Territorial changes of Poland
Encyclopedia
Poland
is a country in Central Europe
bordered by Germany
to the west; the Czech Republic
and Slovakia
to the south; Ukraine
, Belarus
and Lithuania
to the east; and the Baltic Sea
and Kaliningrad Oblast
, a Russian exclave
, to the north. The total area of Poland
is 312679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the ninth largest in Europe.
From a nucleus between the Odra
and Vistula
rivers on the North European Plain, Poland has at its largest extent expanded as far as the Baltic
, the Dnieper
, the Black Sea
and the Carpathians
, while in periods of weakness it has shrunk drastically or even ceased to exist.
and East Prussia
- covered 1115000 km² (430,503.9 sq mi), making it the largest territory in Europe; by 1793 it had fallen to 215000 km² (83,012 sq mi), the same size as Great Britain
, and in 1795 it disappeared completely. The first 20th century incarnation of Poland, the Second Polish Republic
, occupied 389720 km² (150,471.7 sq mi) while since 1945, a more westerly Poland covered 312677 km² (120,725.3 sq mi).
The Poles are the most numerous of the West Slavs
and occupy what some believe to be the original homeland of the Slavic peoples
. While other groups migrated, the Polanie
remained in situ along the Vistula
, from the river's sources to its estuary at the Baltic Sea
. There is no other European nation centred to such an extent on one river. The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity
by Mieszko I
in 966 CE (see Baptism of Poland
), when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. In 1025 CE, Poland became a kingdom. In 1569, Poland cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
by signing the Union of Lublin
, forming the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous countries in 16th- and 17th-century Europe.Poland-Lithuania was another country that experienced its 'Golden Age' during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The realm of the last Jagiellons was absolutely the largest state in Europe."the deluge," denoting the downfall of Poland, at that time the largest state in Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from the Oder to the Dnieper River.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had many characteristics that made it unique among states of that era. The Commonwealth's political system
, often called the Noble's Democracy
or Golden Freedom
, was characterized by the sovereign's power being reduced by laws and the legislature (Sejm), which was controlled by the nobility (szlachta
). This system was a precursor to the modern concepts of broader democracy
and constitutional monarchy
.enabled them to push a new constitution through the Diet, transforming Poland from an anarchic republic ... into a reasonably modern constitutional monarchy The two comprising states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner in the union. Its population was hallmarked by a high level of ethnic and confessional diversity, and the state was noted for having religious tolerance
unusual for its age, although the degree of tolerance varied over time.
In the late 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began to collapse. Its neighbouring states were able to slowly dismember the Commonwealth. In 1795, Poland's territory was completely partitioned
among the Kingdom of Prussia
, the Russian Empire
, and Austria
. Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic
in 1918 after World War I
, but lost it in World War II
through occupation by Nazi Germany
and the Soviet Union
. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, emerging several years later as the socialist People's Republic of Poland
within the Eastern Bloc
, under strong Soviet influence.
During the Revolutions of 1989
, communist
rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic." Poland is a unitary state
made up of sixteen voivodeships
. Poland is a member of the European Union
, NATO, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD).
Poland currently has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and one of the most populous members of the European Union
.
In the period following the emergence of Poland in the 10th century, the Polish nation was led by a series of rulers of the Piast dynasty
, who converted the Poles to Christianity
, created a sizeable Central Europe
an state, and integrated Poland into European culture
. Formidable foreign enemies and internal fragmentation eroded this initial structure in the 13th century, but consolidation in the 14th century laid the base for the Polish Kingdom.
Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila
, the Jagiellon dynasty
(1385–1569) ruled the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The Lublin Union
of 1569 established the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and a vital cultural entity.
, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights
, Albert of Hohenzollern, secularized the order's Prussian territory, becoming Albert, Duke of Prussia. His duchy, which had its capital in Königsberg
, was established as a fief of the Crown of Poland.
Sweden
, weakened by involvement in the Thirty Years' War
, agreed to sign the Armistice of Stuhmsdorf (also known as Treaty of Sztumska Wieś or Treaty of Stuhmsdorf) in 1635, favourable to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in terms of territorial concessions.
In the history of Poland and Lithuania
, the Deluge refers to a series of wars in the mid- to late 17th century that left the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in ruins.
The Deluge refers to the Swedish
invasion and occupation of the western half of Poland-Lithuania from 1655 to 1660 and the Khmelnytskyi Uprising
in 1648, which led to Russia's invasion during the Russo-Polish War
.
) between Poland and Brandenburg-Prussia during the Swedish Deluge. The treaty granted independence to Prussia in recognition of its help against the Swedish forces during the Deluge.
In the Treaty of Oliva, the Polish King, John II Casimir, renounced his claims to the Swedish crown, which his father Sigismund III Vasa
had lost in 1599. Poland formally ceded Swedish Livonia and the city of Riga, which had been under de facto
Swedish control since the 1620s. The signing of the treaty ended Swedish involvement in the Deluge.
in the 1672 Treaty of Buczacz.
The Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686
was a treaty between the Tsardom of Russia
and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth signed on May 6, 1686 in Moscow. It confirmed the earlier Truce of Andrusovo of 1667. The treaty secured Russia's possession of the Left-bank Ukraine, Zaporozh'ye
, Seversk lands
, the cities of Chernihiv
, Starodub
, and Smolensk
and its outskirts, while Poland retained Right-bank Ukraine.
, or Treaty of Karlovci, was signed on January 26, 1699, in Sremski Karlovci, a town in modern-day Serbia. The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed following a two-month congress between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League of 1684, a coalition of various European powers including the Habsburg Monarchy, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Republic of Venice, and the Russia of Peter I Alekseyevich. The treaty concluded the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683–1697, in which the Ottoman side had finally been defeated at the Battle of Senta. The Ottomans ceded most of Hungary, Transylvania, and Slavonia to Austria while Podolia returned to Poland. Most of Dalmatia passed to Venice, along with the Morea (the Peloponnesus
peninsula) and Crete
.
. Early in August Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves.
By the first partition
in 1772, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 211000 square kilometres (81,467.6 sq mi) (30% of its territory, amounting at that time to about 733000 square kilometres (283,012.9 sq mi)), with a population of over four to five million people (about a third of its population of 14 million before the partition).
enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of Repnin Sejm
.
Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of Poland's neighbours, wary of a potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. In the second partition, Russia and Prussia took so much territory that only one-third of the 1772 population remained in Poland.
Kosciuszko's ragtag insurgent armies
, who fought to regain Polish territory, won some initial successes but they eventually fell before the superior forces of the Russian Empire. The partitioning powers, seeing the increasing unrest in the remaining Commonwealth, decided to solve the problem by erasing any independent Polish state from the map. On 24 October 1795 their representatives signed a treaty dividing the remaining territories of the Commonwealth between their three countries.
's attempts to build and expand his empire kept Europe at war for almost a decade and brought him into conflict with the same eastern European powers that had beleaguered Poland in the last decades of the previous century. An alliance of convenience was the result of this situation. Volunteer Polish legions attached themselves to Bonaparte's armies, hoping that in return the emperor would allow an independent Poland to reappear out of his conquests.
The Duchy of Warsaw
was a Polish state established by Napoleon in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia
under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit
. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I
of Saxony
.
Following Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia, the duchy was occupied by Prussian and Russian troops until 1815, when it was formally partitioned between the two countries at the Congress of Vienna
.
was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, when European states reorganized Europe following the Napoleonic wars.
with its Territory, more commonly known as either the Free City of Kraków or Republic of Kraków, was a city-state created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
, Congress Poland lost its status as a sovereign state in 1831 and the administrative division of Congress Poland was reorganized. Russia issued an "organic decree" preserving the rights of individuals in Congress Poland but abolished the Sejm. This meant Poland was subject to rule by Russian military decree.
, the Free City of Kraków was annexed by the Austrian Empire.
as its capital. The Republic claimed sovereignty over Eastern Galicia, including the Carpathians
up to the city of Nowy Sącz
in the west, as well as Volhynia
, Carpathian Ruthenia
and Bukovina
. Although the majority of the population of the Western-Ukrainian People's Republic were Ukrainians, large parts of the claimed territory were considered Polish by the Poles. In Lviv the Ukrainian residents supported the proclamation, the city's significant Jewish minority accepted or remained neutral towards the Ukrainian proclamation, and the Polish minority was shocked to find themselves in a proclaimed Ukrainian state.
the Polish people broke out in the Greater Poland Uprising
on December 27, 1918 in Poznań
after a patriotic speech by Ignacy Paderewski
, a famous Polish pianist. The fighting continued until June 28, 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles
was signed, which recreated the nation of Poland. From the defeated German Empire. Poland received the following:
July 11, 1920 British anti-Polish decisions in the plebiscite in East Prussia (Powisle, Warmia, and Mazuria) during Soviet offensive towards Warsaw...
July 28, 1920 Allied ambassadors decision partitioning Cieszyn, Silesia, and leaving in Czechoslovakia a quarter of a million Poles in the strategic Moravian Gate...(leading to Poland from south-west)
(UNR). On June 25, 1919 Supreme Allies Council transferred East Galicia (ZUNR territory) to Poland.
on the other. The war was the result of conflicting expansionist ambitions. Poland, whose statehood had just been re-established by the Treaty of Versailles
following the Partitions of Poland
in the late 18th century, sought to secure territories it had lost at the time of the partitions. The aim of the Soviet states was to control those same territories, which the Russian Empire
had gained in the partitions of Poland.
File:PBW March 1919.png|March 1919
File:PBW December 1919.png|December 1919
File:PBW June 1920.png|June 1920
File:PBW August 1920.png|August 1920
File:Rzeczpospolita 1939.svg|Treaty of Riga
, not long after both countries had regained their independence. It was part of a wider conflict over disputed territorial control of the cities of Vilnius
, Suwałki and Augustów
.
In the aftermath of the war the Republic of Central Lithuania
was created in 1920 following the staged rebellion
of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian-Belarusian Infantry Division of the Polish Army
, supported by the Polish air force, cavalry and artillery. Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
, Vilna
, for eighteen months the entity served as a buffer state
between Poland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area.
the Bolsheviks sued for peace. The Poles, exhausted, constantly pressured by the Western governments and the League of Nations, and with its army controlling the majority of the disputed territories, were willing to negotiate. The Soviets made two offers: one on September 21 and the other on September 28. The Polish delegation made a counteroffer on October 2. On the October 5, the Soviets offered amendments to the Polish offer, which Poland accepted. The armistice between Poland on the one side and Soviet Ukraine and Soviet Russia on the other was signed on October 12 and went into effect on October 18. Long negotiations ensued, with the Treaty of Riga
being signed in March 1921. The assessment of relative advantage is not universally agreed. Russian and Polish historians tend to assign victory to their respective countries. Outside assessments vary, mostly between calling the result a Polish victory and being inconclusive. However, in his secret report to the 9th Conference of the Bolshevik Party on 20 September 1920, Lenin called the outcome of the war "In a word, a gigantic, unheard-of defeat"
Polish and Czechoslovakia
n diplomats met to arrange a common border between the two new countries. By the time armistice
was declared, most of the border was agreed except for three small politically-sensitive areas with both Polish and Czechoslovak residents.
The Duchy of Cieszyn
The Cieszyn Silesia
or the Duchy of Cieszyn ( and ) was a small area that the pre-World War I census showed was predominantly Polish in three districts (Teschen, Bielsko and Frysztat) and mainly Czech in the fourth district of Frydek. The economic importance of Cieszyn Silesia lay in the rich coal basin around Karvina
and in the valuable Košice–Bohumín Railway, which linked Bohemia with Slovakia. In northern Cieszyn Silesia, the railroad junction of Bohumín
( and ) served as a crossroads for international transport and communications.Duchy of Cieszyn ( and ) was a small area ... on the eve of the First World War its population was predominantly Polish in three districts (Teschen, Bielsko and Frysztat) and mainly Czech in the fourth district of Frydek. The chief importance of Teschen lay in the rich coal basin around Karvina and in the ... valuable Bohumin-Kosice railroad, which linked Bohemia with Slovakia ... Furthermore the railroad junction of Bogumin served as a crossroad for international transport and communications.
p. 158 - According to it Teschen was divided along the Olza River, which left the railroad and the Karvina coal basin to Czechoslovakia ...
Claims over these regions turned violent in 1919 with a brief military conflict, the Seven-day war
, between Polish and Czechoslovak units. The Allied governments pressed for a ceasefire and on 3 February 1919 a Polish-Czech border agreement was signed on the basis of the 5 November 1918 ethnic division agreement. This was later changed at the Conference of Ambassadors
in Spa, Belgium
on 28 July 1920. Cieszyn was divided along the Olza river between the two newly-created states of Poland
and Czechoslovakia
. The smaller western suburbs of Cieszyn were joined to Czechoslovakia as the new town of Český Těšín
along with the railroad and the Karvina coal basin.Cieszyn - City on the border of Poland and Czechoslovakia , subject of a Polish-Czech conflict in 1919. The conflict was resolved by a decision of the Conference of Ambassadors (28 July 1920), which divided the city into a Polish part (Cieszyn) and a Czech part (Tesin). A treaty between Poland and Czechoslovakia on the community of Cieszyn was signed on 21 December 1920. The entire town was within the borders of Poland from 11 October 1938 to 1 September 1939 as a result of the Munich Agreement in 1938. After World War II the division of Cieszyn as of 1920 was restored. Poland received the portion of Cieszyn
east of the Olza river. The Conference of Ambassadors
divided the region just as the Red Army was nearing Warsaw. It was later learned that this award resulted from a secret deal between Edvard Beneš
and French and British officials.
Orawa and Spisz
The county of Orawa
arose before the 15th century. The county's territory is situated along the Orava River between Zazriva
and the Tatra Mountains
. Spisz
is situated between the High Tatras
and the Dunajec River in the north, the springs of the Váh
River in the west, the Slovak Ore Mountains
and the Hnilec River in the south, and a line running from the town of Stara Ľubovňa, via the Branisko Mountains
, to the town of Margecany
in the east. While the Orawa and Spisz border was in arbitration, many groups fought to be a part of Poland, including a number of Polish authors. They began to write about an alleged three hundred thousand Poles living in the Orawa territory.
The Conference of Ambassadors
decided that Czechoslovakia would cede to Poland a number of villages from the Orawa and Spisz regions, including the municipalities of Oravy Srnie, Podvlk, Harkabúz, Nižná Zubrica, Vyšná Zubrica, Oravka, Bukovina-Podsklie, Pekelník, Jablonka, Chyžné, Hladovka, Suchá Hora, Vyšná Lipnica, a part of Nižné Lipnice and 4.2% of the rather Belá new communities, with Fridman (Falštin settlement), Krempach, Tribš, Durštín, Čierna Hora, Jurgov, Repiská, Vyšné lapse, Nižné lapse, Nedeca, Kacvín and Lapšanka.
and Poland took place as a result of the Silesian Uprisings
. The uprising were a series of three armed rebellions that took place between 1919 and 1921 by the Polish people in the Upper Silesia
region against the Weimar Republic. The Polish people of the region wanted to join the Second Polish Republic, which had been established following World War I. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles had called for a plebiscite in Upper Silesia
in 1921 to determine whether the territory should be a part of Germany or Poland.
The plebiscite took place on March 20, 1921, two days after the signing of the Treaty of Riga
, which ended the Polish-Soviet war. In the plebiscite, 707,605 votes were cast for Germany, and 479,359 for Poland. The Germans had a majority, by 228,246 votes. In late April 1921, rumours flew that Upper Silesia would stay in Germany. This led to the Third Polish Uprising in May–July 1921. The question of the Upper Silesia problem was turned over to a council of the League of Nations
. The commission, consisting of four representatives—one each from Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and China. The commission gathered its own data, interviewing Poles and Germans from the region. On the basis of the reports of this commission and those of its experts, on October 1921 the Council awarded the greater part of the Upper Silesian industrial district to Poland.
to join Poland took place on January 8, 1922, and the Republic of Central Lithuania
became part of Poland.
or from the Conference of Ambassadors
. The conflict was only resolved by the Council of the League of Nations
' Permanent Court of International Justice
on March 12, 1924, which decided that Czechoslovakia should retain the territory of Javorzyna.Javorzyna - The dispute was submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice. On the basis of the court's decision, the League of Nations Council, on 12 March 1924, delimited the border, leaving Javorzyna within Czechoslovakia; this was recognized by both sides in a protocol signed on 6 May 1924 in Kraków and approved by the Conference of Ambassadors on 5 September 1924 and which entailed (in June of the same year) an additional exchange of territories in Orava - the territory around Lipnica Wielka
(Nižná Lipnica) went to Poland, the territory around Suchá Hora (Sucha Gora) and Hladovka (Glodowka) went to Czechoslovakia.
, the Czech half of Cieszyn
was annexed by Poland in 1938 following the Munich Agreement
and the First Vienna Award
. At noon on September 30, Poland gave an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak government. It demanded the immediate evacuation of Czech troops and police from Zaolzie and gave Prague until noon the following day. At 11:45 a.m. on October 1 the Czech foreign ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted. Poland was accused of being an accomplice of Nazi Germany
– a charge that Warsaw was hard put to deny.
Poland seized land from northern Spisz
and northern Orawa, including territories around Suchá Hora and Hladovka, around Javorina, around Leśnica in the Pieniny
Mountains, a small territory around Skalité
, and some other very small border regions. They officially received the territories on 1 November 1938. Polish military groups began to carry out assimilation of the population. Polish was introduced as the only official language and the Slovak Intelligence were displaced from the territories.
it pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.
After the invasion, Germany annexed the lands it was forced to give to a reformed Poland
in 1919–1922 by the Treaty of Versailles
: the Polish Corridor
, West Prussia
, the Province of Posen
, and parts of eastern Upper Silesia
. The council of the Free City of Danzig
voted to become a part of Germany again, although Poles and Jews
were deprived of their voting rights and all non-Nazi political parties were banned. Parts of Poland that had not been part of Wilhelmine Germany
were also incorporated into the Reich.
Two decrees by Adolf Hitler
(October 8 and October 12, 1939) provided for the division of the annexed areas of Poland into the following administrative units:
These territories had an area of 94000 square kilometres (36,293.6 sq mi) and a population of 10,000,000 people. The remaining Polish territory was annexed by the Soviet Union or made into the German-controlled General Government
occupation zone. Eastern areas of Poland
became part of either Soviet Belarus (including Białystok, Łomża, Baranowicze
and Brest
) or Soviet Ukraine (including Lwów
, Tarnopol
, Lutsk
, Rowne
and Stanisławów). The city of Vilnius
(Polish: Wilno) with its adjacent area was annexed and returned to Lithuania
.
After the German attack on the Soviet Union
in June 1941, the district of Białystok, which included the Białystok, Bielsk Podlaski
, Grajewo
, Łomża, Sokółka, Volkovysk, and Grodno
Counties, was "attached to" (not incorporated into) East Prussia
.
World War II Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany.
After World War II, there were extensive changes to the territorial extent of Poland, following the decision taken at the Teheran Conference
of 1943 at the insistence of the Soviet Union. The Polish territories east of the Curzon Line
, which the Soviet Union had occupied in 1939 along with the Bialystok region, were permanently annexed. While a large portion of this area was predominately populated by Ukrainians and Belarussians, most of their Polish inhabitants were expelled. Today these territories are part of Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania.
Poland received former German territory east of the Oder-Neisse line
, consisting of the southern two thirds of East Prussia
and most of Pomerania
, Neumark
(East Brandenburg), and Silesia
. The German population was expelled
before these formerly occupied territories were repopulated mainly with Poles from central Poland and those expelled from the eastern regions."From June until mid-July, Polish military and militia expelled nearly all of the residents of the districts immediately east of the rivers Oder-Neisse line"
"From June until mid July, Polish military and militia expelled nearly all people from the districts immediately east of the rivers Oder-Neisse line
" Early expulsions in Poland were undertaken by the occupying Soviet and Polish Communist military authorities even before the Potsdam Conference ("wild expulsions"). To ensure territorial incorporation into Poland, Polish Communists ordered that Germans were to be expelled: "We must expel all the Germans because countries are built on national lines and not on multinational ones." A citation from the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Polish Workers Party, May 20–21, 1945. Germans were defined as either Reichsdeutsche, people enlisted in first or second Volksliste groups, and those of the third group, who held German citizenship. People of Slavic descent (autochthones, almost exclusively in Upper Silesia
and Masuria
) could apply for "verification", as Poles and were allowed to stay.
Winston Churchill was not present at the end of the Yalta Conference as the results of the British election had made it clear he had been defeated. Churchill later claimed that he would never have agreed to the Oder-Western Neisse line, and in his famous Iron Curtain speech declared that:
File:Wrzesien2.jpg|USSR and Nazi Germany carve up Poland in 1939 approximately along the Curzon Line
File:Curzon line en.svg|Poland's borders after World War II
. Blue line: Curzon Line
of 8 December 1919. Pink areas: Parts of Germany in 1937 borders. Grey aera: Terrritory annexed by Poland between 1919 and 1923 and held until 1939, which after World War II was annexed by the Soviet Union.
File:Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg|Planned and actual divisions of Europe, according to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, with later adjustments
File:Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact showing the new German-Soviet border Sept 28 1939 .png|Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact showing the new German-Soviet border Sept 28 1939
was signed. The western portion of the Byelorussian SSR was granted to Poland. The Belastok Voblast
was divided into Soviet Brest Voblast
, Hrodna Voblast
and Polish Białystok Voivodeship.
File:Borders of Poland and Belarus before August 1945.png|Byelorussian SSR before adjustment
File:Borders of Poland and Belarus after August 1945.png|Byelorussian SSR after adjustment
the Czechoslovakian government wanted to return to the 1920 border between the two nations, while Polish inhabitants of Zaolzie
were in favour of the boundary of August 31, 1939. On May 20, 1945 in Trstena
an agreement for a return to the 1938 borders of Poland was signed and the following day the Czechoslovak border guards moved to the old Czechoslovakian border. At several places there were fights between Polish and Czechoslovakian militias, but the situation calmed with the arrival of Polish troops on July 17, 1945. The Polish government still did not want to give up Zaolzie, and on June 16, 1945, Marshall Michał Rola-Żymierski issued directive number 00336, which ordered the 1st Armoured Corps of the Polish Army
to concentrate in the area of Rybnik
, and to seize Zaolzie However, the Soviets decided to hand the region to Czechoslovakia, and the Poles followed the Moscow directive. The Czechs demanded former German areas of Klodzko, Glubczyce, and Racibórz
, but after Soviet mediation, all sides signed a treaty on September 21, 1945, which accepted the December 31, 1937 Polish - Czechoslovak and Czechoslovak - German borderline as the boundary between the two countries.
near Przemyśl was transferred to Poland.warto dodac, ze w 1948 r. prezeprowadzono inna, mniej znana regulacje granicy, dzieki ktorej w polsce znalazla sie medyka, pierwotnie pozostawiona po stronie radzieckiej, oraz kilka wsi no pogorzu przemyskim - translation - In addition in 1948 there was a less well-known border adjustment, medyka and a few villages, which were originally left on the Soviet side.
, the president of the Polish Republic, and Andrey Vyshinsky
, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, signed Treaty No. 6222. Agreement between the Polish republic and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics concerning the exchange of sectors of their state territories. The treaty was a border adjustment, with Poland and the Soviet Union exchanging 480 square kilometres (185.3 sq mi).
signed for Poland and Václav David
signed for Czechoslovakia. The treaty confirmed the border at the line of January 1, 1938, the situation before the Nazi-imposed Munich Agreement transferred territory from Czechoslovakia to Poland.
made some further minor border adjustments:
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
is a country in Central Europe
Central Europe
Central Europe or alternatively Middle Europe is a region of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe...
bordered by Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
to the west; the Czech Republic
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the northeast, Slovakia to the east, Austria to the south, and Germany to the west and northwest....
and Slovakia
Slovakia
The Slovak Republic is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about . Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south...
to the south; Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
, Belarus
Belarus
Belarus , officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno , Gomel ,...
and Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
to the east; and the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
and Kaliningrad Oblast
Kaliningrad Oblast
Kaliningrad Oblast is a federal subject of Russia situated on the Baltic coast. It has a population of The oblast forms the westernmost part of the Russian Federation, but it has no land connection to the rest of Russia. Since its creation it has been an exclave of the Russian SFSR and then the...
, a Russian exclave
Enclave and exclave
In political geography, an enclave is a territory whose geographical boundaries lie entirely within the boundaries of another territory.An exclave, on the other hand, is a territory legally or politically attached to another territory with which it is not physically contiguous.These are two...
, to the north. The total area of Poland
Area of Poland
The following numbers characterize the area of Poland* Area of Polish territory - * Administrative area of Poland - . This is calculated according to the official definition of the coastline...
is 312679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the ninth largest in Europe.
From a nucleus between the Odra
Oder
The Oder is a river in Central Europe. It rises in the Czech Republic and flows through western Poland, later forming of the border between Poland and Germany, part of the Oder-Neisse line...
and Vistula
Vistula
The Vistula is the longest and the most important river in Poland, at 1,047 km in length. The watershed area of the Vistula is , of which lies within Poland ....
rivers on the North European Plain, Poland has at its largest extent expanded as far as the Baltic
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
, the Dnieper
Dnieper River
The Dnieper River is one of the major rivers of Europe that flows from Russia, through Belarus and Ukraine, to the Black Sea.The total length is and has a drainage basin of .The river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations...
, the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
and the Carpathians
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
, while in periods of weakness it has shrunk drastically or even ceased to exist.
Territorial history
In 1492, the territory of Poland-Lithuania - not counting the fiefs of Mazovia, MoldaviaMoldavia
Moldavia is a geographic and historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river...
and East Prussia
East Prussia
East Prussia is the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.East Prussia...
- covered 1115000 km² (430,503.9 sq mi), making it the largest territory in Europe; by 1793 it had fallen to 215000 km² (83,012 sq mi), the same size as Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
, and in 1795 it disappeared completely. The first 20th century incarnation of Poland, the Second Polish Republic
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
, occupied 389720 km² (150,471.7 sq mi) while since 1945, a more westerly Poland covered 312677 km² (120,725.3 sq mi).
The Poles are the most numerous of the West Slavs
West Slavs
The West Slavs are Slavic peoples speaking West Slavic languages. They include Poles , Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatian Sorbs and the historical Polabians. The northern or Lechitic group includes, along with Polish, the extinct Polabian and Pomeranian languages...
and occupy what some believe to be the original homeland of the Slavic peoples
Slavic peoples
The Slavic people are an Indo-European panethnicity living in Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia. The term Slavic represents a broad ethno-linguistic group of people, who speak languages belonging to the Slavic language family and share, to varying degrees, certain...
. While other groups migrated, the Polanie
Polans (western)
The Polans were a West Slavic tribe, part of the Lechitic group, inhabiting the Warta river basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century.During the reign of King Svatopluk I of Great Moravia , who subdued the tribes of the Vistulans and Ślężanie...
remained in situ along the Vistula
Vistula
The Vistula is the longest and the most important river in Poland, at 1,047 km in length. The watershed area of the Vistula is , of which lies within Poland ....
, from the river's sources to its estuary at the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
. There is no other European nation centred to such an extent on one river. The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
by Mieszko I
Mieszko I of Poland
Mieszko I , was a Duke of the Polans from about 960 until his death. A member of the Piast dynasty, he was son of Siemomysł; grandchild of Lestek; father of Bolesław I the Brave, the first crowned King of Poland; likely father of Świętosława , a Nordic Queen; and grandfather of her son, Cnut the...
in 966 CE (see Baptism of Poland
Baptism of Poland
The Baptism of Poland was the event in 966 that signified the beginning of the Christianization of Poland, commencing with the baptism of Mieszko I, who was the first ruler of the Polish state. The next significant step in Poland's adoption of Christianity was the establishment of various...
), when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. In 1025 CE, Poland became a kingdom. In 1569, Poland cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
by signing the Union of Lublin
Union of Lublin
The Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was...
, forming the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous countries in 16th- and 17th-century Europe.Poland-Lithuania was another country that experienced its 'Golden Age' during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The realm of the last Jagiellons was absolutely the largest state in Europe."the deluge," denoting the downfall of Poland, at that time the largest state in Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from the Oder to the Dnieper River.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had many characteristics that made it unique among states of that era. The Commonwealth's political system
Political system
A political system is a system of politics and government. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems...
, often called the Noble's Democracy
History of Poland (1569–1795)
The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Diet in 1505 transferred all legislative power from the king to the Diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as "Nobles' Democracy" or "Nobles' Commonwealth" when the state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility...
or Golden Freedom
Golden Liberty
Golden Liberty , sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy or Nobles' Commonwealth refers to a unique aristocratic political system in the Kingdom of Poland and later, after the Union of Lublin , in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth...
, was characterized by the sovereign's power being reduced by laws and the legislature (Sejm), which was controlled by the nobility (szlachta
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
). This system was a precursor to the modern concepts of broader democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
and constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
.enabled them to push a new constitution through the Diet, transforming Poland from an anarchic republic ... into a reasonably modern constitutional monarchy The two comprising states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, although in reality Poland was a dominant partner in the union. Its population was hallmarked by a high level of ethnic and confessional diversity, and the state was noted for having religious tolerance
Religious toleration
Toleration is "the practice of deliberately allowing or permitting a thing of which one disapproves. One can meaningfully speak of tolerating, ie of allowing or permitting, only if one is in a position to disallow”. It has also been defined as "to bear or endure" or "to nourish, sustain or preserve"...
unusual for its age, although the degree of tolerance varied over time.
In the late 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began to collapse. Its neighbouring states were able to slowly dismember the Commonwealth. In 1795, Poland's territory was completely partitioned
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
among the Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
, the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
, and Austria
Habsburg Monarchy
The Habsburg Monarchy covered the territories ruled by the junior Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg , and then by the successor House of Habsburg-Lorraine , between 1526 and 1867/1918. The Imperial capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, when it was moved to Prague...
. Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
in 1918 after World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, but lost it in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
through occupation by Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
and the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, emerging several years later as the socialist People's Republic of Poland
People's Republic of Poland
The People's Republic of Poland was the official name of Poland from 1952 to 1990. Although the Soviet Union took control of the country immediately after the liberation from Nazi Germany in 1944, the name of the state was not changed until eight years later...
within the Eastern Bloc
Eastern bloc
The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact...
, under strong Soviet influence.
During the Revolutions of 1989
Revolutions of 1989
The Revolutions of 1989 were the revolutions which overthrew the communist regimes in various Central and Eastern European countries.The events began in Poland in 1989, and continued in Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and...
, communist
Communism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic." Poland is a unitary state
Unitary state
A unitary state is a state governed as one single unit in which the central government is supreme and any administrative divisions exercise only powers that their central government chooses to delegate...
made up of sixteen voivodeships
Voivodeships of Poland
The voivodeship, or province, called in Polish województwo , has been a high-level administrative subdivision of Poland since the 14th century....
. Poland is a member of the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
, NATO, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an international economic organisation of 34 countries founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade...
(OECD).
Poland currently has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and one of the most populous members of the European Union
Member State of the European Union
A member state of the European Union is a state that is party to treaties of the European Union and has thereby undertaken the privileges and obligations that EU membership entails. Unlike membership of an international organisation, being an EU member state places a country under binding laws in...
.
Pre 1635
Piast dynasty
The Piast dynasty was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland. It began with the semi-legendary Piast Kołodziej . The first historical ruler was Duke Mieszko I . The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of king Casimir the Great...
, who converted the Poles to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
, created a sizeable Central Europe
Central Europe
Central Europe or alternatively Middle Europe is a region of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe...
an state, and integrated Poland into European culture
Culture of Europe
The culture of Europe might better be described as a series of overlapping cultures. Whether it is a question of North as opposed to South; West as opposed to East; Orthodoxism as opposed to Protestantism as opposed to Catholicism as opposed to Secularism; many have claimed to identify cultural...
. Formidable foreign enemies and internal fragmentation eroded this initial structure in the 13th century, but consolidation in the 14th century laid the base for the Polish Kingdom.
Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila
Jogaila
Jogaila, later 'He is known under a number of names: ; ; . See also: Jogaila : names and titles. was Grand Duke of Lithuania , king consort of Kingdom of Poland , and sole King of Poland . He ruled in Lithuania from 1377, at first with his uncle Kęstutis...
, the Jagiellon dynasty
Jagiellon dynasty
The Jagiellonian dynasty was a royal dynasty originating from the Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century...
(1385–1569) ruled the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The Lublin Union
Union of Lublin
The Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was...
of 1569 established the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and a vital cultural entity.
Duchy of Prussia
In 1525, during the Protestant ReformationProtestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights
Teutonic Knights
The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem , commonly the Teutonic Order , is a German medieval military order, in modern times a purely religious Catholic order...
, Albert of Hohenzollern, secularized the order's Prussian territory, becoming Albert, Duke of Prussia. His duchy, which had its capital in Königsberg
Königsberg
Königsberg was the capital of East Prussia from the Late Middle Ages until 1945 as well as the northernmost and easternmost German city with 286,666 inhabitants . Due to the multicultural society in and around the city, there are several local names for it...
, was established as a fief of the Crown of Poland.
1635
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, weakened by involvement in the Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was fought primarily in what is now Germany, and at various points involved most countries in Europe. It was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history....
, agreed to sign the Armistice of Stuhmsdorf (also known as Treaty of Sztumska Wieś or Treaty of Stuhmsdorf) in 1635, favourable to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in terms of territorial concessions.
1655
History of Lithuania
The history of Lithuania dates back to at least 1009, the first recorded written use of the term. Lithuanians, a branch of the Baltic peoples, later conquered neighboring lands, establishing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in the 13th century the short-lived Kingdom of Lithuania. The Grand Duchy...
, the Deluge refers to a series of wars in the mid- to late 17th century that left the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in ruins.
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
invasion and occupation of the western half of Poland-Lithuania from 1655 to 1660 and the Khmelnytskyi Uprising
Khmelnytsky Uprising
The Khmelnytsky Uprising, was a Cossack rebellion in the Ukraine between the years 1648–1657 which turned into a Ukrainian war of liberation from Poland...
in 1648, which led to Russia's invasion during the Russo-Polish War
Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)
The Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667, also called Thirteen Years' War, First Northern War, War for Ukraine was the last major conflict between Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1655 and 1660, the Second Northern War was also fought in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,...
.
1657
The Treaty of Wehlau was a treaty signed on September 19, 1657, in the eastern Prussian town of Wehlau (Welawa, now ZnamenskZnamensk
Znamensk may refer to one of the following:*Znamensk, Astrakhan Oblast, a town in Astrakhan Oblast, Russia*Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast, a settlement in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia...
) between Poland and Brandenburg-Prussia during the Swedish Deluge. The treaty granted independence to Prussia in recognition of its help against the Swedish forces during the Deluge.
1660
Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, a monarch of the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587 to 1632, and King of Sweden from 1592 until he was deposed in 1599...
had lost in 1599. Poland formally ceded Swedish Livonia and the city of Riga, which had been under de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
Swedish control since the 1620s. The signing of the treaty ended Swedish involvement in the Deluge.
1667
The War for Ukraine ended with the Treaty of Andrusovo of January 13, 1667. The peace settlement gave Moscow control over the so called Left-bank Ukraine with the Polish Commonwealth retaining Right-bank Ukraine. The signing of the Treaty ended Russian occupation of the Polish confederation and the Deluge war. Since the war started the population of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had been nearly halved by war and disease. War had destroyed the economic base of the cities and raised a religious fervour that ended Poland's policy of religious tolerance.1672
As a result of the Polish–Ottoman War the Polish commonwealth ceded PodoliaPodolia
The region of Podolia is an historical region in the west-central and south-west portions of present-day Ukraine, corresponding to Khmelnytskyi Oblast and Vinnytsia Oblast. Northern Transnistria, in Moldova, is also a part of Podolia...
in the 1672 Treaty of Buczacz.
1686
Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686
The Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686 was a treaty between Tsardom of Russia and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, signed by Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth envoys: voivod of Poznań Krzysztof Grzymułtowski and chancellor of Lithuania Marcjan Ogiński and Russian knyaz Vasily Vasilyevich...
was a treaty between the Tsardom of Russia
Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia was the name of the centralized Russian state from Ivan IV's assumption of the title of Tsar in 1547 till Peter the Great's foundation of the Russian Empire in 1721.From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 a year...
and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth signed on May 6, 1686 in Moscow. It confirmed the earlier Truce of Andrusovo of 1667. The treaty secured Russia's possession of the Left-bank Ukraine, Zaporozh'ye
Zaporizhia
Zaporizhia or Zaporozhye [formerly Alexandrovsk ] is a city in southeastern Ukraine, situated on the banks of the Dnieper River. It is the administrative center of the Zaporizhia Oblast...
, Seversk lands
Novhorod-Siverskyi
Novhorod-Siversky is a historic city in the Chernihiv Oblast of Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Novhorod-Siversky Raion, and is situated on the bank of the Desna River, 330 km from the capital, Kiev, and 45 km south of the Russian border. Current estimated population:...
, the cities of Chernihiv
Chernihiv
Chernihiv or Chernigov is a historic city in northern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Chernihiv Oblast , as well as of the surrounding Chernihivskyi Raion within the oblast...
, Starodub
Starodub
Starodub is a town and the administrative center of Starodubsky District of Bryansk Oblast, Russia. It is located on the Babinets River , southwest of Bryansk. Population: 16,000 .-History:...
, and Smolensk
Smolensk
Smolensk is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Dnieper River. Situated west-southwest of Moscow, this walled city was destroyed several times throughout its long history since it was on the invasion routes of both Napoleon and Hitler. Today, Smolensk...
and its outskirts, while Poland retained Right-bank Ukraine.
1699
The Treaty of KarlowitzTreaty of Karlowitz
The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed on 26 January 1699 in Sremski Karlovci , concluding the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683–1697 in which the Ottoman side had been defeated at the Battle of Zenta...
, or Treaty of Karlovci, was signed on January 26, 1699, in Sremski Karlovci, a town in modern-day Serbia. The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed following a two-month congress between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League of 1684, a coalition of various European powers including the Habsburg Monarchy, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Republic of Venice, and the Russia of Peter I Alekseyevich. The treaty concluded the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683–1697, in which the Ottoman side had finally been defeated at the Battle of Senta. The Ottomans ceded most of Hungary, Transylvania, and Slavonia to Austria while Podolia returned to Poland. Most of Dalmatia passed to Venice, along with the Morea (the Peloponnesus
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus , is a large peninsula , located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth...
peninsula) and Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
.
1772
In February 1772, an agreement for the partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was signed in ViennaVienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
. Early in August Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves.
By the first partition
First Partition of Poland
The First Partition of Poland or First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1772 as the first of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795. Growth in the Russian Empire's power, threatening the Kingdom of Prussia and the...
in 1772, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 211000 square kilometres (81,467.6 sq mi) (30% of its territory, amounting at that time to about 733000 square kilometres (283,012.9 sq mi)), with a population of over four to five million people (about a third of its population of 14 million before the partition).
1793
By the 1790s the First Polish Republic had deteriorated into such a helpless condition that it was successfully forced into an unnatural and ultimately deadly alliance with its enemy, Prussia. The alliance was cemented with the Polish-Prussian Pact of 1790. The conditions of the Pact were such that the succeeding and final two partitions of Poland were inevitable. The May Constitution of 1791Constitution of May 3, 1791
The Constitution of May 3, 1791 was adopted as a "Government Act" on that date by the Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Historian Norman Davies calls it "the first constitution of its type in Europe"; other scholars also refer to it as the world's second oldest constitution...
enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of Repnin Sejm
Repnin Sejm
The Repnin Sejm was a Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place between 1767 and 1768 in Warsaw. This session followed the Sejms of 1764 to 1766, where the newly elected King of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski, attempted with some successes to push through reforms to...
.
Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of Poland's neighbours, wary of a potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. In the second partition, Russia and Prussia took so much territory that only one-third of the 1772 population remained in Poland.
1795
Kosciuszko Uprising
The Kościuszko Uprising was an uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in Poland, Belarus and Lithuania in 1794...
, who fought to regain Polish territory, won some initial successes but they eventually fell before the superior forces of the Russian Empire. The partitioning powers, seeing the increasing unrest in the remaining Commonwealth, decided to solve the problem by erasing any independent Polish state from the map. On 24 October 1795 their representatives signed a treaty dividing the remaining territories of the Commonwealth between their three countries.
1807
NapoleonNapoleon I
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution.As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815...
's attempts to build and expand his empire kept Europe at war for almost a decade and brought him into conflict with the same eastern European powers that had beleaguered Poland in the last decades of the previous century. An alliance of convenience was the result of this situation. Volunteer Polish legions attached themselves to Bonaparte's armies, hoping that in return the emperor would allow an independent Poland to reappear out of his conquests.
The Duchy of Warsaw
Duchy of Warsaw
The Duchy of Warsaw was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony...
was a Polish state established by Napoleon in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit
Treaties of Tilsit
The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the town of Tilsit in July, 1807 in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland. The first was signed on 7 July, between Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon I of France, when they met on a raft in the middle of the Neman...
. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I
Frederick Augustus I of Saxony
Frederick Augustus I was King of Saxony from the House of Wettin. He was also Elector Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Duke Frederick Augustus I of Warsaw...
of Saxony
Kingdom of Saxony
The Kingdom of Saxony , lasting between 1806 and 1918, was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic Germany. From 1871 it was part of the German Empire. It became a Free state in the era of Weimar Republic in 1918 after the end of World War...
.
1815
Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars,...
.
Congress Poland
Congress PolandCongress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, when European states reorganized Europe following the Napoleonic wars.
Grand Duchy of Posen
The Grand Duchy of Posen was a region in the Kingdom of Prussia in the Polish lands commonly known as "Greater Poland" between the years 1815–1848. According to the Congress of Vienna it was to have autonomy. In practice it was subordinated to Prussia and the proclaimed rights for Poles were not respected. The name was unofficially used afterwards for denoting the territory, especially by Poles, and today is used by modern historians to describe different political entities until 1918. Its capital was Posen (Polish: Poznań).Free City of Kraków
The Free, Independent, and Strictly Neutral City of KrakówFree City of Kraków
The Free, Independent, and Strictly Neutral City of Kraków with its Territory , more commonly known as either the Free City of Kraków or Republic of Kraków , was a city-state created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and controlled by its three neighbours until 1846, when in the aftermath of the...
with its Territory, more commonly known as either the Free City of Kraków or Republic of Kraków, was a city-state created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
1831
After the November UprisingNovember Uprising
The November Uprising , Polish–Russian War 1830–31 also known as the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress...
, Congress Poland lost its status as a sovereign state in 1831 and the administrative division of Congress Poland was reorganized. Russia issued an "organic decree" preserving the rights of individuals in Congress Poland but abolished the Sejm. This meant Poland was subject to rule by Russian military decree.
1846
In the aftermath of the unsuccessful Kraków UprisingKraków Uprising
The Kraków Uprising of February 1846 was an attempt, led by Edward Dembowski, to incite a Polish fight for national independence. Even though most of Poland was part of the Russian Empire, the Polish risings were conducted mainly in Prussia and in the Austrian Empire.-History:Most of the...
, the Free City of Kraków was annexed by the Austrian Empire.
1848
After the defeat of Congress Poland, many Prussian liberals sympathised with the demand for the restoration of the Polish state. In the spring of 1848 the new liberal Prussian government allowed some autonomy to the Grand Duchy of Posen in the hope of contributing to the cause of a new Polish homeland.Many Prussian liberals sympathised with the demand for the restoration of the Polish state. Since the defeat of the uprising of the 1830-31 in Congress Poland ... In the spring of 1848 the new liberal Prussian government allowed some autonomy to Posen in the hope of contributing to the cause of restoration. Due to a number of factors, including the outrage of the German-speaking minority in Pozen, the Prussian government reversed course. By April 1848, the Prussian army had already suppressed the Polish militias and National Committees that emerged in March. By the end of the year the Duchy had lost the last vestiges of its formal autonomy, and was downgraded to a Province of the Prussian kingdom.April 1848 ... the Prussian army had already suppressed the [Grand Duchy of Posen] Polish militias and National Committee which had emerged in March. After 1848 [Grand Duchy of Posen] lost the last vestiges of its formal autonomy, and was downgraded to a mere Provinz of the Prussian kingdom...1918
The West Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 1, 1918 with LvivLviv
Lviv is a city in western Ukraine. The city is regarded as one of the main cultural centres of today's Ukraine and historically has also been a major Polish and Jewish cultural center, as Poles and Jews were the two main ethnicities of the city until the outbreak of World War II and the following...
as its capital. The Republic claimed sovereignty over Eastern Galicia, including the Carpathians
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
up to the city of Nowy Sącz
Nowy Sacz
Nowy Sącz is a town in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship in southern Poland. It is the district capital of Nowy Sącz County, but is not included within the powiat.-Names:...
in the west, as well as Volhynia
Volhynia
Volhynia, Volynia, or Volyn is a historic region in western Ukraine located between the rivers Prypiat and Southern Bug River, to the north of Galicia and Podolia; the region is named for the former city of Volyn or Velyn, said to have been located on the Southern Bug River, whose name may come...
, Carpathian Ruthenia
Carpathian Ruthenia
Carpathian Ruthenia is a region in Eastern Europe, mostly located in western Ukraine's Zakarpattia Oblast , with smaller parts in easternmost Slovakia , Poland's Lemkovyna and Romanian Maramureş.It is...
and Bukovina
Bukovina
Bukovina is a historical region on the northern slopes of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the adjoining plains.-Name:The name Bukovina came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation from the Principality of Moldavia to the possessions of the Habsburg Monarchy, which became...
. Although the majority of the population of the Western-Ukrainian People's Republic were Ukrainians, large parts of the claimed territory were considered Polish by the Poles. In Lviv the Ukrainian residents supported the proclamation, the city's significant Jewish minority accepted or remained neutral towards the Ukrainian proclamation, and the Polish minority was shocked to find themselves in a proclaimed Ukrainian state.
Creation of Poland
In the aftermath of World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
the Polish people broke out in the Greater Poland Uprising
Greater Poland Uprising (1918–1919)
The Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–1919, or Wielkopolska Uprising of 1918–1919 or Posnanian War was a military insurrection of Poles in the Greater Poland region against Germany...
on December 27, 1918 in Poznań
Poznan
Poznań is a city on the Warta river in west-central Poland, with a population of 556,022 in June 2009. It is among the oldest cities in Poland, and was one of the most important centres in the early Polish state, whose first rulers were buried at Poznań's cathedral. It is sometimes claimed to be...
after a patriotic speech by Ignacy Paderewski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski GBE was a Polish pianist, composer, diplomat, politician, and the second Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland.-Biography:...
, a famous Polish pianist. The fighting continued until June 28, 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
was signed, which recreated the nation of Poland. From the defeated German Empire. Poland received the following:
- Most of the PrussianProvinces of PrussiaThe Provinces of Prussia constituted the main administrative divisions of Prussia. Following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the various princely states in Germany gained their nominal sovereignty, but the reunification process that culminated in...
province of PosenProvince of PosenThe Province of Posen was a province of Prussia from 1848–1918 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918. The area was about 29,000 km2....
was granted to Poland. This territory had already been taken over by local Polish insurgents during the Great Poland Uprising of 1918–1919. - 70% of West PrussiaWest PrussiaWest Prussia was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773–1824 and 1878–1919/20 which was created out of the earlier Polish province of Royal Prussia...
was given to Poland to provide free access to the sea, along with a 10% German minority, creating the Polish corridorPolish CorridorThe Polish Corridor , also known as Danzig Corridor, Corridor to the Sea or Gdańsk Corridor, was a territory located in the region of Pomerelia , which provided the Second Republic of Poland with access to the Baltic Sea, thus dividing the bulk of Germany from the province of East...
. - The east part of Upper SilesiaUpper SilesiaUpper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. Since the 9th century, Upper Silesia has been part of Greater Moravia, the Duchy of Bohemia, the Piast Kingdom of Poland, again of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as of...
was awarded to Poland after a plebiscite. Sixty percent of residents voted for German citizenship, and 40 percent for Poland; as a result the area was divided. - To provide a Polish railway line connecting GdańskGdanskGdańsk is a Polish city on the Baltic coast, at the centre of the country's fourth-largest metropolitan area.The city lies on the southern edge of Gdańsk Bay , in a conurbation with the city of Gdynia, spa town of Sopot, and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the...
and WarsawWarsawWarsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
, the area of Działdowo (Soldau) in East PrussiaEast PrussiaEast Prussia is the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.East Prussia...
was granted to the new Polish state. - From the eastern part of West Prussia and the southern part of East Prussia in the provinces of WarmiaWarmiaWarmia or Ermland is a region between Pomerelia and Masuria in northeastern Poland. Together with Masuria, it forms the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship....
and MasuriaMasuriaMasuria is an area in northeastern Poland famous for its 2,000 lakes. Geographically, Masuria is part of two adjacent lakeland districts, the Masurian Lake District and the Iława Lake District...
, a small area was granted to Poland.Dec3-5, 1918 Provincial Seym in Poznań of 1403 deputies from Gdańsk-Pomerania, Warmia, Mazuria, Silesia, Poznania, and German areas populated by Poles; appointing a Supreme Peoples Council;demands that the Western Allies incorporate into Poland all of the lands annexed by Prussia in the partitions.
Feb. 3, 1919 Signing in Paris of Polish-Czech border agreement on the basis o Nov. 5, 1918, ethnic division agreement.
June 25, 1919 Supreme Allies Council transferring East Galicia to Poland...
July 11, 1920 British anti-Polish decisions in the plebiscite in East Prussia (Powisle, Warmia, and Mazuria) during Soviet offensive towards Warsaw...
July 28, 1920 Allied ambassadors decision partitioning Cieszyn, Silesia, and leaving in Czechoslovakia a quarter of a million Poles in the strategic Moravian Gate...(leading to Poland from south-west)
Poland seizes West Ukrainian People's Republic
On July 17, 1919 a ceasefire was signed in the Polish–Ukrainian War with the West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR). As part of the agreement Poland kept ZUNR territory. The West Ukrainian People's Republic then merged with the Ukrainian People's RepublicUkrainian People's Republic
The Ukrainian People's Republic or Ukrainian National Republic was a republic that was declared in part of the territory of modern Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, eventually headed by Symon Petliura.-Revolutionary Wave:...
(UNR). On June 25, 1919 Supreme Allies Council transferred East Galicia (ZUNR territory) to Poland.
Polish-Soviet War
The Polish–Soviet War (February 1919–March 1921) was an armed conflict between Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine on the one hand and the Second Polish Republic and the short-lived Ukrainian People's RepublicUkrainian People's Republic
The Ukrainian People's Republic or Ukrainian National Republic was a republic that was declared in part of the territory of modern Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, eventually headed by Symon Petliura.-Revolutionary Wave:...
on the other. The war was the result of conflicting expansionist ambitions. Poland, whose statehood had just been re-established by the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
following the Partitions of Poland
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
in the late 18th century, sought to secure territories it had lost at the time of the partitions. The aim of the Soviet states was to control those same territories, which the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
had gained in the partitions of Poland.
File:PBW March 1919.png|March 1919
File:PBW December 1919.png|December 1919
File:PBW June 1920.png|June 1920
File:PBW August 1920.png|August 1920
File:Rzeczpospolita 1939.svg|Treaty of Riga
Polish–Lithuanian War
The Polish-Lithuanian War was an armed conflict between Lithuania and the Second Polish Republic, lasting from August 1920 to October 7, 1920, in the aftermath of World War IAftermath of World War I
The fighting in World War I ended in western Europe when the Armistice took effect at 11:00 am GMT on November 11, 1918, and in eastern Europe by the early 1920s. During and in the aftermath of the war the political, cultural, and social order was drastically changed in Europe, Asia and Africa,...
, not long after both countries had regained their independence. It was part of a wider conflict over disputed territorial control of the cities of Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
, Suwałki and Augustów
Augustów
Augustów is a town in north-eastern Poland with 29,600 inhabitants . It lies on the Netta River and the Augustów Canal. It is situated in the Podlaskie Voivodeship , having previously been in Suwałki Voivodeship . It is the seat of Augustów County and of Gmina Augustów.In 1970 Augustów became...
.
Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania or Middle Lithuania , or simply Central Lithuania , was a short-lived political entity, which did not gain international recognition...
was created in 1920 following the staged rebellion
Zeligowski's Mutiny
Żeligowski's Mutiny was a sham mutiny led by Polish General Lucjan Żeligowski in October 1920, which resulted in the creation of the short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania. Polish Chief of State Józef Piłsudski had surreptitiously ordered Żeligowski to carry out the operation, and revealed the...
of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian-Belarusian Infantry Division of the Polish Army
Polish Land Forces
The Polish Land Forces are a branch of Poland's Armed Forces. They currently contain some 65,000 active personnel and form many components of EU and NATO deployments around the world.-History:...
, supported by the Polish air force, cavalry and artillery. Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
, Vilna
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
, for eighteen months the entity served as a buffer state
Buffer state
A buffer state is a country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers, which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them. Buffer states, when authentically independent, typically pursue a neutralist foreign policy, which distinguishes them from satellite...
between Poland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area.
Negotiations with Russia
Soon after the Battle of Warsaw (1920)Battle of Warsaw (1920)
The Battle of Warsaw sometimes referred to as the Miracle at the Vistula, was the decisive battle of the Polish–Soviet War. That war began soon after the end of World War I in 1918 and lasted until the Treaty of Riga resulted in the end of the hostilities between Poland and Russia in 1921.The...
the Bolsheviks sued for peace. The Poles, exhausted, constantly pressured by the Western governments and the League of Nations, and with its army controlling the majority of the disputed territories, were willing to negotiate. The Soviets made two offers: one on September 21 and the other on September 28. The Polish delegation made a counteroffer on October 2. On the October 5, the Soviets offered amendments to the Polish offer, which Poland accepted. The armistice between Poland on the one side and Soviet Ukraine and Soviet Russia on the other was signed on October 12 and went into effect on October 18. Long negotiations ensued, with the Treaty of Riga
Peace of Riga
The Peace of Riga, also known as the Treaty of Riga; was signed in Riga on 18 March 1921, between Poland, Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine. The treaty ended the Polish-Soviet War....
being signed in March 1921. The assessment of relative advantage is not universally agreed. Russian and Polish historians tend to assign victory to their respective countries. Outside assessments vary, mostly between calling the result a Polish victory and being inconclusive. However, in his secret report to the 9th Conference of the Bolshevik Party on 20 September 1920, Lenin called the outcome of the war "In a word, a gigantic, unheard-of defeat"
Negotiations with Czechoslovakia
During the closing years of World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
Polish and Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
n diplomats met to arrange a common border between the two new countries. By the time armistice
Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)
The armistice between the Allies and Germany was an agreement that ended the fighting in the First World War. It was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on 11 November 1918 and marked a victory for the Allies and a complete defeat for Germany, although not technically a surrender...
was declared, most of the border was agreed except for three small politically-sensitive areas with both Polish and Czechoslovak residents.
The Duchy of Cieszyn
The Cieszyn Silesia
Cieszyn Silesia
Cieszyn Silesia or Těšín Silesia or Teschen Silesia is a historical region in south-eastern Silesia, centered around the towns of Cieszyn and Český Těšín and bisected by the Olza River. Since 1920 it has been divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia, and later the Czech Republic...
or the Duchy of Cieszyn ( and ) was a small area that the pre-World War I census showed was predominantly Polish in three districts (Teschen, Bielsko and Frysztat) and mainly Czech in the fourth district of Frydek. The economic importance of Cieszyn Silesia lay in the rich coal basin around Karvina
Karviná
Karviná is a city in Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic, on the Olza River. It is administrative center of Karviná District. Karviná lies in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia and is one of the most important coal mining centers in the Czech Republic. Together with neighboring...
and in the valuable Košice–Bohumín Railway, which linked Bohemia with Slovakia. In northern Cieszyn Silesia, the railroad junction of Bohumín
Bohumín
Bohumín is a town in Karviná District, Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic on the border with Poland. The confluence of the Oder and Olza Rivers is situated just north of the town. The town lies in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia....
( and ) served as a crossroads for international transport and communications.Duchy of Cieszyn ( and ) was a small area ... on the eve of the First World War its population was predominantly Polish in three districts (Teschen, Bielsko and Frysztat) and mainly Czech in the fourth district of Frydek. The chief importance of Teschen lay in the rich coal basin around Karvina and in the ... valuable Bohumin-Kosice railroad, which linked Bohemia with Slovakia ... Furthermore the railroad junction of Bogumin served as a crossroad for international transport and communications.
p. 158 - According to it Teschen was divided along the Olza River, which left the railroad and the Karvina coal basin to Czechoslovakia ...
Claims over these regions turned violent in 1919 with a brief military conflict, the Seven-day war
Polish–Czechoslovak War
The Poland–Czechoslovakia war, also known mostly in Czech sources as the Seven-day war was a military confrontation between Czechoslovakia and Poland over the territory of Cieszyn Silesia in 1919....
, between Polish and Czechoslovak units. The Allied governments pressed for a ceasefire and on 3 February 1919 a Polish-Czech border agreement was signed on the basis of the 5 November 1918 ethnic division agreement. This was later changed at the Conference of Ambassadors
Conference of Ambassadors
The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War Council and was later on de facto incorporated into...
in Spa, Belgium
Spa, Belgium
Spa is a municipality of Belgium. It lies in the country's Walloon Region and Province of Liège. It is situated in a valley in the Ardennes mountain chain, some southeast of Liège, and southwest of Aachen. As of 1 January 2006, Spa had a total population of 10,543...
on 28 July 1920. Cieszyn was divided along the Olza river between the two newly-created states of Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
. The smaller western suburbs of Cieszyn were joined to Czechoslovakia as the new town of Český Těšín
Ceský Tešín
Český Těšín is a town in the Karviná District, Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic. The town is commonly known in the region as just Těšín . It lies on the west bank of the Olza River, in the heart of the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia...
along with the railroad and the Karvina coal basin.Cieszyn - City on the border of Poland and Czechoslovakia , subject of a Polish-Czech conflict in 1919. The conflict was resolved by a decision of the Conference of Ambassadors (28 July 1920), which divided the city into a Polish part (Cieszyn) and a Czech part (Tesin). A treaty between Poland and Czechoslovakia on the community of Cieszyn was signed on 21 December 1920. The entire town was within the borders of Poland from 11 October 1938 to 1 September 1939 as a result of the Munich Agreement in 1938. After World War II the division of Cieszyn as of 1920 was restored. Poland received the portion of Cieszyn
Cieszyn
Cieszyn is a border-town and the seat of Cieszyn County, Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland. It has 36,109 inhabitants . Cieszyn lies on the Olza River, a tributary of the Oder river, opposite Český Těšín....
east of the Olza river. The Conference of Ambassadors
Conference of Ambassadors
The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War Council and was later on de facto incorporated into...
divided the region just as the Red Army was nearing Warsaw. It was later learned that this award resulted from a secret deal between Edvard Beneš
Edvard Beneš
Edvard Beneš was a leader of the Czechoslovak independence movement, Minister of Foreign Affairs and the second President of Czechoslovakia. He was known to be a skilled diplomat.- Youth :...
and French and British officials.
Orawa and Spisz
The county of Orawa
Orava (region)
Orava is the traditional name of a region situated in northern Slovakia and partially also in southern Poland . It encompasses the territory of the former Árva county.-History:...
arose before the 15th century. The county's territory is situated along the Orava River between Zazriva
Zázrivá
Zázrivá is a village and municipality in Dolný Kubín District in the Žilina Region of northern Slovakia. It is located in the Orava region, around 35 km from Žilina and 20 km from Dolný KubínIt was first mentioned in 1555....
and the Tatra Mountains
Tatra Mountains
The Tatra Mountains, Tatras or Tatra , are a mountain range which forms a natural border between Slovakia and Poland, and are the highest mountain range in the Carpathian Mountains...
. Spisz
Spiš
Spiš is a region in north-eastern Slovakia, with a very small area in south-eastern Poland. Spiš is an informal designation of the territory , but it is also the name of one the 21 official tourism regions of Slovakia...
is situated between the High Tatras
High Tatras
High Tatras or High Tatra are a mountain range on the borders between Slovakia and Poland. They are a part of the Tatra Mountains...
and the Dunajec River in the north, the springs of the Váh
Váh
The Váh is the longest river in entire Slovakia. A left tributary of the Danube river, the Váh is 406 km long, including its Čierny Váh branch...
River in the west, the Slovak Ore Mountains
Slovak Ore Mountains
Slovak Ore Mountains is an extensive mountainous region of Slovakia's Spiš and Gemer region, and in small part in northern Hungary, within the Carpathians. It is the largest mountain range in Slovakia...
and the Hnilec River in the south, and a line running from the town of Stara Ľubovňa, via the Branisko Mountains
Branisko (mountain range)
Branisko is a mountain range in eastern Slovakia, between the Spiš and Šariš regions. It is a 20 km long and 5 km wide mountain range in the north-south direction, belonging to the Fatra-Tatra Area of the Inner Western Carpathians....
, to the town of Margecany
Margecany
Margecany is a village and municipality in the Gelnica District in the Košice Region of eastern Slovakia. Margecany is a very important railway junction situated on the main railway connecting Košice with Žilina and Bratislava....
in the east. While the Orawa and Spisz border was in arbitration, many groups fought to be a part of Poland, including a number of Polish authors. They began to write about an alleged three hundred thousand Poles living in the Orawa territory.
The Conference of Ambassadors
Conference of Ambassadors
The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War Council and was later on de facto incorporated into...
decided that Czechoslovakia would cede to Poland a number of villages from the Orawa and Spisz regions, including the municipalities of Oravy Srnie, Podvlk, Harkabúz, Nižná Zubrica, Vyšná Zubrica, Oravka, Bukovina-Podsklie, Pekelník, Jablonka, Chyžné, Hladovka, Suchá Hora, Vyšná Lipnica, a part of Nižné Lipnice and 4.2% of the rather Belá new communities, with Fridman (Falštin settlement), Krempach, Tribš, Durštín, Čierna Hora, Jurgov, Repiská, Vyšné lapse, Nižné lapse, Nedeca, Kacvín and Lapšanka.
1921
In late 1921 a border adjustment between the Weimar RepublicWeimar Republic
The Weimar Republic is the name given by historians to the parliamentary republic established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government...
and Poland took place as a result of the Silesian Uprisings
Silesian Uprisings
The Silesian Uprisings were a series of three armed uprisings of the Poles and Polish Silesians of Upper Silesia, from 1919–1921, against German rule; the resistance hoped to break away from Germany in order to join the Second Polish Republic, which had been established in the wake of World War I...
. The uprising were a series of three armed rebellions that took place between 1919 and 1921 by the Polish people in the Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. Since the 9th century, Upper Silesia has been part of Greater Moravia, the Duchy of Bohemia, the Piast Kingdom of Poland, again of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as of...
region against the Weimar Republic. The Polish people of the region wanted to join the Second Polish Republic, which had been established following World War I. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles had called for a plebiscite in Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia plebiscite
The Upper Silesia plebiscite was a border referendum mandated by the Versailles Treaty and carried out in March 1921 to determine a section of the border between Weimar Germany and Poland. The region was ethnically mixed, chiefly among Germans, Poles and Silesians. According to prewar statistics,...
in 1921 to determine whether the territory should be a part of Germany or Poland.
The plebiscite took place on March 20, 1921, two days after the signing of the Treaty of Riga
Peace of Riga
The Peace of Riga, also known as the Treaty of Riga; was signed in Riga on 18 March 1921, between Poland, Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine. The treaty ended the Polish-Soviet War....
, which ended the Polish-Soviet war. In the plebiscite, 707,605 votes were cast for Germany, and 479,359 for Poland. The Germans had a majority, by 228,246 votes. In late April 1921, rumours flew that Upper Silesia would stay in Germany. This led to the Third Polish Uprising in May–July 1921. The question of the Upper Silesia problem was turned over to a council of the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
. The commission, consisting of four representatives—one each from Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and China. The commission gathered its own data, interviewing Poles and Germans from the region. On the basis of the reports of this commission and those of its experts, on October 1921 the Council awarded the greater part of the Upper Silesian industrial district to Poland.
1922
After a variety of delays, a disputed electionRepublic of Central Lithuania general election, 1922
The general election in the Republic of Central Lithuania was an election to the Vilnius Sejm of the Polish-dominated Republic of Central Lithuania on January 8, 1922. The new parliament was intended to formally legalize incorporation of Central Lithuania into Poland. Such measure was fiercely...
to join Poland took place on January 8, 1922, and the Republic of Central Lithuania
Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania or Middle Lithuania , or simply Central Lithuania , was a short-lived political entity, which did not gain international recognition...
became part of Poland.
1924
The Polish government was not satisfied with the Czechoslovakia-Polish border decided from the Paris Peace ConferenceParis Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
or from the Conference of Ambassadors
Conference of Ambassadors
The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War Council and was later on de facto incorporated into...
. The conflict was only resolved by the Council of the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
' Permanent Court of International Justice
Permanent Court of International Justice
The Permanent Court of International Justice, often called the World Court, was an international court attached to the League of Nations. Created in 1922 , the Court was initially met with a good reaction from states and academics alike, with many cases submitted to it for its first decade of...
on March 12, 1924, which decided that Czechoslovakia should retain the territory of Javorzyna.Javorzyna - The dispute was submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice. On the basis of the court's decision, the League of Nations Council, on 12 March 1924, delimited the border, leaving Javorzyna within Czechoslovakia; this was recognized by both sides in a protocol signed on 6 May 1924 in Kraków and approved by the Conference of Ambassadors on 5 September 1924 and which entailed (in June of the same year) an additional exchange of territories in Orava - the territory around Lipnica Wielka
Lipnica Wielka, Nowy Targ County
Lipnica Wielka is a village in Nowy Targ County, Lesser Poland Voivodeship, in southern Poland, close to the border with Slovakia. It is the seat of the gmina called Gmina Lipnica Wielka. It lies approximately west of Nowy Targ and south of the regional capital Kraków.Famous Residents:...
(Nižná Lipnica) went to Poland, the territory around Suchá Hora (Sucha Gora) and Hladovka (Glodowka) went to Czechoslovakia.
1938
As Czechoslovakia was being absorbed into the German Reich, ZaolzieZaolzie
Zaolzie is the Polish name for an area now in the Czech Republic which was disputed between interwar Poland and Czechoslovakia. The name means "lands beyond the Olza River"; it is also called Śląsk zaolziański, meaning "trans-Olza Silesia". Equivalent terms in other languages include Zaolší in...
, the Czech half of Cieszyn
Cieszyn Silesia
Cieszyn Silesia or Těšín Silesia or Teschen Silesia is a historical region in south-eastern Silesia, centered around the towns of Cieszyn and Český Těšín and bisected by the Olza River. Since 1920 it has been divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia, and later the Czech Republic...
was annexed by Poland in 1938 following the Munich Agreement
Munich Agreement
The Munich Pact was an agreement permitting the Nazi German annexation of Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland. The Sudetenland were areas along Czech borders, mainly inhabited by ethnic Germans. The agreement was negotiated at a conference held in Munich, Germany, among the major powers of Europe without...
and the First Vienna Award
First Vienna Award
The First Vienna Award was the result of the First Vienna Arbitration, which took place at Vienna's Belvedere Palace on November 2, 1938. The Arbitration and Award were direct consequences of the Munich Agreement...
. At noon on September 30, Poland gave an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak government. It demanded the immediate evacuation of Czech troops and police from Zaolzie and gave Prague until noon the following day. At 11:45 a.m. on October 1 the Czech foreign ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted. Poland was accused of being an accomplice of Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
– a charge that Warsaw was hard put to deny.
Spiš
Spiš is a region in north-eastern Slovakia, with a very small area in south-eastern Poland. Spiš is an informal designation of the territory , but it is also the name of one the 21 official tourism regions of Slovakia...
and northern Orawa, including territories around Suchá Hora and Hladovka, around Javorina, around Leśnica in the Pieniny
Pieniny
Pieniny is a mountain range in the south of Poland and the north of Slovakia.The Pieniny mountain range is divided into three parts – Pieniny Spiskie and Pieniny Właściwe in Poland; and, Malé Pieniny in Slovakia. The Pieniny mountains consist mainly of the limestone and dolomite rock strata...
Mountains, a small territory around Skalité
Skalité
Skalité is a village and municipality in Čadca District in the Žilina Region of northern Slovakia.-History:In historical records the village was first mentioned in 1662. In late October 1938, Skalite, together with adjacent villages, was occupied by the Polish Army...
, and some other very small border regions. They officially received the territories on 1 November 1938. Polish military groups began to carry out assimilation of the population. Polish was introduced as the only official language and the Slovak Intelligence were displaced from the territories.
1939
World War II
In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland and partitionedPolish areas annexed by Nazi Germany
At the beginning of World War II, nearly a quarter of the pre-war Polish areas were annexed by Nazi Germany and placed directly under German civil administration, while the rest of Nazi occupied Poland was named as General Government...
it pursuant to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.
After the invasion, Germany annexed the lands it was forced to give to a reformed Poland
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
in 1919–1922 by the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
: the Polish Corridor
Polish Corridor
The Polish Corridor , also known as Danzig Corridor, Corridor to the Sea or Gdańsk Corridor, was a territory located in the region of Pomerelia , which provided the Second Republic of Poland with access to the Baltic Sea, thus dividing the bulk of Germany from the province of East...
, West Prussia
West Prussia
West Prussia was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773–1824 and 1878–1919/20 which was created out of the earlier Polish province of Royal Prussia...
, the Province of Posen
Province of Posen
The Province of Posen was a province of Prussia from 1848–1918 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918. The area was about 29,000 km2....
, and parts of eastern Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. Since the 9th century, Upper Silesia has been part of Greater Moravia, the Duchy of Bohemia, the Piast Kingdom of Poland, again of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as of...
. The council of the Free City of Danzig
Free City of Danzig
The Free City of Danzig was a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig and surrounding areas....
voted to become a part of Germany again, although Poles and Jews
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
were deprived of their voting rights and all non-Nazi political parties were banned. Parts of Poland that had not been part of Wilhelmine Germany
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
were also incorporated into the Reich.
Two decrees by Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
(October 8 and October 12, 1939) provided for the division of the annexed areas of Poland into the following administrative units:
- Reichsgau WarthelandReichsgau WarthelandReichsgau Wartheland was a Nazi German Reichsgau formed from Polish territory annexed in 1939. It comprised the Greater Poland and adjacent areas, and only in part matched the area of the similarly named pre-Versailles Prussian province of Posen...
(initially ReichsgauReichsgauA Reichsgau was an administrative subdivision created in a number of the areas annexed to Nazi Germany between 1938 and 1945...
Posen), which included the entire Poznań VoivodeshipPoznan Voivodeship-1975 to 1998:From 1975 to 1998, Poznań Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland, superseded by Greater Poland Voivodeship.Capital city: Poznań.Major cities and towns :...
, most of the Łódź Voivodeship, five counties of the Pomeranian VoivodeshipPomeranian VoivodeshipPomeranian Voivodeship, or Pomerania Province , is a voivodeship, or province, in north-central Poland. It comprises most of Pomerelia , as well as an area east of the Vistula River...
, and one county of the Warszawa VoivodeshipWarsaw VoivodeshipWarszawa Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in years 1975–1998, superseded by Masovian Voivodeship.Capital city: WarsawMajor cities and towns: :* Warsaw ;...
; - Reichsgau Danzig-West PrussiaReichsgau Danzig-West PrussiaThe Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia was a Nazi German province created on 8 October 1939 from the territory of the annexed Free City of Danzig, the annexed Polish province Greater Pomeranian Voivodship , and the Nazi German Regierungsbezirk West Prussia of Gau East Prussia. Before 2 November 1939,...
(initially Reichsgau West Prussia), which consisted of the remaining area of the Pomeranian VoivodeshipPomeranian VoivodeshipPomeranian Voivodeship, or Pomerania Province , is a voivodeship, or province, in north-central Poland. It comprises most of Pomerelia , as well as an area east of the Vistula River...
and the Free City of Danzig; - Ciechanów DistrictCiechanówCiechanów is a town in north-central Poland with 45,900 inhabitants . It is situated in Masovian Voivodeship . It was previously the capital of Ciechanów Voivodeship.-History:The grad numbered approximately 3,000 armed men....
(RegierungsbezirkRegierungsbezirkIn Germany, a Government District, in German: Regierungsbezirk – is a subdivision of certain federal states .They are above the Kreise, Landkreise, and kreisfreie Städte...
Zichenau), consisting of the five northern counties of Warszawa VoivodeshipWarsaw VoivodeshipWarszawa Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland in years 1975–1998, superseded by Masovian Voivodeship.Capital city: WarsawMajor cities and towns: :* Warsaw ;...
(Płock, Płońsk, SierpcSierpcSierpc is a town in Poland, in the north-west part of the Masovian Voivodeship, about 125 km northwest of Warsaw. It is the capital of Sierpc County. Its population is 18,777 . It is located near the national road No 10, which connects Warsaw and Toruń...
, CiechanówCiechanówCiechanów is a town in north-central Poland with 45,900 inhabitants . It is situated in Masovian Voivodeship . It was previously the capital of Ciechanów Voivodeship.-History:The grad numbered approximately 3,000 armed men....
, and Mława), which became a part of East Prussia; - Katowice DistrictKatowiceKatowice is a city in Silesia in southern Poland, on the Kłodnica and Rawa rivers . Katowice is located in the Silesian Highlands, about north of the Silesian Beskids and about southeast of the Sudetes Mountains.It is the central district of the Upper Silesian Metropolis, with a population of 2...
(Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz), or unofficially East Upper SilesiaUpper SilesiaUpper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. Since the 9th century, Upper Silesia has been part of Greater Moravia, the Duchy of Bohemia, the Piast Kingdom of Poland, again of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as of...
(Ost-Oberschlesien), which included SosnowiecSosnowiecSosnowiec is a city in Zagłębie Dąbrowskie in southern Poland, near Katowice. It is one of the central districts of the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union - a metropolis with a combined population of over two million people located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Brynica river .It is situated in...
, BędzinBedzinBędzin is a city in Zagłębie Dąbrowskie in southern Poland. Located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Czarna Przemsza river , the city borders the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union - a metro area with a population of about 2 million.It has been situated in the Silesian Voivodeship since its...
, ChrzanówChrzanówChrzanów is a town in south Poland with 39,704 inhabitants . It is situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship and is the capital of Chrzanów County.- To 1809:...
, and ZawiercieZawiercieZawiercie is a city in the Silesian Voivodeship of southern Poland with 55,800 inhabitants . It is situated in the Kraków-Częstochowa highland near the source of the Warta River...
Counties, and parts of OlkuszOlkuszOlkusz is a town in south Poland with 37,696 inhabitants . Situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship , previously in Katowice Voivodeship , it is the capital of Olkusz County...
and ŻywiecZywiecŻywiec is a town in south-central Poland with 32,242 inhabitants . Between 1975 and 1998, it was located within the Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship, but has since become part of the Silesian Voivodeship....
Counties.
General Government
The General Government was an area of Second Republic of Poland under Nazi German rule during World War II; designated as a separate region of the Third Reich between 1939–1945...
occupation zone. Eastern areas of Poland
Kresy
The Polish term Kresy refers to a land considered by Poles as historical eastern provinces of their country. Today, it makes western Ukraine, western Belarus, as well as eastern Lithuania, with such major cities, as Lviv, Vilnius, and Hrodna. This territory belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian...
became part of either Soviet Belarus (including Białystok, Łomża, Baranowicze
Baranovichi
Baranovichi , is a city in the Brest Province of western Belarus with a population of 173,000. It is a significant railway junction and home to a state university.-Overview:...
and Brest
Brest, Belarus
Brest , formerly also Brest-on-the-Bug and Brest-Litovsk , is a city in Belarus at the border with Poland opposite the city of Terespol, where the Bug River and Mukhavets rivers meet...
) or Soviet Ukraine (including Lwów
Lviv
Lviv is a city in western Ukraine. The city is regarded as one of the main cultural centres of today's Ukraine and historically has also been a major Polish and Jewish cultural center, as Poles and Jews were the two main ethnicities of the city until the outbreak of World War II and the following...
, Tarnopol
Ternopil
Ternopil , is a city in western Ukraine, located on the banks of the Seret River. Ternopil is one of the major cities of Western Ukraine and the historical region of Galicia...
, Lutsk
Lutsk
Lutsk is a city located by the Styr River in northwestern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Volyn Oblast and the administrative center of the surrounding Lutskyi Raion within the oblast...
, Rowne
Równe, Pomeranian Voivodeship
Równe is a settlement in the administrative district of Gmina Liniewo, within Kościerzyna County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately south-west of Liniewo, south-east of Kościerzyna, and south-west of the regional capital Gdańsk.For details of the history of the...
and Stanisławów). The city of Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
(Polish: Wilno) with its adjacent area was annexed and returned to Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
.
After the German attack on the Soviet Union
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that began on 22 June 1941. Over 4.5 million troops of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a front., the largest invasion in the history of warfare...
in June 1941, the district of Białystok, which included the Białystok, Bielsk Podlaski
Bielsk Podlaski
-Roads and Highways:Bielsk Podlaski is at the intersection of two National Road and a Voivodeship Road:* National Road 19 - Kuźnica Białystoka Border Crossing - Kuźnica - Białystok - Bielsk Podlaski - Siemiatycze - Międzyrzec Podlaski - Kock - Lubartów - Lublin - Kraśnik - Janów Lubelski - Nisko...
, Grajewo
Grajewo
Grajewo , is a town in north-eastern Poland with 23,302 inhabitants .It is situated in the Podlaskie Voivodeship ; previously, it was in Łomża Voivodeship...
, Łomża, Sokółka, Volkovysk, and Grodno
Hrodna
Grodno or Hrodna , is a city in Belarus. It is located on the Neman River , close to the borders of Poland and Lithuania . It has 327,540 inhabitants...
Counties, was "attached to" (not incorporated into) East Prussia
East Prussia
East Prussia is the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.East Prussia...
.
1945
On Victory in Europe Day (V-E Day: May 8, 1945)Victory in Europe Day
Victory in Europe Day commemorates 8 May 1945 , the date when the World War II Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and the end of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich. The formal surrender of the occupying German forces in the Channel Islands was not...
World War II Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany.
After World War II, there were extensive changes to the territorial extent of Poland, following the decision taken at the Teheran Conference
Tehran Conference
The Tehran Conference was the meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill between November 28 and December 1, 1943, most of which was held at the Soviet Embassy in Tehran, Iran. It was the first World War II conference amongst the Big Three in which Stalin was present...
of 1943 at the insistence of the Soviet Union. The Polish territories east of the Curzon Line
Curzon Line
The Curzon Line was put forward by the Allied Supreme Council after World War I as a demarcation line between the Second Polish Republic and Bolshevik Russia and was supposed to serve as the basis for a future border. In the wake of World War I, which catalysed the Russian Revolution of 1917, the...
, which the Soviet Union had occupied in 1939 along with the Bialystok region, were permanently annexed. While a large portion of this area was predominately populated by Ukrainians and Belarussians, most of their Polish inhabitants were expelled. Today these territories are part of Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania.
Poland received former German territory east of the Oder-Neisse line
Oder-Neisse line
The Oder–Neisse line is the border between Germany and Poland which was drawn in the aftermath of World War II. The line is formed primarily by the Oder and Lusatian Neisse rivers, and meets the Baltic Sea west of the seaport cities of Szczecin and Świnoujście...
, consisting of the southern two thirds of East Prussia
East Prussia
East Prussia is the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.East Prussia...
and most of Pomerania
Pomerania
Pomerania is a historical region on the south shore of the Baltic Sea. Divided between Germany and Poland, it stretches roughly from the Recknitz River near Stralsund in the West, via the Oder River delta near Szczecin, to the mouth of the Vistula River near Gdańsk in the East...
, Neumark
Neumark
Neumark comprised a region of the Prussian province of Brandenburg, Germany.Neumark may also refer to:* Neumark, Thuringia* Neumark, Saxony* Neumark * Nowe Miasto Lubawskie or Neumark, a town in Poland, situated at river Drwęca...
(East Brandenburg), and Silesia
Silesia
Silesia is a historical region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with smaller parts also in the Czech Republic, and Germany.Silesia is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesia's largest city and historical capital is Wrocław...
. The German population was expelled
Expulsion of Germans after World War II
The later stages of World War II, and the period after the end of that war, saw the forced migration of millions of German nationals and ethnic Germans from various European states and territories, mostly into the areas which would become post-war Germany and post-war Austria...
before these formerly occupied territories were repopulated mainly with Poles from central Poland and those expelled from the eastern regions."From June until mid-July, Polish military and militia expelled nearly all of the residents of the districts immediately east of the rivers Oder-Neisse line"
"From June until mid July, Polish military and militia expelled nearly all people from the districts immediately east of the rivers Oder-Neisse line
Oder-Neisse line
The Oder–Neisse line is the border between Germany and Poland which was drawn in the aftermath of World War II. The line is formed primarily by the Oder and Lusatian Neisse rivers, and meets the Baltic Sea west of the seaport cities of Szczecin and Świnoujście...
" Early expulsions in Poland were undertaken by the occupying Soviet and Polish Communist military authorities even before the Potsdam Conference ("wild expulsions"). To ensure territorial incorporation into Poland, Polish Communists ordered that Germans were to be expelled: "We must expel all the Germans because countries are built on national lines and not on multinational ones." A citation from the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Polish Workers Party, May 20–21, 1945. Germans were defined as either Reichsdeutsche, people enlisted in first or second Volksliste groups, and those of the third group, who held German citizenship. People of Slavic descent (autochthones, almost exclusively in Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. Since the 9th century, Upper Silesia has been part of Greater Moravia, the Duchy of Bohemia, the Piast Kingdom of Poland, again of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as of...
and Masuria
Masuria
Masuria is an area in northeastern Poland famous for its 2,000 lakes. Geographically, Masuria is part of two adjacent lakeland districts, the Masurian Lake District and the Iława Lake District...
) could apply for "verification", as Poles and were allowed to stay.
Winston Churchill was not present at the end of the Yalta Conference as the results of the British election had made it clear he had been defeated. Churchill later claimed that he would never have agreed to the Oder-Western Neisse line, and in his famous Iron Curtain speech declared that:
File:Wrzesien2.jpg|USSR and Nazi Germany carve up Poland in 1939 approximately along the Curzon Line
Curzon Line
The Curzon Line was put forward by the Allied Supreme Council after World War I as a demarcation line between the Second Polish Republic and Bolshevik Russia and was supposed to serve as the basis for a future border. In the wake of World War I, which catalysed the Russian Revolution of 1917, the...
File:Curzon line en.svg|Poland's borders after World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Blue line: Curzon Line
Curzon Line
The Curzon Line was put forward by the Allied Supreme Council after World War I as a demarcation line between the Second Polish Republic and Bolshevik Russia and was supposed to serve as the basis for a future border. In the wake of World War I, which catalysed the Russian Revolution of 1917, the...
of 8 December 1919. Pink areas: Parts of Germany in 1937 borders. Grey aera: Terrritory annexed by Poland between 1919 and 1923 and held until 1939, which after World War II was annexed by the Soviet Union.
File:Ribbentrop-Molotov.svg|Planned and actual divisions of Europe, according to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, with later adjustments
File:Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact showing the new German-Soviet border Sept 28 1939 .png|Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact showing the new German-Soviet border Sept 28 1939
Poland USSR
On August 16, 1945 a border agreement between Poland and the USSRBorder Agreement between Poland and the USSR of 16 August 1945
The Border Agreement between Poland and the USSR of 16 August 1945 refers to the ratification of borders between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Republic of Poland signed by the Provisional Government of National Unity formed by the Polish communists...
was signed. The western portion of the Byelorussian SSR was granted to Poland. The Belastok Voblast
Belastok Voblast
Belastok Voblast or Belostok Oblast was a territorial unit in the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic from September 1939 to August 1945.- Administrative units :The administrative center of the voblast was the city of Belastok ....
was divided into Soviet Brest Voblast
Brest Voblast
Brest Voblast or Brest Oblast is a province of Belarus with its administrative center being Brest.Important cities within the voblast' include: Baranovichi, Brest, and Pinsk.-Geography:...
, Hrodna Voblast
Hrodna Voblast
Hrodna Voblast or Grodno Oblast is a voblast in northwestern Belarus.The capital - Grodno is the biggest city of the province. It lies on the Neman River. Grodno's existence is attested to from 1127. Two castles dating from the 14th - 18th centuries are located here on the steep right bank of...
and Polish Białystok Voivodeship.
File:Borders of Poland and Belarus before August 1945.png|Byelorussian SSR before adjustment
File:Borders of Poland and Belarus after August 1945.png|Byelorussian SSR after adjustment
Czechoslovakia
After World War IIWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
the Czechoslovakian government wanted to return to the 1920 border between the two nations, while Polish inhabitants of Zaolzie
Zaolzie
Zaolzie is the Polish name for an area now in the Czech Republic which was disputed between interwar Poland and Czechoslovakia. The name means "lands beyond the Olza River"; it is also called Śląsk zaolziański, meaning "trans-Olza Silesia". Equivalent terms in other languages include Zaolší in...
were in favour of the boundary of August 31, 1939. On May 20, 1945 in Trstena
Trstená
Trstená is a city in Tvrdošín District, Žilina Region, central Slovakia....
an agreement for a return to the 1938 borders of Poland was signed and the following day the Czechoslovak border guards moved to the old Czechoslovakian border. At several places there were fights between Polish and Czechoslovakian militias, but the situation calmed with the arrival of Polish troops on July 17, 1945. The Polish government still did not want to give up Zaolzie, and on June 16, 1945, Marshall Michał Rola-Żymierski issued directive number 00336, which ordered the 1st Armoured Corps of the Polish Army
Polish Land Forces
The Polish Land Forces are a branch of Poland's Armed Forces. They currently contain some 65,000 active personnel and form many components of EU and NATO deployments around the world.-History:...
to concentrate in the area of Rybnik
Rybnik
Rybnik is a city in southern Poland, in the Silesian Voivodeship. Rybnik is located close to the border with the Czech Republic and just outside the southern border of the largest urban area in Poland, the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union...
, and to seize Zaolzie However, the Soviets decided to hand the region to Czechoslovakia, and the Poles followed the Moscow directive. The Czechs demanded former German areas of Klodzko, Glubczyce, and Racibórz
Racibórz
Racibórz is a town in southern Poland with 60,218 inhabitants situated in the Silesian Voivodeship , previously in Katowice Voivodeship...
, but after Soviet mediation, all sides signed a treaty on September 21, 1945, which accepted the December 31, 1937 Polish - Czechoslovak and Czechoslovak - German borderline as the boundary between the two countries.
1948
The Polish border underwent a minor correction in 1948, when the village of MedykaMedyka
Medyka is a village in Przemyśl County, Subcarpathian Voivodeship, in south-eastern Poland, close to the border with Ukraine. It is the seat of the gmina called Gmina Medyka...
near Przemyśl was transferred to Poland.warto dodac, ze w 1948 r. prezeprowadzono inna, mniej znana regulacje granicy, dzieki ktorej w polsce znalazla sie medyka, pierwotnie pozostawiona po stronie radzieckiej, oraz kilka wsi no pogorzu przemyskim - translation - In addition in 1948 there was a less well-known border adjustment, medyka and a few villages, which were originally left on the Soviet side.
1951
On February 15, 1951 Aleksander ZawadzkiAleksander Zawadzki
Aleksander Zawadzki was a Polish Communist political figure and head of state of Poland from 1952 to 1964.A member of the Communist Youth Union, Zawadzki went into exile in the Soviet Union in 1931, after spending six years in prison for "subversive activities." He returned to Poland in 1939, just...
, the president of the Polish Republic, and Andrey Vyshinsky
Andrey Vyshinsky
Andrey Januaryevich Vyshinsky – 22 November 1954) was a Soviet politician, jurist and diplomat.He is known as a state prosecutor of Joseph Stalin's Moscow trials and in the Nuremberg trials. He was the Soviet Foreign Minister from 1949 to 1953, after having served as Deputy Foreign...
, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, signed Treaty No. 6222. Agreement between the Polish republic and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics concerning the exchange of sectors of their state territories. The treaty was a border adjustment, with Poland and the Soviet Union exchanging 480 square kilometres (185.3 sq mi).
1958
On June 13, 1958 the Agreement concerning the final demarcation of the state frontier between Czechoslovakia and Poland was signed in Warsaw. Adam RapackiAdam Rapacki
Adam Rapacki was a Polish politician and diplomat.-Life:Rapacki was born in Lemberg, Austria-Hungary in 1909. He was a member of the Polish Socialist Party from 1945 to 1948 as well as its successor, the Polish United Workers' Party...
signed for Poland and Václav David
Václav David
Václav David is a Czechoslovak diplomat, he was Czechoslovak foreign minister from 31 January 1953 to 8 April 1968. He was also Chairman of the Chamber of Nations from 1971 to 1986.- References :...
signed for Czechoslovakia. The treaty confirmed the border at the line of January 1, 1938, the situation before the Nazi-imposed Munich Agreement transferred territory from Czechoslovakia to Poland.
1975
In March 1975 Czechoslovakia and Poland modified their border along the Dunajec to permit Poland to construct a dam in the Czorsztyn region, southeast of Kraków.2002
In 2002, Poland and SlovakiaSlovakia
The Slovak Republic is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about . Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south...
made some further minor border adjustments:
See also
- Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts
- Borders of PolandBorders of PolandThe Borders of Poland are 3511 or 3582 kilometers long. The neighboring countries are Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and Lithuania and the Russian province of Kaliningrad Oblast to the northeast...
- Geography of PolandGeography of PolandPoland is a country in Central Europe with an area of 312,679 square kilometres , and mostly temperate climate. Generally speaking, Poland is an almost unbroken plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north, to the Carpathian Mountains in the south...
- Treaty of Warsaw (1970)Treaty of Warsaw (1970)The Treaty of Warsaw was a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed by Chancellor Willy Brandt and Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz at the Presidential Palace on 7 December 1970, and it was ratified by the German Bundestag on 17 May 1972.In the treaty, both...