van LeeuwenhoekAnton van LeeuwenhoekAntonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. He is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and considered to be the first microbiologist...
- First observed microscopic single celled organisms in apparently clean water. - Hans Adolf KrebsHans Adolf KrebsSir Hans Adolf Krebs was a German-born British physician and biochemist. Krebs is best known for his identification of two important metabolic cycles: the urea cycle and the citric acid cycle...
- Discovered the citric acid cycleCitric acid cycleThe citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle , the Krebs cycle, or the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle — is a series of chemical reactions which is used by all aerobic living organisms to generate energy through the oxidization of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and...
in 1937. - Konstantin MereschkowskiKonstantin MereschkowskiKonstantin Mereschcowsky was a prominent Russian biologist, botanist and advocate of eugenics active mainly around Kazan, whose research on lichens led him to propose the theory of symbiogenesis - that larger, more complex cells evolved from the symbiotic relationship between less complex ones...
- Russian botanist who in 1905 described the Theory of EndosymbiosisEndosymbiotic theoryThe endosymbiotic theory concerns the mitochondria, plastids , and possibly other organelles of eukaryotic cells. According to this theory, certain organelles originated as free-living bacteria that were taken inside another cell as endosymbionts...
. - Edmund Beecher WilsonEdmund Beecher WilsonEdmund Beecher Wilson was a pioneering American zoologist and geneticist. He wrote one of the most famous textbooks in the history of modern biology, The Cell.- Career :...
- Known as America's first cellular biologist, discovered the sex chromosome arrangement in humans. - Albert ClaudeAlbert ClaudeAlbert Claude was a Belgian biologist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 with Christian de Duve and George Emil Palade. He studied engineering, and then medicine...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - Theodor BoveriTheodor Boveri-External links:* Fritz Baltzer. . excerpt from . University of California Press, Berkeley; pp. 85–97....
- In 1888 identified the centrosome and described it as the 'special organ of cell division.' - Peter D. MitchellPeter D. MitchellPeter Dennis Mitchell, FRS was a British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.Mitchell was born in Mitcham, Surrey, England....
- British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.
Current
- Lynn MargulisLynn MargulisLynn Margulis was an American biologist and University Professor in the Department of Geosciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She is best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions to the endosymbiotic theory, which is now generally accepted...
- An American biologist best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions and support of the endosymbiotic theory. - Günter BlobelGünter Blobel-Biography:Blobel was born in Waltersdorf in the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia. In January 1945 his family fled from native Silesia from the advancing Red Army. On their way to the West they passed through the beautiful old city of Dresden, which left deep impressions in the young boy...
- An American biologist who won a Nobel Prize for protein targetingProtein targetingProtein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports proteins to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Sorting targets can be the inner space of an organelle, any of several interior membranes, the cell's outer membrane, or its exterior via secretion...
in cells. - Peter AgrePeter AgrePeter Agre is an American medical doctor, professor, and molecular biologist who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of aquaporins. Aquaporins are water-channel proteins that move water molecules through the cell membrane...
- An American chemist who won a Nobel Prize for discovering cellular aquaporins. - Christian de DuveChristian de DuveChristian René, viscount de Duve is a Nobel Prize-winning cytologist and biochemist. De Duve was born in Thames Ditton, Surrey, Great Britain, as a son of Belgian refugees. They returned to Belgium in 1920...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - George Emil PaladeGeorge Emil PaladeGeorge Emil Palade was a Romanian cell biologist. Described as "the most influential cell biologist ever", in 1974 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine, together with Albert Claude and Christian de Duve. The prize was granted for his innovations in electron microscopy and...
- Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" - Ira MellmanIra MellmanIra Mellman, Ph.D. is an American cell biologist who discovered endosomes. He serves as Vice President of Research Oncology at Genentech in South San Francisco, California.-Research:...
- an American cell biologist who discovered endosomes. - Paul NursePaul NurseSir Paul Maxime Nurse, PRS is a British geneticist and cell biologist. He was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Leland H. Hartwell and R...
- Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. - Leland H. HartwellLeland H. HartwellLeland Harrison Hartwell is former president and director of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington. He shared the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Paul Nurse and R...
- Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. - R. Timothy Hunt - Shared a 2001 Nobel Prize for discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases.
- Geoffrey M. CooperGeoffrey M. CooperGeoffrey M. Cooper is a chairman and professor of biology at Boston University. He earned his Ph.D. at the University of Miami in 1973 working with nobel laureate Howard Temin. His work includes cellular growth control, cancer, and signal transduction...
- Professor of cell biology at Boston University.
Closely allied sciences
- CytochemistryCytochemistryCytochemistry is the biochemistry of cells, especially that of the macromolecules responsible for cell structure and function...
- the biochemistryBiochemistryBiochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
of cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s, especially that of the macromoleculeMacromoleculeA macromolecule is a very large molecule commonly created by some form of polymerization. In biochemistry, the term is applied to the four conventional biopolymers , as well as non-polymeric molecules with large molecular mass such as macrocycles...
s responsible for cell structureStructureStructure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
and function. - CytopathologyCytopathologyCytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. A common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, used as a screening tool, to detect precancerous cervical lesions and prevent cervical...
- a branch of pathologyPathologyPathology is the precise study and diagnosis of disease. The word pathology is from Ancient Greek , pathos, "feeling, suffering"; and , -logia, "the study of". Pathologization, to pathologize, refers to the process of defining a condition or behavior as pathological, e.g. pathological gambling....
that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The most common use of cytopathology is the Pap smearPap smearThe Papanicolaou test is a screening test used in to detect pre-cancerous and cancerous processes in the endocervical canal of the female reproductive system. Changes can be treated, thus preventing cervical cancer...
, used to detect cervical cancer at an early treatable stage. - GeneticsGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
- the scienceScienceScience is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
of heredityHeredityHeredity is the passing of traits to offspring . This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause some species to evolve...
and variationGenetic variationGenetic variation, variation in alleles of genes, occurs both within and among populations. Genetic variation is important because it provides the “raw material” for natural selection. Genetic variation is brought about by mutation, a change in a chemical structure of a gene. Polyploidy is an...
in living organismOrganismIn biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s. - BiochemistryBiochemistryBiochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
- the study of the chemicalChemistryChemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
processes in living organismOrganismIn biology, an organism is any contiguous living system . In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, and maintenance of homoeostasis as a stable whole.An organism may either be unicellular or, as in the case of humans, comprise...
s. It deals with the structureStructureStructure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
and function of cellular components, such as proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s, carbohydrateCarbohydrateA carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
s, lipidLipidLipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
s, nucleic acidNucleic acidNucleic acids are biological molecules essential for life, and include DNA and RNA . Together with proteins, nucleic acids make up the most important macromolecules; each is found in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic information...
s, and other biomoleculeBiomoleculeA biomolecule is any molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large polymeric molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products...
s. - Molecular biologyMolecular biologyMolecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry...
- the study of biologyBiologyBiology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
at a molecular level, including the various systems of a cellCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
, including the interactions between DNADNADeoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
, RNARNARibonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
and protein biosynthesisProtein biosynthesisProtein biosynthesis is the process in which cells build or manufacture proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi-step process, beginning with amino acid synthesis and transcription of nuclear DNA into messenger RNA, which is then...
and learning how these interactions are regulated. - Developmental biologyDevelopmental biologyDevelopmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation and "morphogenesis", which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs and anatomy.- Related fields of study...
- the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop, including the genetic control of cell growthCell growthThe term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
, differentiationCellular differentiationIn developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a multicellular organism as the organism changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of...
and "morphogenesisMorphogenesisMorphogenesis , is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape...
," which is the process that gives rise to tissueBiological tissueTissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
s, organOrgan (anatomy)In biology, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in structural unit to serve a common function. Usually there is a main tissue and sporadic tissues . The main tissue is the one that is unique for the specific organ. For example, main tissue in the heart is the myocardium, while sporadic are...
s and anatomyAnatomyAnatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
. - MicrobiologyMicrobiologyMicrobiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters or no cell at all . This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes...
- the study of microorganismMicroorganismA microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell , cell clusters, or no cell at all...
s, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms as well as virusVirusA virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es. - Cellular microbiologyCellular microbiologyCellular microbiology is a discipline that bridges microbiology and cell biology.The term "cellular microbiology" was coined in 1996 in a Science article...
- a discipline bridging microbiology and cell biology.
Cell biology lists
- Cell typeCell typeA cell type is a distinct morphological or functional form of cell. When a cell switches state from one cell type to another, it undergoes cellular differentiation. A list of distinct cell types in the adult human body may include several hundred distinct types.-References:...
- List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
- List of human clusters of differentiation
- List of proteins
- List of important publications in cell biology
Further reading
- Young John K Introduction to Cell Biology (2010), ISBN 978-981-4307-31-4 & ISBN 978-981-4307-32-1(pbk)
External links
- Cells Alive - educational website.
- Cell Biology topics from University of Texas Medical Branch Cell Biology Graduate Program
Theoretical topics
- Cell (biology)Cell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
- Cell adhesionCell adhesionCellular adhesion is the binding of a cell to a surface, extracellular matrix or another cell using cell adhesion molecules such as selectins, integrins, and cadherins. Correct cellular adhesion is essential in maintaining multicellular structure...
, cell adhesion moleculeCell adhesion moleculeCell Adhesion Molecules are proteins located on the cell surface involved with the binding with other cells or with the extracellular matrix in the process called cell adhesion....
, Intercellular adhesion moleculeIntercellular adhesion moleculeIntercellular adhesion molecules are members of the family of cell adhesion molecules. They include the following:* ICAM-1 * ICAM2* ICAM3* ICAM4* ICAM5... - Cell capsuleCell capsuleThe cell capsule is a very large structure of some prokaryotic cells, such as bacterial cells. It is a layer that lies outside the cell wall of bacteria. It is a well organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases....
- Cellular compartmentCellular compartmentCellular compartments in cell biology comprise all closed parts within a cell, usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. Most organelles are compartments like mitochondria, chloroplasts , peroxisomes, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, the cell nucleus or the Golgi apparatus...
- Cell cycleCell cycleThe cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
, Cell cycle checkpointCell cycle checkpointCell cycle checkpoints are control mechanisms that ensure the fidelity of cell division in eukaryotic cells. These checkpoints verify whether the processes at each phase of the cell cycle have been accurately completed before progression into the next phase... - Cell death: programmed cell deathProgrammed cell deathProgrammed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
, necrosisNecrosisNecrosis is the premature death of cells in living tissue. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, toxins, or trauma. This is in contrast to apoptosis, which is a naturally occurring cause of cellular death...
, apoptosisApoptosisApoptosis is the process of programmed cell death that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation... - Cell divisionCell divisionCell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells . Cell division is usually a small segment of a larger cell cycle. This type of cell division in eukaryotes is known as mitosis, and leaves the daughter cell capable of dividing again. The corresponding sort...
- Cell envelopeCell envelopeThe cell envelope is the cell membrane and cell wall plus an outer membrane, if one is present.Most bacterial cell envelopes fall into two major categories: Gram positive and Gram negative. These are differentiated by their Gram staining characteristics....
- Cellular fermentation
- CytogeneticsCytogeneticsCytogenetics is a branch of genetics that is concerned with the study of the structure and function of the cell, especially the chromosomes. It includes routine analysis of G-Banded chromosomes, other cytogenetic banding techniques, as well as molecular cytogenetics such as fluorescent in situ...
- Cell growthCell growthThe term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
- Cellular infiltrationCellular infiltrationCellular infiltration is migration of cells from their sources of origin, or direct extension of cells as a result of unusual growth and multiplication, thereby resulting in fairly well-defined foci, irregular accumulations, or diffusely distributed individual cells in the connective tissue and...
- Cell-mediated immunityCell-mediated immunityCell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages, natural killer cells , antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen...
- Cell membraneCell membraneThe cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
, intracellular membranesIntracellular membranesIntracellular membranes are membranes inside the plasmalemma of the cell, comprising its endomembranous system. Typical examples include the nuclear envelope and the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.... - Cell migrationCell migrationCell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing and immune responses all require the orchestrated movement of cells in particular directions to specific locations...
- Cellular pathology, cytopathologyCytopathologyCytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. A common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, used as a screening tool, to detect precancerous cervical lesions and prevent cervical...
- Cellular respirationCellular respirationCellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate , and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve...
- Cell signalingCell signalingCell signaling is part of a complex system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue...
, Cell Signaling Networks, Hedgehog (cell signaling), Intercellular communication - Cell theoryCell theoryCell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 17th century was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology...
, cellular life - Cell wallCell wallThe cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
- Extra-cellular digestionExtra-cellular digestionExtra-cellular digestion is a process where saprobionts feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food which is in the digestive system spaces. The enzymes catalyse the food into molecules small enough for them to be phagocytosed...
- ExtracellularExtracellularIn cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word extracellular means "outside the cell". This space is usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid...
, Extracellular matrixExtracellular matrixIn biology, the extracellular matrix is the extracellular part of animal tissue that usually provides structural support to the animal cells in addition to performing various other important functions. The extracellular matrix is the defining feature of connective tissue in animals.Extracellular...
, IntracellularIntracellularNot to be confused with intercellular, meaning "between cells".In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word intracellular means "inside the cell".It is used in contrast to extracellular... - Granule (cell biology)Granule (cell biology)In cell biology, a granule is a small particle. It can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.-Leukocytes:...
- Inner cell massInner cell massIn early embryogenesis of most eutherian mammals, the inner cell mass is the mass of cells inside the primordial embryo that will eventually give rise to the definitive structures of the fetus...
: ectodermEctodermThe "ectoderm" is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the mesoderm and endoderm , with the ectoderm as the most exterior layer...
, endodermEndodermEndoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and mesoderm , with the endoderm as the intermost layer...
, mesodermMesodermIn all bilaterian animals, the mesoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and endoderm , with the mesoderm as the middle layer between them.The mesoderm forms mesenchyme , mesothelium, non-epithelial blood corpuscles and...
, trophoblastTrophoblastTrophoblasts are cells forming the outer layer of a blastocyst, which provide nutrients to the embryo and develop into a large part of the placenta. They are formed during the first stage of pregnancy and are the first cells to differentiate from the fertilized egg... - Lamellae (cell biology)Lamellae (cell biology)A lamella, in cell biology, is used to describe numerous plate or disc-like structures at both a tissue and cellular level.An example of this begin an extension of a thylakoid within a chloroplast, linking a thylakoid within one granum to one in another. They are the sites of photosystem I...
- Non-cellular lifeNon-cellular lifeNon-cellular life is life that exists without a cellular structure. This term presumes the phylogenetic scientific classification of viruses as lifeforms....
Cell types and distinctions
- AmeloblastAmeloblastAmeloblasts are cells, present only during tooth development, that deposit tooth enamel, the hard outermost layer of the tooth that forms the chewing surface....
- AmoeboidAmoeboidAmoeboids are single-celled life-forms characterized by an irregular shape."Amoeboid" and "amœba" are often used interchangeably even by biologists, and especially refer to a creature moving by using pseudopodia. Most references to "amoebas" or "amoebae" are to amoeboids in general rather than to...
- Animal cell
- Brain cellBrain CellBrain Cell is a mail art project begun by Ryosuke Cohen in June 1985. The project is basically a networked art project where individual artists create their own 30x42cm work of art with stamps, drawings, stickers and so forth. This is sent to Cohen, who prints each cell - 150 copies each - with a...
- ChondrocyteChondrocyteChondrocytes are the only cells found in cartilage. They produce and maintain the cartilaginous matrix, which consists mainly of collagen and proteoglycans...
- Clara cellClara cellClara cells are dome-shaped cells with short microvilli found in the small airways of the lungs.Clara cells are found in the ciliated simple epithelium...
- Collar cell: choanocyteChoanocyteChoanocytes are cells that line the interior of Asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid body type sponges that contain a central flagellum surrounded by a collar of microvilli which are connected by a thin membrane. It is the closest family member to the free-living ancestor called choanoflagellate...
- ColloblastColloblastColloblasts are a cell type found in ctenophores. They are widespread in the tentacles of these animals and are used to capture prey. Colloblasts consist of a coiled spiral filament that is embedded in the epidermis and an axial filament with a granular dome. The apical surface of these cells...
- ChromatophoreChromatophoreChromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells found in amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, and cephalopods. They are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in cold-blooded animals and are generated in the neural crest during embryonic development...
- Dendritic cellDendritic cellDendritic cells are immune cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the surface to other cells of the immune system. That is, dendritic cells function as antigen-presenting cells...
- ElectroplaquesElectric organIn biology, the electric organ is an organ common to all electric fish used for the purposes of creating an electric field. The electric organ is derived from modified nerve or muscle tissue...
- Endocrine cellEndocrine systemIn physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. It derives from the Greek words "endo"...
: alpha cellAlpha cellAlpha cells are endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. They make up 33-46% of the human islet cells and are responsible for synthesizing and secreting the peptide hormone glucagon, which elevates the glucose levels in the blood....
, beta cellBeta cellBeta cells are a type of cell in the pancreas located in the so-called islets of Langerhans. They make up 65-80% of the cells in the islets.-Function:...
, delta cellDelta cellDelta cells are somatostatin-producing cells.They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas....
, islets of LangerhansIslets of LangerhansThe islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells. Discovered in 1869 by German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans at the age of 22, the islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas...
, PP cellPP cellF cells are pancreatic polypeptide producing cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. They are very few in number and are polygonal in shape....
- neuroendocrine cellNeuroendocrine cellNeuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration...
: chromaffin cellChromaffin cellChromaffin cells are neuroendocrine cells found in the medulla of the adrenal gland and in other ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system. They are modified post-synaptic sympathetic neurons that receive sympathetic input...
, magnocellular partMagnocellular partMagnocellular cells, also called M-cells, are neurons located within the magnocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. The cells are part of the visual system...
, magnocellular neurosecretory cellMagnocellular neurosecretory cellMagnocellular neurosecretory cells are large cells within the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. They are also found in smaller numbers in accessory cell groups between these two nuclei, the largest one being the nucleus circularis... - peptidePeptidePeptides are short polymers of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. They are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, typically containing less than 50 monomer units. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond...
hormone secreting: chief cellChief cellIn general, a chief cell is a cell which releases a precursor enzyme. There are two types of chief cells which are most commonly referenced:...
, parathyroid chief cellParathyroid chief cellParathyroid chief cells are cells in the parathyroid glands which produce parathyroid hormone.... - target cellTarget cell-Hematology:In hematology, target cells are very abnormal red blood cells, that have a bullseye appearance . These target cells are associated with Hemoglobin C disease, Asplenia, Liver Disease, Thalassemia and severe Iron deficiency anemia...
- neuroendocrine cell
- EpidermalEpidermis (botany)The epidermis is a single-layered group of cells that covers plants' leaves, flowers, roots and stems. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions, it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds,...
: keratinocyteKeratinocyteKeratinocytes are the predominant cell type in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the human skin, constituting 95% of the cells found there. Those keratinocytes found in the basal layer of the skin are sometimes referred to as "basal cells" or "basal keratinocytes"...
, melanocyteMelanocyte-External links: - "Eye: fovea, RPE" - "Integument: pigmented skin"...
, prickle cellPrickle cellA prickle cell is an epidermal cell which lies above the basal cell layer, constituting a stratum spinosum, which forms innumerable intercellular bridges. These intercellular bridges give the stratum spinosum a rough appearance to which the cells of which it is composed owe their name... - Epithelial: A549 cellA549 cellA549 cells are adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells. A549 cells fall under the squamous subdivision of epithelial cells, associated with the diffusion of water, electrolytes, and other substances. The A549 cell line was first developed in 1972 by D. J. Giard, et al...
, cell junctionCell junctionA cell junction is a type of structure that exists within the tissue of a some multicellular organism . Cell junctions consist of protein complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix...
, goblet cellGoblet cellGoblet cells are glandular simple columnar epithelial cells whose sole function is to secrete mucin, which dissolves in water to form mucus. They use both apocrine and merocrine methods for secretion....
, squamous cell, thyroid epithelial cellThyroid epithelial cellThyroid epithelial cells are cells in the thyroid gland that are responsible for the production and secretion of thyroid hormones, that is, thyroxine and triiodothyronine .-Function:... - Erythrocyte - red blood cell - reticular cellReticular cellA reticular cell is a type of fibroblast that synthesises type III collagen and uses it to produce reticular fibers. The cell surrounds the fibers with its cytoplasm, isolating it from other tissue components and cells....
, reticulocyteReticulocyteReticulocytes are immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red cells in the human body.Reticulocytes develop and mature in the red bone marrow and then circulate for about a day in the blood stream before developing into mature red blood cells. Like mature red blood cells,...
, normoblastNormoblastAn erythroblast is a type of red blood cell which still retains a cell nucleus. It is the immediate precursor of a normal erythrocyte.-Nomenclature:...
- ReticulocyteReticulocyteReticulocytes are immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red cells in the human body.Reticulocytes develop and mature in the red bone marrow and then circulate for about a day in the blood stream before developing into mature red blood cells. Like mature red blood cells,...
: pluripotential hemopoietic stem cellPluripotential hemopoietic stem cellHematopoietic stem cells , also spelled Hæmatopoietic stem cells, are multipotent stem cells that give rise to all the blood cell types from the myeloid , and lymphoid lineages...
, megakaryoblastMegakaryoblastA megakaryoblast is a precursor cell to a promegakaryocyte, which in turn becomes a megakaryocyte during haematopoiesis. It is the beginning of the thrombocytic series....
, megakaryocyteMegakaryocyteThe megakaryocyte is a bone marrow cell responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes , which are necessary for normal blood clotting...
- Reticulocyte
- EukaryoteEukaryoteA eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes may more formally be referred to as the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining membrane-bound structure that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, or nuclear...
- FibroblastFibroblastA fibroblast is a type of cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, the structural framework for animal tissues, and plays a critical role in wound healing...
: 3T3 cells3T3 cells3T3 cells come from a cell line established in 1962 by two scientists then at the Department of Pathology in the New York University School of Medicine, George Todaro and Howard Green. The 3T3 cell line has become the standard fibroblast cell line... - Flame cellFlame cellright|frameA flame cell is a specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater invertebrates, including flatworms , rotifers and nemerteans; these are the simplest animals to have a dedicated excretory system. Flame cells function like a kidney, removing waste materials...
- GametocyteGametocyteA gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called spermatocytes, and female gametocytes are called oocytes....
: Chinese Hamster Ovary cellChinese Hamster Ovary cellChinese hamster ovary cells are a cell line derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster. They are often used in biological and medical research and commercially in the production of therapeutic proteins. They were introduced in the 1960s and grow as a cultured monolayer...
, germ cellGerm cellA germ cell is any biological cell that gives rise to the gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually. In many animals, the germ cells originate near the gut of an embryo and migrate to the developing gonads. There, they undergo cell division of two types, mitosis and meiosis, followed by...
, granulosa cellGranulosa cellA granulosa cell or follicular cell is a somatic cell of the sex cord that is closely associated with the developing female gamete in the ovary of mammals.-Anatomy and function:...
, interstitial cellInterstitial cellInterstitial cell refers to any one of a number of different types of cells characterized by their interstitial nature Examples include:...
, Leydig cellLeydig cellLeydig cells, also known as interstitial cells of Leydig, are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules in the testicle. They produce testosterone in the presence of luteinizing hormone...
, oocyteOocyteAn oocyte, ovocyte, or rarely ocyte, is a female gametocyte or germ cell involved in reproduction. In other words, it is an immature ovum, or egg cell. An oocyte is produced in the ovary during female gametogenesis. The female germ cells produce a primordial germ cell which undergoes a mitotic...
, spermatocyteSpermatocyteA spermatocyte is a male gametocyte, derived from a spermatogonium, which is in the developmental stage of spermatogenesis during which meiosis occurs. It is located in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.-Spermatogenesis:... - Gastric cell: D cell, enterochromaffin-like cellEnterochromaffin-like cellEnterochromaffin-like cells or ECL cells are a type of neuroendocrine cells found in the gastric glands of the gastric mucosa beneath the epithelium, in particular in the vicinity of parietal cells. They are also considered a type of enteroendocrine cell....
, G cellG cellIn anatomy, the G cell is a type of cell in the stomach that secretes gastrin. It works in conjunction with gastric chief cells and parietal cells.G cells are found deep within the gastric glands of the stomach antrum, and occasionally in the pancreas....
, parietal cellParietal cellParietal cells, or oxyntic cells, are the stomach epithelium cells that secrete gastric acid and intrinsic factor.Acetylcholine and gastrin . The histamine receptors act by increasing intracellular cAMP, whereas the muscarinic and gastrin receptors increase intracellular Ca2+ levels... - Glial cellGlial cellGlial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia , are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the brain, and for neurons in other parts of the nervous system such as in the autonomous nervous system...
: Bergmann glia, microgliaMicrogliaMicroglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system . Microglia constitute 20% of the total glial cell population within the brain...
, oligodendrocyteOligodendrocyteOligodendrocytes , or oligodendroglia , are a type of brain cell. They are a variety of neuroglia. Their main function is the insulation of axons in the central nervous system of some vertebrates...
, oligodendrocyte precursor cellOligodendrocyte precursor cellOligodendrocyte precursor cells in nervous tissue cells precede oligodendrocytes, and may also be able to generate neurons and astrocytes. The principal function of oligodendrocytes is to provide support to axons and to produce the Myelin sheath, which insulates and lowers the effective...
, Müller cell, Schwann cellSchwann cellSchwann cells or neurolemmocytes are the principal glia of the peripheral nervous system . Glial cells function to support neurons and in the PNS, also include satellite cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, enteric glia and glia that reside at sensory nerve endings, such as the Pacinian corpuscle...
- Macroglia: astrocyteAstrocyteAstrocytes , also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord...
- Macroglia: astrocyte
- Glomus cellGlomus cellA glomus cell is a peripheral chemoreceptor, located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies, that helps the body regulate breathing. When there is a decrease in the blood's pH, a decrease in oxygen , or an increase in carbon dioxide , the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies signal the medulla...
- Granule cellGranule cellIn neuroscience, granule cells refer to tiny neurons that are around 10 micrometres in diameter. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum , the dentate gyrus of the...
- HEK cellHEK cellHuman Embryonic Kidney 293 cells, also often referred to as HEK 293, 293 cells, or less precisely as HEK cells are a specific cell line originally derived from human embryonic kidney cells grown in tissue culture. HEK 293 cells are very easy to grow and transfect very readily and have been...
: 293 cells - HepatocyteHepatocyteA hepatocyte is a cell of the main tissue of the liver. Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the liver's cytoplasmic mass.These cells are involved in:* Protein synthesis* Protein storage* Transformation of carbohydrates...
- HeterokaryonHeterokaryonA heterokaryon is a cell that contains multiple, genetically different nuclei. This can occur naturally, such as in the mycelium of fungi during sexual reproduction, or artificially as formed by the experimental fusion of two genetically different cells. A medical example is a heterokaryon composed...
- Hofbauer cellHofbauer cellHofbauer cells are oval cells found in the placenta, which are of mesenchymal origin, within the core of the chorionic villous, particularly numerous in early pregnancy. They are believed to be a type of macrophage and are most likely involved in preventing the transmission of pathogens from the...
- LeukocytesWhite blood cellWhite blood cells, or leukocytes , are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a...
- white blood cell- granulocyteGranulocyteGranulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm. They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the varying shapes of the nucleus, which is usually lobed into three segments...
: basophilBasophil granulocyteBasophil granulocytes, sometimes referred to as basophils, are the least common of the granulocytes, representing about 0.01% to 0.3% of circulating white blood cells....
, eosinophilEosinophil granulocyteEosinophil granulocytes, usually called eosinophils or eosinophiles , are white blood cells that are one of the immune system components responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. Along with mast cells, they also control mechanisms associated with...
, neutrophilNeutrophil granulocyteNeutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals and form an essential part of the innate immune system. They are generally referred to as either neutrophils or polymorphonuclear neutrophils , and are subdivided into segmented neutrophils and banded neutrophils... - lymphocyteLymphocyteA lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system.Under the microscope, lymphocytes can be divided into large lymphocytes and small lymphocytes. Large granular lymphocytes include natural killer cells...
: B cellB cellB cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response . The principal functions of B cells are to make antibodies against antigens, perform the role of antigen-presenting cells and eventually develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction...
, B-cell receptorB-cell receptorThe B-cell receptor is a transmembrane receptor protein located on the outer surface of B-cells. The receptor's binding moiety is composed of a membrane-bound antibody that, like all antibodies, has a unique and randomly-determined antigen-binding site...
, effector cell, memory B cellMemory B cellMemory B cells are a B cell sub-type that are formed following primary infection.-Primary response, paratopes, and epitopes:In wake of first infection involving a particular antigen, the responding naïve cells proliferate to produce a colony of cells, most of which differentiate into the plasma...
, memory T cellsMemory T cellsMemory T cells are a subset of infection- as well as potentially cancer-fighting T cells that have previously encountered and responded to their cognate antigen; thus, the term antigen-experienced T cell is often applied. Such T cells can recognize foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses,...
, plasma cellPlasma cellPlasma cells, also called plasma B cells, plasmocytes, and effector B cells, are white blood cells which produce large volumes of antibodies. They are transported by the blood plasma and the lymphatic system...
, T cellT cellT cells or T lymphocytes belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells , by the presence of a T cell receptor on the cell surface. They are...
, T helper cellT helper cellT helper cells are a sub-group of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in the adaptive immune system. These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; they cannot kill infected host cells or pathogens. Rather, they help other...
, cytotoxic T cellCytotoxic T cellA cytotoxic T cell belongs to a sub-group of T lymphocytes that are capable of inducing the death of infected somatic or tumor cells; they kill cells that are infected with viruses , or are otherwise damaged or...
, regulatory T cellRegulatory T cellRegulatory T cells , sometimes known as suppressor T cells, are a specialized subpopulation of T cells which suppresses activation of the immune system and thereby maintains tolerance to self-antigens. The existence of regulatory T cells was the subject of significant controversy among...
, natural killer cellNatural killer cellNatural killer cells are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte that constitute a major component of the innate immune system. NK cells play a major role in the rejection of tumors and cells infected by viruses...
, T cell receptorT cell receptorThe T cell receptor or TCR is a molecule found on the surface of T lymphocytes that is responsible for recognizing antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules... - monocyteMonocyteMonocytes are a type of white blood cell and are part of the innate immune system of vertebrates including all mammals , birds, reptiles, and fish. Monocytes play multiple roles in immune function...
: dendritic cellDendritic cellDendritic cells are immune cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the surface to other cells of the immune system. That is, dendritic cells function as antigen-presenting cells...
, histiocyteHistiocyteA histiocyte is a cell that is part of the mononuclear phagocyte system . The mononuclear phagocytic system is part of the organism's immune system...
, Kupffer cellKupffer cellKupffer cells, also known as Browicz-Kupffer cells and stellate macrophages, are specialized macrophages located in the liver lining the walls of the sinusoids that form part of the reticuloendothelial system .-History:The cells were first observed by Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer in 1876...
, Langerhans cellLangerhans cellLangerhans cells are dendritic cells of the skin and mucosa, and contain large granules called Birbeck granules. They are present in all layers of the epidermis, but are most prominant in the stratum spinosum. They also occur in the papillary dermis, particularly around blood vessels, as well as...
, macrophageMacrophageMacrophages are cells produced by the differentiation of monocytes in tissues. Human macrophages are about in diameter. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes. Macrophages function in both non-specific defense as well as help initiate specific defense mechanisms of vertebrate animals...
, microgliaMicrogliaMicroglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system . Microglia constitute 20% of the total glial cell population within the brain...
, osteoclastOsteoclastAn osteoclast is a type of bone cell that removes bone tissue by removing its mineralized matrix and breaking up the organic bone . This process is known as bone resorption. Osteoclasts were discovered by Kolliker in 1873...
- granulocyte
- Mast cellMast cellA mast cell is a resident cell of several types of tissues and contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin...
- Mesangial cellMesangial cellMesangial cells are specialized cells around blood vessels in the kidneys, at the mesangium. They are specialized smooth muscle cells that function to regulate blood flow through the capillaries, usually divided into two types, each having a very distinct function and location:* Extraglomerular...
- Mesenchymal stem cellMesenchymal stem cellMesenchymal stem cells, or MSCs, are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types, including: osteoblasts , chondrocytes and adipocytes...
: adipocyteAdipocyteHowever, in some reports and textbooks, the number of fat cell increased in childhood and adolescence. The total number is constant in both obese and lean adult...
, chondrocyteChondrocyteChondrocytes are the only cells found in cartilage. They produce and maintain the cartilaginous matrix, which consists mainly of collagen and proteoglycans...
, myocyteMyocyteA myocyte is the type of cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts.Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long, long chains of sarcomeres, the contractile units of the cell....
, osteoblastOsteoblastOsteoblasts are mononucleate cells that are responsible for bone formation; in essence, osteoblasts are specialized fibroblasts that in addition to fibroblastic products, express bone sialoprotein and osteocalcin.Osteoblasts produce a matrix of osteoid, which is composed mainly of Type I collagen... - Mitral cellMitral cellMitral cells are neurons that are part of the olfactory system. They are located in the olfactory bulb in the mammalian central nervous system. They receive information from the axons of olfactory receptor neurons, forming synapses in neuropils called glomeruli...
, olfactory receptor neuronOlfactory receptor neuronAn olfactory receptor neuron , also called an olfactory sensory neuron , is a transduction cell within the olfactory system. J. Rospars, Dendritic integration in olfactory sensory neurons: a steady-state analysis of how the neuron structure and neuron environment influence the coding of odor... - MyoblastMyoblastA myoblast is a type of embryonic progenitor cell that gives rise to muscle cells .The muscle cells can be skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle....
: satellite cellsSatellite cellsMyosatellite cells or satellite cells are small mononuclear progenitor cells with virtually no cytoplasm found in mature muscle. They are found sandwiched between the basement membrane and sarcolemma of individual muscle fibers, and can be difficult to distinguish from the sub-sarcolemmal nuclei...
, myocyteMyocyteA myocyte is the type of cell found in muscles. They arise from myoblasts.Each myocyte contains myofibrils, which are long, long chains of sarcomeres, the contractile units of the cell....
: pericytePericyteA pericyte is a type of cell found in the central nervous system. These cells play an integral role in the maintenance of the blood brain barrier as well as several other homeostatic and hemostatic functions of the brain. Pericytes are also a key component of the neurovascular unit, which also... - Neural cellNeuronA neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
: basket cellBasket cellBasket cells are inhibitory GABAergic interneurons found in several brain regions: the molecular layer of the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and the cortex.-Cerebellum:...
, Betz cellBetz cellBetz cells are pyramidal cell neurons located within the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary motor cortex, M1. They are named after Vladimir Alekseyevich Betz, who described them in his work published in 1874. These neurons are the largest in the central nervous system, sometimes reaching...
, Cajal-Retzius cellCajal-Retzius cellThe term Cajal–Retzius cell is applied to reelin-producing neurons of the human embryonic marginal zone which display, as a salient feature, radial ascending processes that contact the pial surface, and a horizontal axon plexus located in the deep marginal zone...
, Golgi cellGolgi cellIn neuroscience, Golgi cells are inhibitory interneurons found within the granular layer of the cerebellum. They were first identified as inhibitory by Eccles et al in 1964....
, granule cellGranule cellIn neuroscience, granule cells refer to tiny neurons that are around 10 micrometres in diameter. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum , the dentate gyrus of the...
, grid cellsGrid cellsA grid cell is a type of neuron that has been found in the brains of rats and mice; and it is likely to exist in other animals including humans...
, Purkinje cellPurkinje cellFor the cells of the electrical conduction system of the heart, see Purkinje fibersPurkinje cells, or Purkinje neurons , are a class of GABAergic neurons located in the cerebellar cortex...
, pyramidal cellPyramidal cellPyramidal neurons are a type of neuron found in areas of the brain including cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and in the amygdala. Pyramidal neurons are the primary excitation units of the mammalian prefrontal cortex and the corticospinal tract. Pyramidal neurons were first discovered and...
, Renshaw cellRenshaw cellRenshaw cells are inhibitory interneurons found in the gray matter of the spinal cord, and are associated in two ways with an alpha motor neuron....
, stellate cellStellate cellIn neuroscience, stellate cells are neurons with several dendrites radiating from the cell body giving them a star shaped appearance. The three most common stellate cells are the inhibitory interneurons found within the molecular layer of the cerebellum, excitatory spiny stellate interneurons and... - OncologicalOncologyOncology is a branch of medicine that deals with cancer...
: erythroleukemiaErythroleukemiaAcute erythroid leukemia is a rare form of acute myeloid leukemia where the myeloproliferation is of erythroblastic precursors.It is defined at type "M6" under the FAB classification.-Types:...
, K562 cell, large cellLarge cellLarge cell is a term used in oncology. It does not refer to a particular type of cell; rather it refers to cells that are larger than would be normally expected for that type...
, oncocytes, oncocytomaOncocytomaAn oncocytoma is a tumor made up of oncocytes, a special kind of cells. -Presentation:An oncocytoma is an epithelial tumor composed of oncocytes, large eosinophilic cells having small, round, benign-appearing nuclei with large nucleoli....
, oxyphil cellOxyphil cellIn the parathyroid gland, the parathyroid oxyphil cell is larger and paler than the parathyroid chief cell.These cells can be found in clusters in the center of the section and at the periphery. Oxyphil cells appear at the onset of puberty, but have no known function...
, signet cell, small cell carcinomaSmall cell carcinomaSmall cell carcinoma is a type of highly malignant cancer that most commonly arises within the lung, although it can occasionally arise in other body sites, such as the cervix and prostate....