Masuria
Encyclopedia
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
famous for its 2,000 lakes. Geographically, Masuria is part of two adjacent lakeland districts, the Masurian Lake District and the Iława Lake District (Pojezierze Iławskie). Administratively, it belongs to the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship
Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship
Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, or Warmia-Masuria Province , is a voivodeship in northeastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Olsztyn...
.
The landscape of the region was formed by the last ice age
Ice age
An ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers...
around 14,000 - 15,000 years ago in Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
. The terrain is mostly hilly, with connecting lakes, rivers and streams. Forests account for about 30% of the area. The northern part of Masuria is covered mostly by the broadleaved forest, while the southern part is dominated by pine
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
and mixed forests
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Mixed forests are a temperate and humid biome. The typical structure of these forests includes four layers. The uppermost layer is the canopy composed of tall mature trees ranging from 33 to 66 m high. Below the canopy is the three-layered, shade-tolerant understory that is roughly 9 to...
.
The region's economy relies largely on eco-tourism and agriculture. The lakes for which the region is best known offer varieties of water sports, recreation and vacation activities.
Old Prussians
In the 11th–13th century, the territory was inhabited by the Old PrussiansOld Prussians
The Old Prussians or Baltic Prussians were an ethnic group, autochthonous Baltic tribes that inhabited Prussia, the lands of the southeastern Baltic Sea in the area around the Vistula and Curonian Lagoons...
also called Baltic Prussians
Balts
The Balts or Baltic peoples , defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between the Jutland peninsula in the west and Moscow, Oka and Volga rivers basins in the east...
, a Baltic ethnic group
Ethnic group
An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy...
that inhabited Prussia in the lands of Pomesania
Pomesania
Pomesanians were one of the Prussian clans. They lived in Pomesania , a historical region in modern northern Poland, located between the Nogat and Vistula Rivers to the west and the Elbląg River to the east. It is located around the modern towns of Elbląg and Malbork...
, Pogesania
Pogesania
Pogesanians were one of the eleven Prussian clans mentioned by Peter von Dusburg. The clan lived in Pogesania , a small territory stretched between the Elbląg and Pasłęka rivers. It is now located in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, northern Poland. Pogesanians, as the rest of the Prussians, were...
, Galindia, Bartia, and Sudovia
Yotvingians
Yotvingians or Sudovians were a Baltic people with close cultural ties to the Lithuanians and Prussians...
, and in the lands of the southeastern coastal region of the Baltic Sea around the Vistula Lagoon
Vistula Lagoon
The Vistula Lagoon is a fresh water lagoon on the Baltic Sea separated from Gdańsk Bay by the Vistula Spit. It is sometimes known as the Vistula Bay or Vistula Gulf. The modern German name, Frisches Haff, is derived from an earlier form, Friesisches Haff. Both this term and the earlier Polish...
and the Curonian Lagoon
Curonian Lagoon
The Curonian Lagoon is separated from the Baltic Sea by the Curonian Spit. Its surface area is . The Neman River supplies about 90% of its inflows; its watershed consists of about 100,450 square kilometers in Lithuania and the Kaliningrad Oblast.-Human history:In the 13th century, the area around...
. They spoke a language now known as Old Prussian and followed pagan Prussian mythology
Prussian mythology
The Prussian mythology was a polytheistic religion of the Old Prussians, indigenous peoples of Prussia before the Prussian Crusade waged by the Teutonic Knights. It was closely related to other Baltic faiths, the Lithuanian and Latvian mythologies. Its myths and legends did not survive as Prussians...
. Although they bore the name of a 19th century German political entity, they were not "Germans." They were converted to Catholicism
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
in the late 13th and 14th centuries, after conquest
Prussian Crusade
The Prussian Crusade was a series of 13th-century campaigns of Roman Catholic crusaders, primarily led by the Teutonic Knights, to Christianize the pagan Old Prussians. Invited after earlier unsuccessful expeditions against the Prussians by Polish princes, the Teutonic Knights began campaigning...
by the Knights of the Teutonic Order, and then to Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
in the early 16th century.
It is estimated that around 220,000 Old Prussians lived in this territory in 1200. The wilderness was their natural barrier against the attacks by would-be invaders. During the Northern Crusades
Northern Crusades
The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were crusades undertaken by the Christian kings of Denmark and Sweden, the German Livonian and Teutonic military orders, and their allies against the pagan peoples of Northern Europe around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea...
of the early 13th century, the Old Prussians used this thick forest as a line of defense. They did it again against the Knights of the Teutonic Order invited to Poland by Konrad Mazowiecki in 1226. The order's goal was to convert the native population to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
and baptize it by force if necessary. In the subsequent conquest which lasted over 50 years, the original population was nearly exterminated especially during the major Prussian rebellion of 1261–83. By the years 1278–1283 the eradication of the local culture was complete, even though its remnants survived in the forest for decades to come.
After the Order's acquisition of the area, Poles began to settle in the south-east part of the conquered region. German, French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
, Flemish, Danish, Dutch
Dutch people
The Dutch people are an ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a common culture and speak the Dutch language. Dutch people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Suriname, Chile, Brazil, Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and the United...
, and Norwegian
Norwegians
Norwegians constitute both a nation and an ethnic group native to Norway. They share a common culture and speak the Norwegian language. Norwegian people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in United States, Canada and Brazil.-History:Towards the end of the 3rd...
colonists entered the area shortly afterward. The number of Polish
Poles
thumb|right|180px|The state flag of [[Poland]] as used by Polish government and diplomatic authoritiesThe Polish people, or Poles , are a nation indigenous to Poland. They are united by the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe...
settlers grew significantly again in the beginning of 15th century, especially after the first and the second treaties of Thorn, in 1411 and 1466 respectively, following the Thirteen Years’ War and the final defeat of the order. Later assimilation of the German settlers as well as the Polish immigrants and all others created the new Prussian identity. The grand master became a vassal of Polish crown and was obliged to welcome ethnically Polish members to the congregation.
Ducal Prussia
With the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466, the Teutonic Order came under the rule of the Polish crown. The conversion of Albert of PrussiaAlbert I, Duke of Prussia
Albert of Prussia was the 37th Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and, after converting to Lutheranism, the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia, which was the first state to adopt the Lutheran faith and Protestantism as the official state religion...
to Lutheranism
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
in 1525 brought all of ducal Prussia and Masuria to Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
. The Polish language predominated due to the many settlers from Masovia. While much of the countryside was populated by Polish-speakers, the cities constituted German mixed with Polish population. The ancient Old Prussian language
Old Prussian language
Prussian is an extinct Baltic language, once spoken by the inhabitants of the original territory of Prussia in an area of what later became East Prussia and eastern parts of...
survived in parts of the countryside until the early 18th century. Areas that had many Polish-language speakers were known as the Polish departments.
Battle of Prostki
The Battle of Prostki was fought near Prostki on October 8, 1656 between forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and allied Crimean Tatars commanded by hetman Wincenty Gosiewski on one side, and on the other allied Swedish and Brandenburg forces commanded by Prince Georg Friedrich of...
, the forces of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
destroyed the allied Swedish
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
and Brandenburg
Brandenburg-Prussia
Brandenburg-Prussia is the historiographic denomination for the Early Modern realm of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollerns between 1618 and 1701. Based in the Electorate of Brandenburg, the main branch of the Hohenzollern intermarried with the branch ruling the Duchy of Prussia, and secured succession...
army capturing Prince Bogusław Radziwiłł. The 2,000 Tatar raiders
Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate, or Khanate of Crimea , was a state ruled by Crimean Tatars from 1441 to 1783. Its native name was . Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan...
who fought on the Polish side – before their return to Crimea
Crimea
Crimea , or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea , is a sub-national unit, an autonomous republic, of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name...
– demolished most townships and caused the death of over 50% of the population of southern Prussian region (later Masuria) within the years 1656–1657, taking 3,400 people into slavery.^ Jacek Płosiński, Potop szwedzki na Podlasiu 1655-1657, Inforteditions Publishing, 2006. ISBN 83-89943-07-7 From 1708–1711, approximately 50 percent of the inhabitants of the newly rebuilt villages died from the Black Death
Black Death
The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1348 and 1350. Of several competing theories, the dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Thought to have...
. Losses in population were partly compensated by migration of Protestant settlers or refugees from Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, Salzburg
Salzburg
-Population development:In 1935, the population significantly increased when Salzburg absorbed adjacent municipalities. After World War II, numerous refugees found a new home in the city. New residential space was created for American soldiers of the postwar Occupation, and could be used for...
(expulsion of Protestants 1731), France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
(Huguenot
Huguenot
The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France during the 16th and 17th centuries. Since the 17th century, people who formerly would have been called Huguenots have instead simply been called French Protestants, a title suggested by their German co-religionists, the...
refugees after the Edict of Fontainebleau
Edict of Fontainebleau
The Edict of Fontainebleau was an edict issued by Louis XIV of France, also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Nantes of 1598, had granted the Huguenots the right to practice their religion without persecution from the state...
in 1685), and especially from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
, including Polish brethren
Polish Brethren
The Polish Brethren were members of the Minor Reformed Church of Poland, a Nontrinitarian Protestant church that existed in Poland from 1565 to 1658...
expelled from Poland in 1657. The last group of refugees to immigrate to Masuria were the Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n Philipons in 1830, when King Frederick William III of Prussia
Frederick William III of Prussia
Frederick William III was king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel .-Early life:...
granted them asylum.
Kingdom of Prussia and the German Empire
After the death of Albert Frederick, Duke of PrussiaAlbert Frederick, Duke of Prussia
Albert Frederick was duke of Prussia from 1568 until his death. He was a son of Albert of Prussia and Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He was the second and last Prussian duke of the Ansbach branch of the Hohenzollern family.-Duke of Prussia:...
in 1618, his son-in-law John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg, inherited the duchy, including the lake-region (later Masuria), combining the two territories under a single dynasty and forming Brandenburg-Prussia
Brandenburg-Prussia
Brandenburg-Prussia is the historiographic denomination for the Early Modern realm of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollerns between 1618 and 1701. Based in the Electorate of Brandenburg, the main branch of the Hohenzollern intermarried with the branch ruling the Duchy of Prussia, and secured succession...
. The still remaining nominal sovereignty of the King of Poland was revoked by the Treaty of Wehlau in 1657. The region became part of the Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
after the coronation of King Frederick I of Prussia
Frederick I of Prussia
Frederick I , of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia in personal union . The latter function he upgraded to royalty, becoming the first King in Prussia . From 1707 he was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel...
. The lake-region (Masuria) became part of the newly-created administrative province of East Prussia
East Prussia
East Prussia is the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.East Prussia...
upon its creation in 1773. The name Masuria began to be used officially after new administrative reforms in the Kingdom after 1818.
Germanisation
Germanisation
Germanisation is both the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or assimilation, and the adaptation of a foreign word to the German language in linguistics, much like the Romanisation of many languages which do not use the Latin alphabet...
was slow and mainly done through the educational system:
After the Unification of Germany
Unification of Germany
The formal unification of Germany into a politically and administratively integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871 at the Versailles Palace's Hall of Mirrors in France. Princes of the German states gathered there to proclaim Wilhelm of Prussia as Emperor Wilhelm of the German...
into the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
in 1871, the Polish language was removed from schools in 1872, as part of Otto von Bismarck's
Otto von Bismarck
Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg , simply known as Otto von Bismarck, was a Prussian-German statesman whose actions unified Germany, made it a major player in world affairs, and created a balance of power that kept Europe at peace after 1871.As Minister President of...
Culture War
Kulturkampf
The German term refers to German policies in relation to secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck. The Kulturkampf did not extend to the other German states such as Bavaria...
. He also sought to limit the use of the Polish language in the new German empire. Despite this policy, such Polish-language newspapers as the Pruski Przyjaciel Ludu (Prussian People's Friend) or the Kalendarz Królewsko-Pruski Ewangelicki (Royal Prussian Evangelical Calendar) or bilingual journals like the Oletzkoer Kreisblatt - Tygodnik Obwodu Oleckiego continued to be published in Masuria. In contrast to the Prussian-oriented periodicals, in the late 19th century such newspapers as Przyjaciel Ludu Łecki and Mazur were founded by members of the Warsaw-based Komitet Centralny dla Slaska, Kaszub i Mazur (Central Committee for Silesia, Kashubia
Kashubia
Kashubia or Cassubia - is a language area in the historic Eastern Pomerania region of northwestern Poland. Located west of Gdańsk and the mouth of the Vistula river, it is inhabited by members of the Kashubian ethnic group....
and Masuria), influenced by Polish politicians like Antoni Osuchowski
Antoni Osuchowski
Antoni Osuchowski was a Polish lawyer, publicist, philanthropist and national activist in Silesia, Warmia and Mazury....
or Juliusz Bursche
Juliusz Bursche
Juliusz Bursche was a bishop of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. A vocal opponent of Nazi Germany, after the German invasion of Poland in 1939 he was arrested by the Germans, tortured, and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp where he died.- Youth :Bursche was born as the first child...
, to strengthen a Polish identity in Masuria. The Gazeta Ludowa was published in Lyck in 1896–1902, with 2,500 copies in 1897 and the Mazur in Ortelsburg after 1906 with 500 copies in 1908 and 2,000 prior to World War I.
Polish Nationalists started to regard Masurians as "Polish brothers" after Wojciech Kętrzyński
Wojciech Ketrzynski
thumb|Kętrzyński-Monument in [[Kętrzyn]].Wojciech Kętrzyński , born Adalbert von Winkler, was a historian and the director of the Ossolineum Library in Lwów, Austrian partition of Poland. He focused on Polish history in a time when no independent Polish state existed...
had published his pamphlet "O Mazurach" in 1872. The attempts to create a Masurian Polish national consciousness, largely originating from Greater Poland
Greater Poland
Greater Poland or Great Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief city is Poznań.The boundaries of Greater Poland have varied somewhat throughout history...
, however faced the resistance of the Masurians, who regarded themselves Prussians and later Germans and were loyal to the Prussian and German state. After World War I the editor of the Polish-language Mazur described the Masurians as "the most loyal subjects of the Prussian King". A Polish-oriented party, the Mazurska Partia Ludowa ("Mazur People's Party"), was founded in 1897. Polish parties never gained a significant percentage of votes in Masuria in the Reichstag
Reichstag (German Empire)
The Reichstag was the parliament of the North German Confederation , and of the German Reich ....
elections, while candidates of the German Conservative Party
German Conservative Party
The German Conservative Party was a right-wing political party of the German Empire, founded in 1876.- Policies :It was generally seen as representing the interests of the German nobility, the East Elbian Junkers and the Evangelical Church of the Prussian Union, and had its political stronghold...
were usually elected with a significant majority (94,6 % at Lötzen in 1907, 93,1 % at Lyck in 1907.).
Of the Masurian population in 1890, 143,397 gave German as their language (either primary or secondary), 152,186 Polish, and 94,961 Masurian
Masurian language
Masurian was a dialect group of the Polish language, spoken by Masurians in a part of East Prussia that belongs to today's Poland. Masurians are regarded as being descendants of Masovians....
. In 1910, the German language was given by 197,060, Polish by 30,121, and Masurian by 171,413. In 1925, 40,869 people gave Masurian as their native tongue and 2,297 gave Polish. However, the last result may have been a result of politics at the time and a desire to present the province as purely German; in reality the Masurian dialect was still in use.
Throughout industrialization in the late 19th century about 10 percent of the Masurian populace emigrated to the Ruhr Area
Ruhr Area
The Ruhr, by German-speaking geographers and historians more accurately called Ruhr district or Ruhr region , is an urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With 4435 km² and a population of some 5.2 million , it is the largest urban agglomeration in Germany...
, where about 180,000 Masurians lived in 1914. Wattenscheid
Wattenscheid
Wattenscheid was once a separate town in the North Rhine-Westphalia region of Germany. In 1975 it became part of Bochum. It has a population of about 80,000 citizens. It is a part of the Ruhr area. Some famous firms have their headquarters in Wattenscheid e.g...
, Wanne and Gelsenkirchen
Gelsenkirchen
Gelsenkirchen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located in the northern part of the Ruhr area. Its population in 2006 was c. 267,000....
were the centers of Masurian emigration and Gelsenkirchen-Schalke was even called Klein(little)-Ortelsburg before 1914. Masurian newspapers like the Przyjaciel Ewangeliczny and the Gazeta Polska dla Ludu staropruskiego w Westfalii i na Mazurach but also the German-language Altpreußische Zeitung were published.
During World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, the Battle of Tannenberg
Battle of Tannenberg (1914)
The Battle of Tannenberg was an engagement between the Russian Empire and the German Empire in the first days of World War I. It was fought by the Russian First and Second Armies against the German Eighth Army between 23 August and 30 August 1914. The battle resulted in the almost complete...
and the First and Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes
Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes
The Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, also known as the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes, was the northern part of the Central Powers' offensive on the Eastern Front in the winter of 1915...
between Imperial Germany and the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
took place within the borders of Masuria in 1914. After the war, the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
held the East Prussian plebiscite
East Prussian plebiscite
The East Prussia plebiscite , also known as the Allenstein and Marienwerder plebiscite or Warmia, Masuria and Powiśle plebiscite , was a plebiscite for self-determination of the regions Warmia , Masuria and Powiśle, which had been in parts of East Prussia and West Prussia, in accordance with...
on 11 July 1920 to determine if the people of the southern districts of East Prussia wanted to remain within East Prussia or to join the Second Polish Republic
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
. The referendum determined that 99.32% of the voters in Masuria proper chose to remain with East Prussia. However, the contemporary Polish ethnographer Adam Chętnik
Adam Chętnik
Adam Chętnik was a Polish ethnographer who studied the Kurpie. He is the author of several books on the Kurpie residing in Puszcza Zielona. In 1927 he founded Skansen Kurpiowski in Nowogród, an open air museum dedicated to Kurpie culture. He published over 100 scholarly works...
accused the German authorities of abuses and falsifications during the plebiscite. Moreover, the plebiscite took place during the time when Polish-Soviet War
Polish-Soviet War
The Polish–Soviet War was an armed conflict between Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine and the Second Polish Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic—four states in post–World War I Europe...
threatened to erase the Polish state. After the plebiscite in German areas of Masuria attacks on Polish population commenced by German mobs and Polish priests and politicians were driven from their homes
The region of Soldau (Działdowo) was excluded from the plebiscite and attached to Poland as the railway connection between Warsaw and Danzig was placed completely under Polish sovereignty. About 6,000 inhabitants of that region soon left the area.,
Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
Masuria was the only region of Germany directly affected by the battles of World War I. Damaged towns and villages were reconstructed with the aid of several twin towns from western Germany like CologneCologne
Cologne is Germany's fourth-largest city , and is the largest city both in the Germany Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.Cologne is located on both sides of the...
to Neidenburg, Frankfurt
Frankfurt
Frankfurt am Main , commonly known simply as Frankfurt, is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany, with a 2010 population of 688,249. The urban area had an estimated population of 2,300,000 in 2010...
to Lötzen and even Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
to Ortelsburg. However Masuria was still largely agrarian-oriented and suffered from the economical decline after World War I, additionally badly affected by the creation of the Polish Corridor
Polish Corridor
The Polish Corridor , also known as Danzig Corridor, Corridor to the Sea or Gdańsk Corridor, was a territory located in the region of Pomerelia , which provided the Second Republic of Poland with access to the Baltic Sea, thus dividing the bulk of Germany from the province of East...
, which raised freight costs to the traditional markets in Germany.
The later implemented Osthilfe had only a minor influence on Masuria as it privileged larger estates, while Masurian farms were generally small.
In the 1920s Masuria remained a heartland of Conservatism with the German National People's Party
German National People's Party
The German National People's Party was a national conservative party in Germany during the time of the Weimar Republic. Before the rise of the NSDAP it was the main nationalist party in Weimar Germany composed of nationalists, reactionary monarchists, völkisch, and antisemitic elements, and...
as strongest party. The Nazi Party became the strongest party in the Masurian constituencies in the elections of 1930 and received its best results in the poorest areas of Masuria with the highest rate of Polish speakers. Especially in the elections of 1932 and 1933 they reached up to 81 percent of votes in the district of Neidenburg and 80 percent in the district of Lyck. The Nazis used the economical crisis, which had significant effects in far-off Masuria, as well as traditional anti-Polish sentiments while at the same time Nazi political rallies were organized in the Masurian dialect during the campaigning.
In 1938, the Nazi
Nazism
Nazism, the common short form name of National Socialism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany...
government (1933–1945) changed thousands of toponyms (especially names of cities and villages) of Old Prussian and Polish origin to newly-created German names; about 50% of the existing names were changed in 1938 alone, despite resistance by the Prussian people, who continued to use their traditional place names.
Polish minority
The interwar period was characterised by ongoing Germanisation policies, intensified especially under the NazisPolish Parties, financed and aided by the Polish government in Warsaw, remained splintergroups without any political influence, e.g. in the 1932 elections the Polish Party received 147 votes in Masuria proper. According to Wojciech Wrzesiński (1963), the Polish organisations in Masuria had decided to lower their activity in order to escape acts of terror performed against Polish minority activists and organisations by Nazi activists. Jerzy Lanc, a teacher and Polish national who had moved to Masuria in 1931 to establish a Polish school in Piassutten
Piasutno
Piasutno is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Świętajno, within Szczytno County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland...
(Piasutno), died in his home of carbon monoxide poisoning, most likely murdered by local German nationalists.
Before the war Nazi German state sent undercover operatives to spy on Polish organisations and created lists of people that were to be executed and sent to concentration camps. Information was gathered on who sent children to Polish schools,bought Polish press or took part in Polish ceremonies and organised repressions against these people were executed by Nazi militias. Polish schools, printing presses and headquarters of Polish institutions were attacked as well as homes of the most active Poles; shops owned by Poles were demolished. Polish masses were dispersed, and Polish teachers were intimidated as SS members gathered under their locals performing songs like "Wenn das Polenblut vom Messer spritzt, dann geht’s noch mal so gut"("When Polish blood spurts from the knife, everything will be better").
The anti-Polish activities intensified in 1939. Those Poles were most active in politics were evicted from their own homes, while Polish newspapers and cultural houses were closed down. Polish masses were banned between June and July.
In the final moments of August 1939 all remains of political and cultural life of Polish minority was eradicated by Nazis, with imprisonment of Polish activists and liquidation of Polish institutions. Seweryn Pieniężny, the chief editor of "Gazeta Olsztyńska", who opposed Germanisation of Masuria, was internet. Others included Juliusz Malewski (director of Bank Ludowy of Olsztyn), Stefan Różycki, Leon Włodarczyk (activist of Polonia Warmińsko-Mazurska).
Directors of Polish schools and teachers were imprisoned, as was the staff of Polish preschools. They were often forced to destroy Polish sign, emblems and symbols of Polish institutions.
World War II
With the start of the German war against Poland in 1939, the German minority in the parts of Masuria attached to Poland after World War I (Działdowo), organised in paramilitary formation called SelbstschutzSelbstschutz
Selbstschutz stands for two organisations:# A name used by a number of paramilitary organisations created by ethnic Germans in Central and Eastern Europe# A name for self-defence measures and units in ethnic German, Austrian, and Swiss civil defence....
begun to engage in massacres of local Polish population; Poles were imprisoned, tortured and murdered.
The Nazis believed that in future the Masurs as separate non-German entity, would disappear, while those who would cling to their "foreigness" as one Nazi report mentioned, would be deported Poles and Jews were considered by Nazis to be "untermenschen", subject to slavery and extermination, and Nazi authorities murdered Polish activists in Masuria, those who weren't killed were arrested and sent to concentration camps, while Masurs were forcefully placed on Volksliste
Volksliste
The Deutsche Volksliste was a Nazi institution whose purpose was the classification of inhabitants of German occupied territories into categories of desirability according to criteria systematized by Heinrich Himmler. The institution was first established in occupied western Poland...
Masuria was the location of Soldau concentration camp
Soldau concentration camp
The Soldau concentration camp was a concentration camp established by Nazi Germany during World War II in Działdowo , which after the occupation of Poland was part of East Prussia....
, where 13,000 people have been murdered by the Nazi German state during the war. Notable victims included the Polish bishops Antoni Julian Nowowiejski
Antoni Julian Nowowiejski
Antoni Julian Nowowiejski was a Polish bishop of Płock , titular archbishop of Silyum, first secretary of Polish Episcopal Conference , honorary citizen of Płock and historian...
and Leon Wetmański, as well as the nun Mieczysława Kowalska. Additionally, almost 1,900 mentally ill patients from East Prussia and annexed areas of Poland were murdered there as well, in what was known as Action T4
Action T4
Action T4 was the name used after World War II for Nazi Germany's eugenics-based "euthanasia" program during which physicians killed thousands of people who were "judged incurably sick, by critical medical examination"...
.
Polish resistance in Masuria was organised by Paweł Nowakowski "Leśnik" commander of the Home Army's Działdowo district In August 1943 the Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe
Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe
Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe were armed anti-Nazi resistance units organized by the right-wing Polish organization Konfederacja Narodu. They existed between 1942 and 1944 .- Beginnings :The idea to create the UBK was conceived among Warsaw’s conspirational circles in early 1940s...
attacked the village of Mittenheide (Turośl)
Raid on Mittenheide
In mid-August of 1943 a Polish unit of the Uderzeniowe Bataliony Kadrowe , which was controlled by the right-wing organization Konfederacja Narodu, organized armed attack on East Prussian villages in the area of Johannisburg...
in southern Masuria.
In the final stage of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, Masuria was partially devastated by the retreating German
Wehrmacht
The Wehrmacht – from , to defend and , the might/power) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Heer , the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe .-Origin and use of the term:...
and advancing Soviet
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union. By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history.The "Red Army" name refers to...
armies during the Vistula-Oder Offensive
Vistula-Oder Offensive
The Vistula–Oder Offensive was a successful Red Army operation on the Eastern Front in the European Theatre of World War II; it took place between 12 January and 2 February 1945...
. The region came under Polish rule at war's end in the Potsdam Conference
Potsdam Conference
The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from 16 July to 2 August 1945. Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States...
. Most of the population fled to Germany or was killed during or after the war, while the rest was subject to a "nationality verification", organized by the communist government
History of Poland (1945–1989)
The history of Poland from 1945 to 1989 spans the period of Soviet Communist dominance imposed after the end of World War II over the People's Republic of Poland...
of Poland. As a result, the number of native Masurians remaining in Masuria was initially relatively high, while most of the population was subsequently expelled
Expulsion of Germans after World War II
The later stages of World War II, and the period after the end of that war, saw the forced migration of millions of German nationals and ethnic Germans from various European states and territories, mostly into the areas which would become post-war Germany and post-war Austria...
. Poles from Central Poland and the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union
Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union
Immediately after the German invasion of Poland in 1939, which marked the beginning of World War II, the Soviet Union invaded the eastern regions of the Second Polish Republic, which Poles referred to as the "Kresy," and annexed territories totaling 201,015 km² with a population of 13,299,000...
as well as Ukrainians
Ukrainians
Ukrainians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term 'Ukrainians' to all its citizens...
expelled from Southern Poland throughout the Operation Vistula, were resettled in Masuria.
Masuria after World War II
The process of "national verification" was based on an ethnic racism which categorized the local populace according to their alleged ethnic background. A Polish-sounding last name or a Polish-speaking ancestor was sufficient to be regarded as "autochthonous" Polish.In October 1946 37,736 persons were "verified" as Polish citizens while 30,804 remained "unverified". A center of such "unverified" Masurians was the district of Mragowo
Mragowo
Mrągowo is a town in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship of northeastern Poland, the capital of Mrągowo County and the seat the Gmina Mrągowo...
(Sensburg), where in early 1946 out of 28,280 persons 20,580 were "unverified", while in October 16,385 still refused to adopt Polish citizenship. However even those who complied with the often used pressure by Polish authorities were in fact treated as Germans because of their Lutheran faith and their often rudimentary knowledge of Polish. Names were "Polonized" and the usage of German language in public was forbidden. In the late 1940s the pressure to sign the "verification documents" grew and in February 1949 the former chief of the stalinist secret Police (UB)
Ministry of Public Security of Poland
The Ministry of Public Security of Poland was a Polish communist secret police, intelligence and counter-espionage service operating from 1945 to 1954 under Jakub Berman of the Politburo...
of Lodz
Lódz
Łódź is the third-largest city in Poland. Located in the central part of the country, it had a population of 742,387 in December 2009. It is the capital of Łódź Voivodeship, and is approximately south-west of Warsaw...
, Mieczyslaw Moczar
Mieczyslaw Moczar
Mieczysław Moczar was a Polish communist who played a prominent role in the history of the Polish People's Republic. He is known for his ultranationalist, xenophobic and antisemitic attitude which influenced Polish PZPR Party politics in the late 1960s...
, started the "Great verification" campaign. Many unverified Masurians were imprisoned and accused of pro-Nazi or pro-American propaganda, even former pro-Polish activists and inmates of Nazi concentration camps were jailed and tortured. After the end of this campaign in the district of Mragowo (Sensburg) only 166 Masurians were still "unverified".
In 1950 1,600 Masurians left the country and in 1951, 35,000 people from Masuria and Warmia
Warmia
Warmia or Ermland is a region between Pomerelia and Masuria in northeastern Poland. Together with Masuria, it forms the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship....
managed to obtain a declaration of their German nationality by the embassies of the US and Great Britain in Warsaw. Sixty-three percent of the Masurians in the district of Mragowo (Sensburg) received such a document. Soon after the political reforms of 1956, Masurians were given the opportunity to join their families in West Germany
West Germany
West Germany is the common English, but not official, name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990....
. The majority (over 100 thousand) gradually left and after the improvement of German-Polish relations by the German Ostpolitik
Ostpolitik
Neue Ostpolitik , or Ostpolitik for short, refers to the normalization of relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and Eastern Europe, particularly the German Democratic Republic beginning in 1969...
of the 1970s 55,227 persons from Warmia and Masuria moved to Western Germany in between 1971 and 1988, today approximately between 5,000 and 6,000 Masurians still live in the area, about 50 percent of them members of the German minority in Poland
German minority in Poland
The registered German minority in Poland consists of 152,900 people, according to a 2002 census.The German language is used in certain areas in Opole Voivodeship , where most of the minority resides...
, the remaining half is ethnic Polish. As the Polish journalist Andrzej K. Wróblewski
Andrzej Krzysztof Wróblewski
Andrzej Krzysztof Wróblewski is a Polish journalist.Wróblewski worked for many years at Polityka, which he left in 1982, and for the Trójka radio station. After the end of the Martial law in Poland, he was editor of Gazeta Bankowa. He returned to Polityka in 1996.Wróblewski retired in...
stated, the Polish post-war policy succeeded in what the Prussian state never managed: the creation of a German national consciousness among the Masurians.
However Mazur remains the 14th most common surname in Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
with almost 67,000 people bearing the name.
Most of the originally Protestant
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
churches in Masuria are now used by the Polish Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
as the number of Lutherans in Masuria declined from 68,500 in 1950 to 21,174 in 1961 and further to 3,536 in 1981. Sometimes, like on 23 September 1979 in the village of Spychowo
Spychowo
Spychowo is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Świętajno, within Szczytno County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, in northern Poland...
(Puppen), the Lutheran Parish was even forcefully driven out of their Church while liturgy was held.
Modern Masuria
In modern Masuria the native population has virtually disappeared. Masuria was incorporated into the voivodeship system of administration in 1945. In 1999 Masuria was constituted with neighbouring WarmiaWarmia
Warmia or Ermland is a region between Pomerelia and Masuria in northeastern Poland. Together with Masuria, it forms the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship....
as a single administrative province through the creation of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship
Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship
Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, or Warmia-Masuria Province , is a voivodeship in northeastern Poland. Its capital and largest city is Olsztyn...
.
The Masurian Szczytno-Szymany International Airport
Szczytno-Szymany International Airport
Szczytno-Szymany International Airport is a currently inoperative Polish regional airport located in the village Szymany, some 10 km from the center of the city of Szczytno in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in the North of Poland. It is the only airport in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship...
gained international attention as press reports alleged the airport to be a so-called black site
Black site
In military terminology, a black site is a location at which an unacknowledged black project is conducted. Recently, the term has gained notoriety in describing secret prisons operated by the United States Central Intelligence Agency , generally outside of U.S. territory and legal jurisdiction. It...
involved in the CIA's network of extraordinary renditions.
Economy
The economy of the region is dominated by agriculture and tourism. The unemployment rate in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship currently (2011) stands at more than 21 percent.Lakes
Masuria and the Masurian Lake District are known in Polish as Kraina Tysiąca Jezior and in German as Land der Tausend Seen, meaning "land of a thousand lakes." These lakes were ground out of the land by glaciers during the PleistocenePleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
ice age
Ice age
An ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers...
, when ice covered northeastern Europe. From that period originates the horn of a reindeer found in the vicinity of Giżycko
Gizycko
Giżycko is a town in northeastern Poland with 29,796 inhabitants . It is situated in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , having previously been in the Suwałki Voivodeship . It is the seat of Giżycko County.-History:...
. By 10,000 BC this ice started to melt. Great geological changes took place and even in the last 500 years the maps showing the lagoons and peninsulas on the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
have greatly altered in appearance. As in other parts of northern Poland, such as from Pomerania
Pomerania
Pomerania is a historical region on the south shore of the Baltic Sea. Divided between Germany and Poland, it stretches roughly from the Recknitz River near Stralsund in the West, via the Oder River delta near Szczecin, to the mouth of the Vistula River near Gdańsk in the East...
on the Oder River to the Vistula
Vistula
The Vistula is the longest and the most important river in Poland, at 1,047 km in length. The watershed area of the Vistula is , of which lies within Poland ....
River, this continuous stretch of lakes is popular among tourists.
Main towns
|
Goldap Gołdap is a town and the seat of Gołdap County in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in Poland. It is located on the Gołdapa River, between the Wzgórza Szeskie hills and the Puszcza Romincka forest. It has a population of 13,703... ) Ketrzyn Kętrzyn , is a town in northeastern Poland with 28,351 inhabitants . Situated in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship , Kętrzyn was previously in Olsztyn Voivodeship . It is the capital of Kętrzyn County... (Rastenburg) Morag Morag may refer to:* Morag , a lake monster reported to inhabit Loch Morar in Scotland* Morąg , a city in Warmia-Masuria, Poland... (Mohrungen) Mragowo Mrągowo is a town in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship of northeastern Poland, the capital of Mrągowo County and the seat the Gmina Mrągowo... (Sensburg) |
Nidzica Nidzica is a town in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in Poland, between Olsztyn and Mława. It has a population of 14,798 . It is the capital of Nidzica County.-History:... (Neidenburg) Olecko Olecko is a town in Masuria, in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship of Poland, near Ełk and Suwałki. It is situated at the mouth of the Lega river into the Great Olecko Lake on its south-western shore... (Treuburg) Ostróda Ostróda is a town in Ostróda County in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in Poland, with 33,603 inhabitants as of January 1, 2005. It lies in the Masurian Lake District and is a growing tourist site owing to its relaxing natural surroundings.-History:... (Osterode Osterode The placename Osterode can refer to:* Osterode in Germany* Osterode am Harz in Germany* Ostróda in Poland * a district of the climatic spa Neustadt/Harz, Germany... ) |
Orzysz Orzysz is a town in Pisz County, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland, with 7,512 inhabitants .-Notable residents:* Kurt Sanderling , conductor* Wolfgang Heyda , U-boat commander... (Arys) Pisz Pisz is a town in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in Poland, with a population of 19,328 in 2004. It is the seat of Pisz County. Pisz is located at the junction of Lake Roś and the Pisa River.- Etymology :... (Johannisburg) Szczytno Szczytno is a town in north-eastern Poland with 27,970 inhabitants . Previously part of the Olsztyn Voivodeship, Szczytno was assigned to the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in 1999. It is the seat of Szczytno County.... (Ortelsburg) Wegorzewo Węgorzewo is a tourist town in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland, not far from the border with Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast. It is the seat of Węgorzewo County. Lake Mamry is close to the town.-Etymology:... (Angerburg) |
Famous people from Masuria
- Richard AltmannRichard AltmannRichard Altmann was a German pathologist and histologist from Deutsch Eylau in the Province of Prussia. He studied medicine in Greifswald, Königsberg, Marburg, and Giessen, and earned his doctorate at the University of Giessen in 1877...
(1852–1900), pathologist - Leszek Błażyński (1949–1992), boxer
- Gottlieb Labusch/Bogumił Labusz (1860–1919), activist opposing Germanisation
- Kurt BlumenfeldKurt BlumenfeldKurt Blumenfeld was a German-born Zionist from Marggrabowa, East Prussia. He was the secretary general of the World Zionist Organization from 1911 to 1914. He died in Jerusalem....
(1884–1963), politician - Abraham CaloviusAbraham CaloviusAbraham Calovius was a Lutheran theologian, and was one of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century.-Biography:...
(1612–1686), Lutheran theologian - Roman CzepeRoman CzepeRoman Czepe is a Polish politician. He was elected to Sejm on September 25, 2005 getting 4087 votes in 24 Białystok district, candidating from Prawo i Sprawiedliwość list.-External links:...
(born 1956), politician - Lucas DavidLucas DavidLucas David was a Prussian historian, who from ca. 1550 on compiled extensive volumes on Prussian history....
(1503–1583), historian - Ferdinand GregoroviusFerdinand GregoroviusFerdinand Gregorovius was a German historian who specialized in the medieval history of Rome. He is best known for Wanderjahre in Italien, his account of the walks he took through Italy in the 1850s, and the monumental Die Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter , a classic for Medieval and early...
(1821–1891), historian - Gustav Gisevius (1810–1848), Protestant pastor, Supporter of Polish language teaching and resistance against Germanisation
- Georg Andreas HelwingGeorg Andreas HelwingGeorg Andreas Helwing was a botanist and Lutheran pastor.Helwing was born in Angerburg in Brandenburg-Prussia's Duchy of Prussia...
(1666–1748), botanist - Paul HenselPaul Hensel (politician)Paul Hensel was a German Lutheran theologian and politician.- Biography :Hensel was born in Gehsen and visited school in Lyck. In 1886 he began to study Theology at the University of Königsberg and the University of Berlin and was a member of the Burschenschaft Corps Masovia...
(1867–1944), politician - Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803), philosopher, poet, and literary critic
- Andreas HillgruberAndreas HillgruberAndreas Fritz Hillgruber was a conservative German historian. Hillgruber was influential as a military and diplomatic historian.At his death in 1989, the American historian Francis L...
(1925–1989), historian - Adalbert von Winkler/Wojciech KętrzyńskiWojciech Ketrzynskithumb|Kętrzyński-Monument in [[Kętrzyn]].Wojciech Kętrzyński , born Adalbert von Winkler, was a historian and the director of the Ossolineum Library in Lwów, Austrian partition of Poland. He focused on Polish history in a time when no independent Polish state existed...
(1838–1918), activist and historian - Hans Hellmut KirstHans Hellmut KirstHans Hellmut Kirst was a distinguished German novelist and the author of 46 books, many of which were translated into English...
(1914–1989), author - Georg KlebsGeorg KlebsGeorg Albrecht Klebs was a German botanist from Neidenburg , Prussia. His brother was the historian Elimar Klebs.-Life:...
(1857–1913), botanist - Johannes KnolleisenJohannes KnolleisenJohannes Knolleisen was a German theological professor.Nothing is known about his parents and his youth, aside from his being born in Allenstein in Warmia . He received his magister degree in theology from the University of Leipzig, becoming rector of the university in 1478. Knolleisen became...
, 15th century academic and provider of academic stipends - Walter KolloWalter KolloWalter Kollo was a German composer of operettas, Possen mit Gesang, and Singspiele as well as popular songs. He was also a conductor and a music publisher.Kollo was born in Neidenburg, East Prussia...
(1878–1940), composer - Horst KopkowHorst KopkowHorst Kopkow was a Nazi Germany SS major who worked for German Security police and, after the war, was concealed by British intelligence so that they could use his knowledge in the Cold War.During World War II, Kopkow served in German national security police headquarters in Berlin...
(1910–1996), spy - Udo LattekUdo LattekUdo Lattek is a former German football player and coach, and is now a television sportscaster....
(born 1935), football coach - Siegfried LenzSiegfried LenzSiegfried Lenz is a German writer, who has written novels and produced several collections of short stories, essays, and plays for radio and the theatre. He was awarded the Goethe Prize in Frankfurt-am-Main on the 250th Anniversary of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's birth...
(born 1926), author - Wolf LepeniesWolf LepeniesWolf Lepenies is a German sociologist, political scientist, and author.-Biography:Lepenies was born near Allenstein, East Prussia ), in 1945 his family fled from the Soviet Army's assault on East Prussia to Schleswig-Holstein and from there to North Rhine-Westfalia. He eventually grew up in Koblenz...
(born 1941), political scientist - Johannes von LeysenJohannes von LeysenJohannes von Leysen was the first mayor of Allenstein in 1353.Leysen originated from a well-known family, recognized in colonizing southern Warmia within the State of the Teutonic Order. His grandfather Martin came to Prussia in 1304 as a free peasant...
(1310–1388), founder and first mayor of Allenstein - Albert LievenAlbert LievenAlbert Lieven was a German actor. He was born Albert Fritz Liévin in Hohenstein, East Prussia. He died in London, England. He was married four times, including to the actresses Susan Shaw and Valerie White....
(1906–1971), actor - Christoph Coelestin Mrongovius (1764–1855), Protestant pastor and philosopher
- Rodolphe RadauRodolphe RadauJean Charles Rodolphe Radau was an astronomer and mathematician who worked in Paris at the Revue des deux Mondes for most of his life...
(1835–1911), astronomer - Karl Bogislaus ReichertKarl Bogislaus ReichertKarl Bogislaus Reichert was a German anatomist.Reichert was born in Rastenburg , East Prussia. He studied etiology and histology in Königsberg. He was a student of Friedrich Schlemm and Johannes Peter Müller at the Friedrich-Wilhelm-Institute and at the Charité in Berlin, receiving his doctorate...
(1811–1883), anatomist - Fritz Richard Schaudinn (1871–1906), zoologist
- Paweł Sobolewski (born 1979), footballer
- Helmuth StieffHelmuth StieffHelmuth Stieff was a German general and a member of the OKH during World War II. He took part in attempts by the German resistance to assassinate Hitler, on July 7 and on July 20, 1944....
(1901–1944), general - Bethel Henry StrousbergBethel Henry StrousbergBethel Henry Strousberg was a Jewish industrialist and railway entrepreneur in Germany during its rapid industrial expansion in the 19th century...
(1823–1884), industrialist - Arno SurminskiArno SurminskiArno Surminski is a German writer, living in Hamburg, and a father of two.After growing up in East Prussia, his parents were deported to ther Soviet Union, while he was expelled to Schleswig-Holstein...
(born 1934), writer - Kurt SymanzikKurt SymanzikKurt Symanzik was a German physicist working in quantum field theory.- Life :Symanzik was born in Lyck , East Prussia, and spent his childhood in Königsberg. He started studying physics in 1946 at Universität München but after a short time moved to Werner Heisenberg at Göttingen...
(1923–1983), physicist - Elisabeth von ThaddenElisabeth von ThaddenElisabeth Adelheid Hildegard von Thadden was a German educator who founded a private school that now bears her name, and an outspoken critic of the Nazi régime...
(1890–1944), educator - August Trunz (1875–1963), founder of the Prussica-Sammlung TrunzPrussica-Sammlung TrunzThe Prussica-Sammlung Trunz is a collection of over 40,000 books about former German territories in Eastern and Central Europe, mainly Prussia. It was founded by Dr...
- Ernst WiechertErnst WiechertErnst Wiechert was a German teacher, poet and writer.-Biography:Wiechert was born in Kleinort near Sensburg , East Prussia.He was one of the most widely read novelists in Germany during the 1930s...
(1887–1950), poet and writer - Wilhelm WienWilhelm WienWilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz Wien was a German physicist who, in 1893, used theories about heat and electromagnetism to deduce Wien's displacement law, which calculates the emission of a blackbody at any temperature from the emission at any one reference temperature.He also formulated an...
(1864–1928), physicist, Nobel Prize winner - Erwin Kruk (born 1941), poet and writer
- Michał Kayka (1858-1940), poet
- Bykowska-Salczyńska (born 1953), poet
- Zbigniew Chojnowski (born 1962), poet and literary critic
External links
- Tourist information (Polish)
- Mazury (Polish)
- Mazury (Polish)
- Masuren (German)
- Natural tourism (birdwatching) in NE Poland
- Topographical maps 1:50 000
- Mazury - Poland - canoeing information (Polish)
- Masuren - Poland - canoeing information (German)
- Masuria - Poland - canoeing information (English)
- Mazury (Polish)