Mehmed-paša Sokolovic
Encyclopedia
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was a 16th-century Ottoman
statesman. Mehmed was taken away at an early age as part of the devshirmeh
system of Ottoman collection of young boys to be raised to serve as a janissary
.
He rose through the ranks of the Ottoman imperial system, eventually holding positions as commander of the imperial guard (1543–1546), High Admiral of the Fleet (1546–1551), Governor-General
of Rumelia
(1551–1555), Third Vizier
(1555–1561), Second Vizier (1561–1565) and as Grand Vizier
(1565–1579) (for a total of 14 years, 3 months, 17 days) under three Sultans: Suleiman the Magnificent
, Selim II
, and Murad III
. He was assassinated in 1579, ending a near 15-year rule as de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire.
chroniclers and historians only took notice of him after he had attained great standing in the Ottoman hierarchy. The facts regarding his youth may further be obscured by popular myths
from later ages, making it difficult for historians to separate them. All three ethnic groups from modern Bosnia and Herzegovina
—Bosniaks
, Croats
and Serbs
—celebrate Sokollu Mehmet Paşa as their own, which is supported by both Western and Ottoman sources.
Mehmed was born into an Serbian Orthodox family in or near Sokolovići (which under Ottoman rule in Turkish
was called Sokol), near modern-day Rudo
. Said to have come from a modest shepherd family, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa's name derives from his place of birth (-lu indicates in Turkish
from a place, in this case Sokollu or from Sokol). While some other sources suggest that the Sokolović family was descended from feudal Bosnian nobility, this was a common myth regarding various eminent families of the time. Research into the roots of Ottoman Bosnia's aristocratic families seems to discredit this thesis.
Mehmed's birth name was probably Bajica, while his father was named Dimitrije. He had two brothers and a sister, as well as at least one uncle. However, details about his family and relations are disputed on two major counts. One is his relationship to Makarije Sokolović
. Traditionally identified as his brother, today some historians consider him to have been either a nephew or distant relative. The second is the matter of Mehmed's uncle. By some accounts, his uncle was a monk at the Mileševa monastery
who had his two nephews, Bajica and Makarije (taken to be brothers according to this view), educated there. Other sources suggest that his uncle converted to Islam
early.
In 1516, an Ottoman expedition gathering up boys as part of the devshirmeh
system reached Sokolovići. According to folklore, Bajica was either simply taken from his father's home or, due to a reputation as a gifted child, specifically chosen by the commanding Yeshilche Mehmed Bey. The story further holds that his uncle unsuccessfully appealed to the authorities, even offering gold for the child's return.
and then in Constantinople
got a thorough Ottoman education as a recruit, first as an apprentice Janissary (in Turkish
Acemi Oglan); then in Enderun in Topkapı Palace
.
As proclaimed in Baghdad
on 13 March 1535, Mehmed was sent to be one of the seven retainers of the Imperial Treasurer Iskender Celebi. On Iskender's death, Mehmed returned to Constantinople
. In addition to Turkish
, he spoke Serbo-Croatian
(Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian), Persian
, Arabic
, Venetian-Italian
and Neo-Latin
.
s. In these positions he became very close to Sultan Suleiman and learnt from him.
As a soldier, Mehmed excelled at the Battle of Mohács
and the first Siege of Vienna
. In 1546 the Kapudan Pasha Hayreddin Barbarossa died and Mehmed was appointed his successor. In this capacity he was present at the naval expedition against Trablus (present day Libya). During his five years in this position, Mehmed Paşa greatly strengthened the arsenal of the Naval fleet
.
Mehmed became Beylerbey
(Governor-General) of Rumelia
in 1551, headquartered in Sofia
. While he was visiting the area of his birth, his mother recognized him by the birthmark
on his face and embraced her child for the first time in more than thirty years.
After the death of John Zápolya, Duke of Erdelj (Transylvania)
the King of Hungary and the Habsburg Emperor wanted to annex his lands, and civil war erupted between duchess Isabella (wife of John Zápolya, and daughter of King of Poland) and her supporters under command of Petar Petrovic (predominantly Serbs), and the George Martinuzzi
(or Đorđe Utješenović, later created a Cardinal as reward for his accomplishments in this conflict). The Habsburg Emperor sent a condottiero (Bartolomeo Castoldo) and more than 7,000 soldiers (mercenaries) who beat the Serbs under Petar Petrović and killed more than 2,500 of them near Chanad (Csanad). The Sultan ordered Sokollu Mehmed Paşa to move immediately to Hungary
. Mehmed assembled an army of 90,000 soldiers and 54 cannons and marched into Hungary. He also summoned the Pasha
s of Smederevo
, Vidin
and Nicopolis
. When his forces reached Slankamen
in Srem
, George Martinuzzi begged Mehmed not to attack Transylvania, arguing that it had remained in the possession of the Sultan. Mehmed rejected negotiation proposals, led Ottoman forces into Transylvania and soon captured 16 cities, including Bečej
, Bečkerek, Cenad
and Linova. Martinuzzi responded by raising a rebellion in Transylvania, mustering one soldier from every household. Mehmed had to fall back and once again laid siege to Temišvar on 14 October with the main part of his army and 50 cannons. Mehmed demanded surrender, but the city's commander (Stevan Loshonci) replied with a recommendation for Mehmed's return to Rumelia.
Mehmed besieged the city until 28 October but could not seize it. Retreating to Belgrade
, he initiated peace negotiations with the Monk-Viceroy. Martinuzzi was assassinated on 17 December 1551, and peace talks ended. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa renewed his military campaign in 1552, seizing Temišvar, Hollakö, Bujak
, Ságh, Gürmath, the whole of Banat
and Szolnak. Mehmed Paşa's forces then joined with those of Ahmet Paşa
advancing towards Eger
. Mehmed's army assembled on the Hill of Egid but could not take the city itself.
In 1553, Sultan Suleiman declared war on Persia, when the Persian Shah Tahmasp wanted to take advantage of the Sultan's preoccupation with Hungary and started making armed incursions against Ottoman areas. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa was dispatched to spend the winter of 1553/1554 in Tokat
to take charge of the war against Persia. In June 1554, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa with the Rumeli (European) levies joined the army of the Sultan in the field near Susehri
. He and the Rumeli contingent showed great successes in this campaign of Sultan Suleiman (called the Nakhchevan Campaign by the Turkish historians).
Janissary
aga, Pertev Paşa, Mehmed's companion while they had served under Iskender Chelebi.
Almost immediately Sokollu Mehmed Paşa had to quell a rebellion around Balkans and Salonica. The rebellion was raised by Mustafa Bey, who pretended to be the Sultan's late son Mustafa. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa took 4,000 horsemen
and 3,000 janissaries and quelled the rebellion. Mustafa Bey was hanged.
Mehmed's brother, Topuzli-Makarije, was an of the Serb Chilandar
on Athos
. Makarije Sokolović paid a visit to his brother's palace in Constantinople
in 1557. Mehmed discussed with his brother the possibilities of renewing the Serbian Orthodox Church
. Later that same year, Mehmed Paşa issued an edict (Ferman) declaring the restoration of the Peć
Patriarchate
, with Makarije Sokolović as Patriarch
Makarije I. The edict also guaranteed the rights and religious freedom of all inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire.
When the former Grand Vizier Ahmet Paşa was deposed and hanged, he was replaced by Rüstem Paşa, who had numerous enemies. One of them was Lala Mustafa
who instigated the Sultan's third son, Bayezid, then Beylerbey of Karaman
, to raise a rebellion against his brother Selim
, who was to inherit the Imperial throne. Sokollu Mehmed mustered an army and went to Konya
, where he defeated Bayezid's forces decisively in May 1559. Bayezid fled to Persia. Mehmed Paşa remained in Asia
and spent the winter negotiating with the Persian Shah
regarding Bayezid's extradition. After long negotiations, the Shah extradited Bayezid and his four sons, who were subsequently executed.
. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa in turn became Second Vizier, while Pertev Paşa became Third Vizier.
Sokollu Mehmed Paşa married Sultan Suleiman's granddaughter – Prince Selim II
's daughter, Ismihan Sultan (some sources read her name as Esma Han Sultan) on 17 August 1562. Mehmed spent the following years in peace, governing and administrating the realm.
In 1564, Mehmed's nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, became Viceroy of Bosnia
.
and Sultan Suleiman grew. Maximilian wanted the cities previously taken by the Bosniak commander Hasan Predojević
restored to him. When negotiations failed, Maximilian declared war. Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Paşa ordered his nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Beg of Bosnia, to advance against Maximilian. Mustafa managed to capture the cities of Krupa
and Dvor na Uni. The Sultan immediately declared war against the Holy Roman Empire
, and Grand Vizier Mehmed began the preparations for the army's advance. Mehmed went ahead, preparing for the arrival of the Sultan, who was leading the main part of the Ottoman forces. After 50 days, they arrived in Belgrade
.
Passing through Zemun
, one part of the army crossed Varaždin
and struck Egar before proceeding towards Vienna
. The Croatian
nobleman and general in service of Habsburg Monarchy
Nikola Šubić Zrinski
(Miklós Zrínyi), a member of the Zrinski
noble family, had defeated Sanjak Bey Tirhal Mohammed, executing him and his son, and capturing 17,000 ducat
s. This incurred the Sultan's wrath, and he dispatched Mehmet's forces to besiege Szigetvár
. The Sultan remained in Harsang. Budin's commander Arslan Paşa lost the cities of Palota
, Veszprém
and Tata
. The Sultan sent a platoon of 15 troopers to bring him Arslan Paşa's head, but Arslan had already left his forces three days earlier and was on his way to the Sultan. The Sultan showed Mehmed a letter in which Arslan had insulted Mehmed. On 3 August, Arslan reported to Mehmed's tent with 15 heavily armed horsemen. Sokollu Mehmed criticized Arslan for his conduct, accused him of treason and stripped him of his post, giving it instead to the Bosnian Governor-General, Sokollu Mustafa Bey.
The Sultan arrived with Mehmed's sons, Kurt Bey and Hasan Bey, at Pécs
. Finally, the large Ottoman force, numbered from 100,000–300,000 soldiers and 300 cannons, laid siege to Szigetvár
. The Battle of Szigetvár
was an Ottoman victory, with heavy losses on both sides. Both commanders died during the battle. While Zrinsky was killed in the final charge, Suleiman the Magnificent died in his tent from natural causes, before the Turks achieved victory. According to Robert William Fraser, more than 10,000 large cannon balls where shot into the fortress during the siege.
Sokollu Mehmed Paşa had all witnesses to the Sultan's death executed. He announced that Suleiman was too sick to perform his duties and that he would be healing in Szigetvár, while Mehmed would be acting on his behalf. Mehmed rewarded those involved in the capture of Szigetvár and increased the soldiers' wages. He sent a part of the army to capture Bobovac. The Tartars, however, spread the news of the Sultan's death, and Sokullu Mustafa Bey wrote to Prince Selim about his father's death. Selim marched immediately towards Srem
. Upon his arrival in Vukovar
, Mehmed Paşa wrote him that it would be best if he went to Belgrade to greet his army for a more formal and effective take-over of the Empire. Selim returned to Belgrade, and Mehmed ordered the army to march towards Belgrade. 40 days after the Sultan's death, in October 1566, the army set out for Belgrade. At the fourth stop on the way to Belgrade, 48 days after Suleiman's death, Mehmed announced the Sultan's death ceremonially, during the traditional reading of the Koran. Mehmed had Suleiman's body embalmed and ordered the army to proceed to meet the new Sultan in Belgrade. After three marches, the Army arrived to Sremska Mitrovica
. Mehmed reminded Selim II
to send gifts to the Viziers, Pashas and the army, but Selim's advisors convinced the new Sultan not to do so. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa went to Belgrade and swore allegiance to Selim II as his Sultan, and Selim confirmed him as his Grand Vizier.
Expecting a mutiny among the military, Mehmed Paşa had Suleiman's body sent to Constantinople to restore order amongst the janissaries and other officials, who now demanded more compensation for their past efforts. In Belgrade, Sultan Selim II called a council, as even some of his closest officials were openly mocking him. Mehmed Paşa assured him that he would manage everything effectively, and dispatched gifts to the military ranks, rewarding them handsomely to regain their loyalty.
On the 5th day of their stay in Belgrade, the Sultan, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa and the army departed for Constantinople. Before they managed to return to the Empire's capital, a mutiny broke out and the road to the city was blocked. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa and Ahmed Paşa had to bribe their way into the city. Order was restored after Mehmed convinced the Sultan to promise to send handsome gifts and higher wages to the janissaries. The next morning, each janissary was given standard pay of 40 ducats and an additional 20 ducats as an accession bonus. Soon, other branches of the military, spahies and mercenaries, demanded higher wages as well. Mehmed arrested and replaced their agas at once, finally stopping all dissent.
Two years after Selim's accession, on 17 February 1568, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa succeeded in concluding at Edirne
a peace treaty with Emperor Maximilian II, whereby the Emperor agreed to pay an annual "honary present" of 30,000 ducats.
, and the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival presaged the disaster to come. A plan had been devised at Constantinople for connecting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of 1569 a large force of janissaries and cavalry was sent to lay siege to Astrakhan
and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov
. However, a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan drove back the besiegers. A Russia
n army of 15,000 men attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar force sent for their protection, and the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm . Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar
.
Selim II
was a very weak ruler, and Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Paşa held the real power in the administration, thanks to the reforms of Selim's predecessor, Suleiman the Magnificent. Although the government was weakening, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa managed to expand the borders of the Ottoman Empire greatly. In 1570 he dispatched Sinan Paşa to conquer Arabia. Sinan Paşa solemnly declared the reign of Sultan Selim II in Mecca
upon finishing his military campaign in Hejaz
and Yemen
.
In 1571-1572, on the order Mehmed's wife Ismihan Sultan (or Esma Han Sultan), the famous architect Mimar Sinan built the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Mosque, which an authoritative guide to Constantinople states to be "The most beautiful of the smaller mosques in Istanbul, a minor masterpiece by Sinan".
During the rule of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha as Grand Vizier, the Ottoman navy and army took Cyprus
in 1571 from Venice
. The administration of Cyprus was given to Mehmed's old friend, the Arab
Ahmed Paşa. The invasion of Cyprus led to the formation of a so-called Holy League, comprising the Pope, Spain with Naples and Sicily, the Republic of Venice
, Genoa, Tuscany, and the Maltese Knights
. On 7 October 1571, the coalition's fleet under the command of Don Juan of Austria decisively defeated the Ottoman fleet under Müezzinzade Ali Paşa in the Battle of Lepanto
.
Sokollu Mehmed Paşa immediately ensured that Piyale Paşa and Uluç Ali Reis, the new Grand Admiral, were provided with all the necessary means and resources to rebuild the Empire's shattered fleet. By July 1572 the Ottoman fleet already numbered 250 fully equipped warships "including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean". It is reported in Turkish chronicles that Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had said to the Venetian Ambassador "By conquering Cyprus we have cut off one of your arms; at Inebahti by defeating our navy you have only shaved off our beard. However, you know that a cut-off arm cannot be replaced but shaved-off beard grows thicker." Indeed, the Holy League (1571) ships had to retire to ports and Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean was restored. The new Ottoman Navy that started a naval expedition in summer of 1573 under Kılıç Ali Pasha found no rivals in the Mediterranean and ravaged the coasts of Sicily and southern Italy and in 1574 it captured Tunis
from the Hafsids, who for some time had been supported by Spanish troops, thus restoring Ottoman domination of Western Mediterranean.
On March 3, 1573, Venetian Republic signed a new peace treaty with Ottomans under Mehmed Pasha, thereby bringing the Holy League to an end, accepting the loss of Cyprus and increasing the tribute payments. He also extended for eight more years the peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire and maintained good relations with France
, Poland
and Russia
. He was preparing for a fresh attack on Venice when the Sultan's death on 12 December 1574 cut short his plans.
On 30 August 1574, Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha installed his nephew Antonije Sokolović, then the Metropolitan
of Hum
, as the new Eastern Orthodox
Archbishop
of Ochryd
. On 23 October the same year, upon Peć Patriarch Makarije's death, Antonije became the new Serbian Orthodox Christian Patriarch of Peć. Antonije died soon, in 1575, and was replaced by yet another one of Mehmed's nephews, Gerasim Sokolović.
When Sultan Selim II died, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa again kept this secret until the Selim's oldest son Murad arrived from Manisa
. Mehmed Pasha bowed to the new Sultan, Murad III
, and remained Grand Vizier. He now had to cope with the ascendancy of the political influences of Palace women, first with Sultan's mother Nurbanu Sultan and then his wife of Venetian origin, Safiye Sultan. Murad III gradually soured on Mehmed's overwhelming power within the Empire, and Mehmed's influence declined.
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was involved in the Polish
Crown's succession disputes in 1576 and 1577, but this did not reach greater measures.
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha signed numerous treaties of friendship with Venice, Florence
, Spain
, England
and Switzerland
. He also managed to force a number of European states to pay tribute. Austria paid 9,000 ducats; Transylvania 3,000; Wallachia
7,000; Moldavia
3,000. Eventually, even Venice had to pay him 4,000 ducats annually. This altogether gave him an annual income of 31,000 ducats in gold
.
Sultan Murad III began to limit Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's powers by slowly removing his allies from high offices. Mehmed was known to be opposed to the war with Persia which started in 1578. The state secretary Feridun, Mehmed Paşa's veteran from the siege of Szigetvár, was sent to Belgrade, away from Constantinople. Mehmed's faithful Arab friend, the Governor-General of Cyprus, was lynched by mutinous soldiers. Mehmed's greatest rivals, Hamid Efendi and Piyale Paşa, arranged the execution of the Grand Vizier's protector, Michael Cantakuzines. On 10 October 1578, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, Mehmed Paşa's nephew and Governor-General of Budin, was assassinated. On the anniversary of this day, on 10 October 1579, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa had his servant Hasan Bey read to him about the Battle of Kosovo
.
The next day, on 11 October, a mentally unstable dervish
demanded to see the Grand Vizier. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa allowed the dervish to enter his quarters, whereupon the dervish took out a knife and stabbed the Grand Vizier. After three hours, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa died. There are some who claim that the assassin was a janissary in disguise in employment of Safiye Sultan, the wife of Murad III. Also, some sources claim that he was a target of Hashshashin
agent, as he was opposed to war with Persia where this order was stationed which was not in their interest, although this is a very controversial claim as this order was destroyed by Mongols
long time before.
He is buried at his complex, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Külliyesi at the back of Eyüp Mosque
, in Constantinople, at the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Türbe built by famous architect Mimar Sinan for him c. 1572. His wife Ismihan (or Esma Han) is buried near him and in the little garden of the Türbe are buried the family and descendants of Sokollu Mehmed Paşa. After his death, the religious freedom which he gave to the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire was re-guaranteed.
Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Mosque and the complex built at Kadirga district of İstanbul by architect Mimar Sinan is considered to be the most beautiful of the smaller mosques in İstanbul . It is well known for unusually fine ordering of medrese (cells and lecture hall) over the entry stairs; for its lofty elegant interior; the first (but then well-copied) hooded fountain; ogival arches of the arcades; but above all the fine and well deservedly famed Iznik tiles. In İstanbul at Azapkapi district he also has another mosque, also known as the Azapkapi Mosque, built by Sinan in 1577-1578, which is called most important Ottoman monument in Galata. In Eyub district of İstanbul, there is the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Kulliyesi again built by Sinan c.1572, which is a complex including a medrese, a school and his tomb. On the main highway between the two Ottoman capitals of İstanbul and Edirne, at Luleburgaz there is well-known Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Complex of a caravanserai, bathhouse, mosque, madrasah, a school, market streets and private apartments for Sultan's use (when it became a palace) built in 1549 and extended at 1569, both times by Sinan. He has further complexes built at Havsa, a city on the Istanbul-Edirne highway and in Payas, in southern Turkey near Antakya. Again, built by Sinan and known by the name of Sokollu Mehmed Paşa are the bridges at Alpullu, Luleburgaz and Corlu. There are in Havsa, Yesildirek (İstanbul), Edirne and Luleburgaz public bathhouses that were built by Sinan in the name Sokollu Mehmed Paşa.
His most renowned endowment is an eleven-arched bridge
in his home town Višegrad
. Building and history of the Višegrad bridge is the topic of the world renowned novel The Bridge on the Drina
(Serbo-Croatian: Na Drini ćuprija - На Дрини ћуприја), written by Ivo Andrić
, a Yugoslav
novelist of Bosnian Serb origins
For that novel, Andrić was awarded the Nobel Prize
for literature. His life also interested Meša Selimović
. There were numerous Serbian
, Croatian and Bosnian
legends on the bridge's construction. According to one, Mehmed Paşa built the bridge in his son's name. Another is present through Ivo Andrić
's "Bridge on the Drina". It tells the tale of Rade the Architect who built the bridge.
In his native village of Sokolovići he has built a mosque
, maktab
and musafirhana (guest house). His foundations are spread over Edirne
, Halep, Medina
, Bečkerek, Belgrade
and alongside Bosnia
, where he is especially remembered for his bridges. Mecca
and Constantinople
contained numerous mosques alone. Apart from the Višegrad bridge, Arslanagić bridge in Trebinje
, Vizier's bridge in Podgorica
, the bridge on Žepa
and Kozja ćuprija in Sarajevo
are attributed to his name. Between Višegrad
and Sarajevo
, on Glasinac, he built a Road of four paces and a castle. Of the castle, only a drinking-fountain remained – the Mehmed Sokolović's han.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
statesman. Mehmed was taken away at an early age as part of the devshirmeh
Devshirmeh
Devshirme was the practice by which...
system of Ottoman collection of young boys to be raised to serve as a janissary
Janissary
The Janissaries were infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops and bodyguards...
.
He rose through the ranks of the Ottoman imperial system, eventually holding positions as commander of the imperial guard (1543–1546), High Admiral of the Fleet (1546–1551), Governor-General
Governor-General
A Governor-General, is a vice-regal person of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.- Current uses...
of Rumelia
Rumelia
Rumelia was an historical region comprising the territories of the Ottoman Empire in Europe...
(1551–1555), Third Vizier
Vizier
A vizier or in Arabic script ; ; sometimes spelled vazir, vizir, vasir, wazir, vesir, or vezir) is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in a Muslim government....
(1555–1561), Second Vizier (1561–1565) and as Grand Vizier
Grand Vizier
Grand Vizier, in Turkish Vezir-i Azam or Sadr-ı Azam , deriving from the Arabic word vizier , was the greatest minister of the Sultan, with absolute power of attorney and, in principle, dismissable only by the Sultan himself...
(1565–1579) (for a total of 14 years, 3 months, 17 days) under three Sultans: Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman I was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. He is known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent and in the East, as "The Lawgiver" , for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system...
, Selim II
Selim II
Selim II Sarkhosh Hashoink , also known as "Selim the Sot " or "Selim the Drunkard"; and as "Sarı Selim" or "Selim the Blond", was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.-Early years:He was born in Constantinople a son of Suleiman the...
, and Murad III
Murad III
Murad III was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death.-Biography:...
. He was assassinated in 1579, ending a near 15-year rule as de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire.
Early years
Little is known for certain about Mehmed's birth and early life. TurkishTurkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
chroniclers and historians only took notice of him after he had attained great standing in the Ottoman hierarchy. The facts regarding his youth may further be obscured by popular myths
Mythology
The term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
from later ages, making it difficult for historians to separate them. All three ethnic groups from modern Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina , sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for the...
—Bosniaks
Bosniaks
The Bosniaks or Bosniacs are a South Slavic ethnic group, living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a smaller minority also present in other lands of the Balkan Peninsula especially in Serbia, Montenegro and Croatia...
, Croats
Croats
Croats are a South Slavic ethnic group mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. There are around 4 million Croats living inside Croatia and up to 4.5 million throughout the rest of the world. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have...
and Serbs
Serbs
The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group of the Balkans and southern Central Europe. Serbs are located mainly in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and form a sizable minority in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia. Likewise, Serbs are an officially recognized minority in...
—celebrate Sokollu Mehmet Paşa as their own, which is supported by both Western and Ottoman sources.
Mehmed was born into an Serbian Orthodox family in or near Sokolovići (which under Ottoman rule in Turkish
Turkish language
Turkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo,...
was called Sokol), near modern-day Rudo
Rudo
Rudo is a town and municipality in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina near the border with Serbia. It appears in Ivo Andrić's story "The Beys of Rudo."-1971:15,982 total* Serbs – 10.155...
. Said to have come from a modest shepherd family, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa's name derives from his place of birth (-lu indicates in Turkish
Turkish language
Turkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo,...
from a place, in this case Sokollu or from Sokol). While some other sources suggest that the Sokolović family was descended from feudal Bosnian nobility, this was a common myth regarding various eminent families of the time. Research into the roots of Ottoman Bosnia's aristocratic families seems to discredit this thesis.
Mehmed's birth name was probably Bajica, while his father was named Dimitrije. He had two brothers and a sister, as well as at least one uncle. However, details about his family and relations are disputed on two major counts. One is his relationship to Makarije Sokolović
Makarije Sokolovic
Makarije Sokolović was the Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church from 1557 to 1571. He was the first patriarch of the restored Serbian Patriarchate, after its lapse in 1463 that resulted from the Ottoman conquest of Serbia...
. Traditionally identified as his brother, today some historians consider him to have been either a nephew or distant relative. The second is the matter of Mehmed's uncle. By some accounts, his uncle was a monk at the Mileševa monastery
Mileševa monastery
Mileševa is a Serbian Orthodox monastery located near Prijepolje, in southwest Serbia. It was founded by King Vladislav, in the years between 1234 and 1236...
who had his two nephews, Bajica and Makarije (taken to be brothers according to this view), educated there. Other sources suggest that his uncle converted to Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
early.
In 1516, an Ottoman expedition gathering up boys as part of the devshirmeh
Devshirmeh
Devshirme was the practice by which...
system reached Sokolovići. According to folklore, Bajica was either simply taken from his father's home or, due to a reputation as a gifted child, specifically chosen by the commanding Yeshilche Mehmed Bey. The story further holds that his uncle unsuccessfully appealed to the authorities, even offering gold for the child's return.
Janissary education
He accepted the name of Mehmed and first in EdirneEdirne
Edirne is a city in Eastern Thrace, the northwestern part of Turkey, close to the borders with Greece and Bulgaria. Edirne served as the capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1365 to 1453, before Constantinople became the empire's new capital. At present, Edirne is the capital of the Edirne...
and then in Constantinople
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
got a thorough Ottoman education as a recruit, first as an apprentice Janissary (in Turkish
Turkish language
Turkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo,...
Acemi Oglan); then in Enderun in Topkapı Palace
Topkapi Palace
The Topkapı Palace is a large palace in Istanbul, Turkey, that was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years of their 624-year reign....
.
As proclaimed in Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
on 13 March 1535, Mehmed was sent to be one of the seven retainers of the Imperial Treasurer Iskender Celebi. On Iskender's death, Mehmed returned to Constantinople
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
. In addition to Turkish
Turkish language
Turkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo,...
, he spoke Serbo-Croatian
Serbo-Croatian
Serbo-Croatian or Serbo-Croat, less commonly Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian , is a South Slavic language with multiple standards and the primary language of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro...
(Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian), Persian
Persian language
Persian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence...
, Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
, Venetian-Italian
Italian language
Italian is a Romance language spoken mainly in Europe: Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City, by minorities in Malta, Monaco, Croatia, Slovenia, France, Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia, and by immigrant communities in the Americas and Australia...
and Neo-Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
.
Early career
Mehmed in 1541 first became an Imperial Chamberlain and then the head of the Sultan's squireSquire
The English word squire is a shortened version of the word Esquire, from the Old French , itself derived from the Late Latin , in medieval or Old English a scutifer. The Classical Latin equivalent was , "arms bearer"...
s. In these positions he became very close to Sultan Suleiman and learnt from him.
As a soldier, Mehmed excelled at the Battle of Mohács
Battle of Mohács
The Battle of Mohács was fought on August 29, 1526 near Mohács, Hungary. In the battle, forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia were defeated by forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent....
and the first Siege of Vienna
Siege of Vienna
The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, to capture the city of Vienna, Austria. The siege signalled the pinnacle of the Ottoman Empire's power, the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe, and was the result of a...
. In 1546 the Kapudan Pasha Hayreddin Barbarossa died and Mehmed was appointed his successor. In this capacity he was present at the naval expedition against Trablus (present day Libya). During his five years in this position, Mehmed Paşa greatly strengthened the arsenal of the Naval fleet
Naval fleet
A fleet, or naval fleet, is a large formation of warships, and the largest formation in any navy. A fleet at sea is the direct equivalent of an army on land....
.
Mehmed became Beylerbey
Beylerbey
Beylerbey is the Ottoman and Safavid title used for the highest rank in the hierarchy of provincial administrators It is in western terms a Governor-general, with authority...
(Governor-General) of Rumelia
Rumelia
Rumelia was an historical region comprising the territories of the Ottoman Empire in Europe...
in 1551, headquartered in Sofia
Sofia
Sofia is the capital and largest city of Bulgaria and the 12th largest city in the European Union with a population of 1.27 million people. It is located in western Bulgaria, at the foot of Mount Vitosha and approximately at the centre of the Balkan Peninsula.Prehistoric settlements were excavated...
. While he was visiting the area of his birth, his mother recognized him by the birthmark
Birthmark
A birthmark is a benign irregularity on the skin which is present at birth or appears shortly after birth, usually in the first month. They can occur anywhere on the skin. Birthmarks are caused by overgrowth of blood vessels, melanocytes, smooth muscle, fat, fibroblasts, or...
on his face and embraced her child for the first time in more than thirty years.
After the death of John Zápolya, Duke of Erdelj (Transylvania)
John Zápolya
John Zápolya was King of Hungary from 1526 to 1540. His rule was disputed by Archduke Ferdinand I, who also claimed the title King of Hungary between 1526 and 1540. He was the voivode of Transylvania before his coronation.- Biography :...
the King of Hungary and the Habsburg Emperor wanted to annex his lands, and civil war erupted between duchess Isabella (wife of John Zápolya, and daughter of King of Poland) and her supporters under command of Petar Petrovic (predominantly Serbs), and the George Martinuzzi
George Martinuzzi
George Martinuzzi was a Croatian nobleman, a monk, bishop of Oradea, archbishop of Esztergom, cardinal and Hungarian statesman.-Biography:Martinuzzi was born in Kamičac, Dalmatia...
(or Đorđe Utješenović, later created a Cardinal as reward for his accomplishments in this conflict). The Habsburg Emperor sent a condottiero (Bartolomeo Castoldo) and more than 7,000 soldiers (mercenaries) who beat the Serbs under Petar Petrović and killed more than 2,500 of them near Chanad (Csanad). The Sultan ordered Sokollu Mehmed Paşa to move immediately to Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
. Mehmed assembled an army of 90,000 soldiers and 54 cannons and marched into Hungary. He also summoned the Pasha
Pasha
Pasha or pascha, formerly bashaw, was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire political system, typically granted to governors, generals and dignitaries. As an honorary title, Pasha, in one of its various ranks, is equivalent to the British title of Lord, and was also one of the highest titles in...
s of Smederevo
Smederevo
Smederevo is a city and municipality in Serbia, on the right bank of the Danube, about 40 km downstream of the capital Belgrade. According to official results of the 2011 census, the city has a population of 107,528...
, Vidin
Vidin
Vidin is a port town on the southern bank of the Danube in northwestern Bulgaria. It is close to the borders with Serbia and Romania, and is also the administrative centre of Vidin Province, as well as of the Metropolitan of Vidin...
and Nicopolis
Nicopolis
Nicopolis — or Actia Nicopolis — was an ancient city of Epirus, founded 31 BC by Octavian in memory of his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium the previous year. It was later the capital of Epirus Vetus...
. When his forces reached Slankamen
Slankamen
Slankamen may mean:* Stari Slankamen , a village in Vojvodina, Serbia.* Novi Slankamen , a village in Vojvodina, Serbia.* Battle of Slankamen during the Great Turkish War in 1691...
in Srem
Srem
Śrem is a town on the Warta river in central Poland. It has been situated in the Greater Poland Voivodeship since 1999; from 1975 to 1998 it was part of the Poznań Voivodeship...
, George Martinuzzi begged Mehmed not to attack Transylvania, arguing that it had remained in the possession of the Sultan. Mehmed rejected negotiation proposals, led Ottoman forces into Transylvania and soon captured 16 cities, including Bečej
Becej
Bečej is a town and municipality located in the South Bačka District in Vojvodina, Serbia. The town has a population of 25,703, while Bečej municipality has 40,877 inhabitants. It is multiethnic town, with Hungarians and Serbs as largest ethnic groups...
, Bečkerek, Cenad
Cenad
Cenad is a commune in Timiş County, Banat, Romania. It is composed of a single village, Cenad.-Demography:...
and Linova. Martinuzzi responded by raising a rebellion in Transylvania, mustering one soldier from every household. Mehmed had to fall back and once again laid siege to Temišvar on 14 October with the main part of his army and 50 cannons. Mehmed demanded surrender, but the city's commander (Stevan Loshonci) replied with a recommendation for Mehmed's return to Rumelia.
Mehmed besieged the city until 28 October but could not seize it. Retreating to Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans. According to official results of Census 2011, the city has a population of 1,639,121. It is one of the 15 largest cities in Europe...
, he initiated peace negotiations with the Monk-Viceroy. Martinuzzi was assassinated on 17 December 1551, and peace talks ended. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa renewed his military campaign in 1552, seizing Temišvar, Hollakö, Bujak
Buják
-References:...
, Ságh, Gürmath, the whole of Banat
Banat
The Banat is a geographical and historical region in Central Europe currently divided between three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania , the western part in northeastern Serbia , and a small...
and Szolnak. Mehmed Paşa's forces then joined with those of Ahmet Paşa
Ahmet Pasha
Ahmet Pasha was the second Mamluk ruler of Iraq and the son of Hasan Pasha....
advancing towards Eger
Eger
Eger is the second largest city in Northern Hungary, the county seat of Heves, east of the Mátra Mountains. Eger is best known for its castle, thermal baths, historic buildings , and red and white wines.- Name :...
. Mehmed's army assembled on the Hill of Egid but could not take the city itself.
In 1553, Sultan Suleiman declared war on Persia, when the Persian Shah Tahmasp wanted to take advantage of the Sultan's preoccupation with Hungary and started making armed incursions against Ottoman areas. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa was dispatched to spend the winter of 1553/1554 in Tokat
Tokat
Tokat is the capital city of Tokat Province of Turkey, at the mid Black Sea region of Anatolia. According to the 2009 census, the city of Tokat has a population of 129,879.-History:Tokat was established in the Hittite era....
to take charge of the war against Persia. In June 1554, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa with the Rumeli (European) levies joined the army of the Sultan in the field near Susehri
Susehri
Suşehri is a town and a district of Sivas Province of Turkey. The mayor is Sedat Sel .Suşehri is one of country sides of Sivas.-Name:The first localization of Suşehri is 2 km from east of city centre...
. He and the Rumeli contingent showed great successes in this campaign of Sultan Suleiman (called the Nakhchevan Campaign by the Turkish historians).
Third Vizier
Impressed by Sokollu Mehmed Paşa, the Sultan made him the Third Vizier in 1555 and he was given a place in the Imperial Council. His position as Governor-General of Rumelia was given to a HerzegovinianSerb clans
Serb clans is a general term referring to what are known as plemena and bratstva , traditional geo-political units of the Western Balkans that now richly attest social anthropology and family history . The descendants of the clans are divided by regional and lately, national affiliation...
Janissary
Janissary
The Janissaries were infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops and bodyguards...
aga, Pertev Paşa, Mehmed's companion while they had served under Iskender Chelebi.
Almost immediately Sokollu Mehmed Paşa had to quell a rebellion around Balkans and Salonica. The rebellion was raised by Mustafa Bey, who pretended to be the Sultan's late son Mustafa. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa took 4,000 horsemen
Horsemen
Horsemen may refer to:*Equestrianism, including cavalry*Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse*Four Horsemen *Royal Canadian Mounted Police*Horsemen , starring Dennis Quaid*The Horsemen , starring Omar Sharif...
and 3,000 janissaries and quelled the rebellion. Mustafa Bey was hanged.
Mehmed's brother, Topuzli-Makarije, was an of the Serb Chilandar
Hilandar
Hilandar Monastery is a Serbian Orthodox monastery on Mount Athos in Greece. It was founded in 1198 by the first Serbian Archbishop Saint Sava and his father, Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja of the medieval Serbian principality of Raška...
on Athos
Athos
Athos may refer to:* Athos , one of the Gigantes in Greek mythologyAthos may also refer to:-Places:* Athos, a village in France, part of the commune Athos-Aspis...
. Makarije Sokolović paid a visit to his brother's palace in Constantinople
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
in 1557. Mehmed discussed with his brother the possibilities of renewing the Serbian Orthodox Church
Serbian Orthodox Church
The Serbian Orthodox Church is one of the autocephalous Orthodox Christian churches, ranking sixth in order of seniority after Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Russia...
. Later that same year, Mehmed Paşa issued an edict (Ferman) declaring the restoration of the Peć
Pec
Peć or Pejë is a city and municipality in north-western Kosovo and Metohija - Serbia, and the administrative centre of the homonymous district. Governor of city is Ali Berisha....
Patriarchate
Patriarchate
A patriarchate is the office or jurisdiction of a patriarch. A patriarch, as the term is used here, is either* one of the highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, earlier, the five that were included in the Pentarchy: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, but now nine,...
, with Makarije Sokolović as Patriarch
Patriarch
Originally a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a pater familias over an extended family. The system of such rule of families by senior males is called patriarchy. This is a Greek word, a compound of πατριά , "lineage, descent", esp...
Makarije I. The edict also guaranteed the rights and religious freedom of all inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire.
When the former Grand Vizier Ahmet Paşa was deposed and hanged, he was replaced by Rüstem Paşa, who had numerous enemies. One of them was Lala Mustafa
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha was an Ottoman general and Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire.He had risen to the position of Beylerbey of Damascus and then to that of Fifth Vizier...
who instigated the Sultan's third son, Bayezid, then Beylerbey of Karaman
Karaman
Karaman is a town in south central Turkey, located north of the Taurus Mountains, about south of Konya. It is the capital district of the Karaman Province. According to 2000 census, the population of the province is 231 872 of which 132,064 live in the town of Karaman. The district covers an area...
, to raise a rebellion against his brother Selim
Selim II
Selim II Sarkhosh Hashoink , also known as "Selim the Sot " or "Selim the Drunkard"; and as "Sarı Selim" or "Selim the Blond", was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.-Early years:He was born in Constantinople a son of Suleiman the...
, who was to inherit the Imperial throne. Sokollu Mehmed mustered an army and went to Konya
Konya
Konya is a city in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. The metropolitan area in the entire Konya Province had a population of 1,036,027 as of 2010, making the city seventh most populous in Turkey.-Etymology:...
, where he defeated Bayezid's forces decisively in May 1559. Bayezid fled to Persia. Mehmed Paşa remained in Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
and spent the winter negotiating with the Persian Shah
Shah
Shāh is the title of the ruler of certain Southwest Asian and Central Asian countries, especially Persia , and derives from the Persian word shah, meaning "king".-History:...
regarding Bayezid's extradition. After long negotiations, the Shah extradited Bayezid and his four sons, who were subsequently executed.
Second Vizier
Grand Vizier Rustem Pasha died in 1561. He was succeeded by the Second Vizier, Semiz Ali PaşaSemiz Ali Paşa
Semiz Ali Pasha was an Ottoman statesman. He was Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1561-1565. Semiz Ali Pasha was born in Bosnia, and replaced Rüstem Pasha as a Grand Vizier. After palace schooling, he discharged high-level functions along the Ottoman Empire.- References :...
. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa in turn became Second Vizier, while Pertev Paşa became Third Vizier.
Sokollu Mehmed Paşa married Sultan Suleiman's granddaughter – Prince Selim II
Selim II
Selim II Sarkhosh Hashoink , also known as "Selim the Sot " or "Selim the Drunkard"; and as "Sarı Selim" or "Selim the Blond", was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.-Early years:He was born in Constantinople a son of Suleiman the...
's daughter, Ismihan Sultan (some sources read her name as Esma Han Sultan) on 17 August 1562. Mehmed spent the following years in peace, governing and administrating the realm.
In 1564, Mehmed's nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, became Viceroy of Bosnia
Bosnia Province, Ottoman Empire
The Bosnia Vilayet was an Ottoman vilayet, mostly based on the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as most of Slavonia, Lika and Dalmatia in present-day Croatia. It bordered Kosovo Vilayet to the south. Before the administrative reform in 1864, it was called the...
.
Grand Vizier
In June 1565, Grand Vizier Semiz Ali Paşa died. Sultan Suleiman had much confidence in Sokollu Mehmed Paşa and promoted him to this position.War with the Habsburgs
At the end of 1565 and the beginning of 1566, tensions between the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian IIMaximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian II was king of Bohemia and king of the Romans from 1562, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1563, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from 1564 until his death...
and Sultan Suleiman grew. Maximilian wanted the cities previously taken by the Bosniak commander Hasan Predojević
Hasan Predojević
Hasan Predojević, Telli Hasan Paşa, Gazi Hasan-paša Predojević, was a military leader of the Ottoman army. Born Niko Predojević in Herzegovina, he was given the name Hasan after he converted to Islam.During the rule of Murat III he became Sandjakbey of the Sanjak of Segedin where he stayed until...
restored to him. When negotiations failed, Maximilian declared war. Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Paşa ordered his nephew, Sokollu Mustafa Beg of Bosnia, to advance against Maximilian. Mustafa managed to capture the cities of Krupa
Krupa
Krupa may refer to:People:* Gene Krupa, a Polish-American drummer* Joanna Krupa, a Polish model and actress* Michael Krupa, a Polish war hero/author* Olek Krupa, a Polish actor* Urszula Krupa, a Polish politicianPlaces:...
and Dvor na Uni. The Sultan immediately declared war against the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
, and Grand Vizier Mehmed began the preparations for the army's advance. Mehmed went ahead, preparing for the arrival of the Sultan, who was leading the main part of the Ottoman forces. After 50 days, they arrived in Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans. According to official results of Census 2011, the city has a population of 1,639,121. It is one of the 15 largest cities in Europe...
.
Passing through Zemun
Zemun
Zemun is a historical town and one of the 17 municipalities which constitute the City of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia...
, one part of the army crossed Varaždin
Varaždin
Varaždin is a city in north Croatia, north of Zagreb on the highway A4. The total population is 47,055, with 38,746 on of the city settlement itself . The centre of Varaždin county is located near the Drava river, at...
and struck Egar before proceeding towards Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
. The Croatian
Croats
Croats are a South Slavic ethnic group mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. There are around 4 million Croats living inside Croatia and up to 4.5 million throughout the rest of the world. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have...
nobleman and general in service of Habsburg Monarchy
Habsburg Monarchy
The Habsburg Monarchy covered the territories ruled by the junior Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg , and then by the successor House of Habsburg-Lorraine , between 1526 and 1867/1918. The Imperial capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, when it was moved to Prague...
Nikola Šubić Zrinski
Nikola Šubic Zrinski
Nikola Šubić Zrinski , was a Croatian nobleman and general in service of Habsburg Monarchy, ban of Croatia from 1542 to 1556, and member of the Zrinski noble family...
(Miklós Zrínyi), a member of the Zrinski
Zrinski
The Zrinski family was a Croatian noble family, influential during the period in history marked by the Ottoman wars in Europe in the Kingdom of Croatia and Hungary and in the later Austro-Hungarian Empire...
noble family, had defeated Sanjak Bey Tirhal Mohammed, executing him and his son, and capturing 17,000 ducat
Ducat
The ducat is a gold coin that was used as a trade coin throughout Europe before World War I. Its weight is 3.4909 grams of .986 gold, which is 0.1107 troy ounce, actual gold weight...
s. This incurred the Sultan's wrath, and he dispatched Mehmet's forces to besiege Szigetvár
Szigetvár
-History:The town's fortress was the setting of the Battle of Szigetvár in 1566. It was a sanjak centre at first in Budin Province , later in Kanije Province .There was already a bum in the marshland back in the Celtic and Roman times...
. The Sultan remained in Harsang. Budin's commander Arslan Paşa lost the cities of Palota
Palota
Palota is a village and municipality in the Medzilaborce District in the Prešov Region of far north-eastern Slovakia.-Geography:The municipality lies at an altitude of 482 metres and covers an area of 24.116 km². It has a population of about 190 people....
, Veszprém
Veszprém
Veszprém is one of the oldest urban areas in Hungary, and a city with county rights. It lies approximately north of the Lake Balaton. It is the administrative center of the county of the same name.-Location:...
and Tata
Tata
- Companies :* Tata Group, India's largest business group and multinational company** List of entities associated with Tata Group- People :* Tata family, an influential family of India owning the Tata Group** Jamsetji Tata, known as the father of Indian industry...
. The Sultan sent a platoon of 15 troopers to bring him Arslan Paşa's head, but Arslan had already left his forces three days earlier and was on his way to the Sultan. The Sultan showed Mehmed a letter in which Arslan had insulted Mehmed. On 3 August, Arslan reported to Mehmed's tent with 15 heavily armed horsemen. Sokollu Mehmed criticized Arslan for his conduct, accused him of treason and stripped him of his post, giving it instead to the Bosnian Governor-General, Sokollu Mustafa Bey.
The Sultan arrived with Mehmed's sons, Kurt Bey and Hasan Bey, at Pécs
Pécs
Pécs is the fifth largest city of Hungary, located on the slopes of the Mecsek mountains in the south-west of the country, close to its border with Croatia. It is the administrative and economical centre of Baranya county...
. Finally, the large Ottoman force, numbered from 100,000–300,000 soldiers and 300 cannons, laid siege to Szigetvár
Szigetvár
-History:The town's fortress was the setting of the Battle of Szigetvár in 1566. It was a sanjak centre at first in Budin Province , later in Kanije Province .There was already a bum in the marshland back in the Celtic and Roman times...
. The Battle of Szigetvár
Battle of Szigetvár
The Siege of Szigetvár or Battle of Szigeth was a siege of the Szigeth Fortress in Baranya which blocked Suleiman's line of advance towards Vienna in 1566 AD...
was an Ottoman victory, with heavy losses on both sides. Both commanders died during the battle. While Zrinsky was killed in the final charge, Suleiman the Magnificent died in his tent from natural causes, before the Turks achieved victory. According to Robert William Fraser, more than 10,000 large cannon balls where shot into the fortress during the siege.
Sokollu Mehmed Paşa had all witnesses to the Sultan's death executed. He announced that Suleiman was too sick to perform his duties and that he would be healing in Szigetvár, while Mehmed would be acting on his behalf. Mehmed rewarded those involved in the capture of Szigetvár and increased the soldiers' wages. He sent a part of the army to capture Bobovac. The Tartars, however, spread the news of the Sultan's death, and Sokullu Mustafa Bey wrote to Prince Selim about his father's death. Selim marched immediately towards Srem
Srem
Śrem is a town on the Warta river in central Poland. It has been situated in the Greater Poland Voivodeship since 1999; from 1975 to 1998 it was part of the Poznań Voivodeship...
. Upon his arrival in Vukovar
Vukovar
Vukovar is a city in eastern Croatia, and the biggest river port in Croatia located at the confluence of the Vuka river and the Danube. Vukovar is the center of the Vukovar-Syrmia County...
, Mehmed Paşa wrote him that it would be best if he went to Belgrade to greet his army for a more formal and effective take-over of the Empire. Selim returned to Belgrade, and Mehmed ordered the army to march towards Belgrade. 40 days after the Sultan's death, in October 1566, the army set out for Belgrade. At the fourth stop on the way to Belgrade, 48 days after Suleiman's death, Mehmed announced the Sultan's death ceremonially, during the traditional reading of the Koran. Mehmed had Suleiman's body embalmed and ordered the army to proceed to meet the new Sultan in Belgrade. After three marches, the Army arrived to Sremska Mitrovica
Sremska Mitrovica
Sremska Mitrovica is a city and municipality located in the Vojvodina province of Serbia, on the left bank of the Sava river. As of 2002 the town had a total population of 39,041, while Sremska Mitrovica municipality had a population of 85,605...
. Mehmed reminded Selim II
Selim II
Selim II Sarkhosh Hashoink , also known as "Selim the Sot " or "Selim the Drunkard"; and as "Sarı Selim" or "Selim the Blond", was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.-Early years:He was born in Constantinople a son of Suleiman the...
to send gifts to the Viziers, Pashas and the army, but Selim's advisors convinced the new Sultan not to do so. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa went to Belgrade and swore allegiance to Selim II as his Sultan, and Selim confirmed him as his Grand Vizier.
Expecting a mutiny among the military, Mehmed Paşa had Suleiman's body sent to Constantinople to restore order amongst the janissaries and other officials, who now demanded more compensation for their past efforts. In Belgrade, Sultan Selim II called a council, as even some of his closest officials were openly mocking him. Mehmed Paşa assured him that he would manage everything effectively, and dispatched gifts to the military ranks, rewarding them handsomely to regain their loyalty.
On the 5th day of their stay in Belgrade, the Sultan, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa and the army departed for Constantinople. Before they managed to return to the Empire's capital, a mutiny broke out and the road to the city was blocked. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa and Ahmed Paşa had to bribe their way into the city. Order was restored after Mehmed convinced the Sultan to promise to send handsome gifts and higher wages to the janissaries. The next morning, each janissary was given standard pay of 40 ducats and an additional 20 ducats as an accession bonus. Soon, other branches of the military, spahies and mercenaries, demanded higher wages as well. Mehmed arrested and replaced their agas at once, finally stopping all dissent.
Two years after Selim's accession, on 17 February 1568, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa succeeded in concluding at Edirne
Edirne
Edirne is a city in Eastern Thrace, the northwestern part of Turkey, close to the borders with Greece and Bulgaria. Edirne served as the capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1365 to 1453, before Constantinople became the empire's new capital. At present, Edirne is the capital of the Edirne...
a peace treaty with Emperor Maximilian II, whereby the Emperor agreed to pay an annual "honary present" of 30,000 ducats.
Wars with Russia, Venice and the Holy League
Mehmed Paşa had little success against RussiaRussia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, and the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and her future northern rival presaged the disaster to come. A plan had been devised at Constantinople for connecting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of 1569 a large force of janissaries and cavalry was sent to lay siege to Astrakhan
Astrakhan
Astrakhan is a major city in southern European Russia and the administrative center of Astrakhan Oblast. The city lies on the left bank of the Volga River, close to where it discharges into the Caspian Sea at an altitude of below the sea level. Population:...
and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov
Azov
-External links:** *...
. However, a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan drove back the besiegers. A Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n army of 15,000 men attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar force sent for their protection, and the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by a storm . Early in 1570 the ambassadors of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Constantinople a treaty which restored friendly relations between the Sultan and the Tsar
Tsar
Tsar is a title used to designate certain European Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government in the Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire, it is known as Tsarist autocracy, or Tsarism...
.
Selim II
Selim II
Selim II Sarkhosh Hashoink , also known as "Selim the Sot " or "Selim the Drunkard"; and as "Sarı Selim" or "Selim the Blond", was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1566 until his death in 1574.-Early years:He was born in Constantinople a son of Suleiman the...
was a very weak ruler, and Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Paşa held the real power in the administration, thanks to the reforms of Selim's predecessor, Suleiman the Magnificent. Although the government was weakening, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa managed to expand the borders of the Ottoman Empire greatly. In 1570 he dispatched Sinan Paşa to conquer Arabia. Sinan Paşa solemnly declared the reign of Sultan Selim II in Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
upon finishing his military campaign in Hejaz
Hejaz
al-Hejaz, also Hijaz is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. Defined primarily by its western border on the Red Sea, it extends from Haql on the Gulf of Aqaba to Jizan. Its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina...
and Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
.
In 1571-1572, on the order Mehmed's wife Ismihan Sultan (or Esma Han Sultan), the famous architect Mimar Sinan built the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Mosque, which an authoritative guide to Constantinople states to be "The most beautiful of the smaller mosques in Istanbul, a minor masterpiece by Sinan".
During the rule of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha as Grand Vizier, the Ottoman navy and army took Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
in 1571 from Venice
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
. The administration of Cyprus was given to Mehmed's old friend, the Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
Ahmed Paşa. The invasion of Cyprus led to the formation of a so-called Holy League, comprising the Pope, Spain with Naples and Sicily, the Republic of Venice
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
, Genoa, Tuscany, and the Maltese Knights
Knights Hospitaller
The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta , also known as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta , Order of Malta or Knights of Malta, is a Roman Catholic lay religious order, traditionally of military, chivalrous, noble nature. It is the world's...
. On 7 October 1571, the coalition's fleet under the command of Don Juan of Austria decisively defeated the Ottoman fleet under Müezzinzade Ali Paşa in the Battle of Lepanto
Battle of Lepanto (1571)
The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic maritime states, decisively defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire in five hours of fighting on the northern edge of the Gulf of Patras, off western Greece...
.
Sokollu Mehmed Paşa immediately ensured that Piyale Paşa and Uluç Ali Reis, the new Grand Admiral, were provided with all the necessary means and resources to rebuild the Empire's shattered fleet. By July 1572 the Ottoman fleet already numbered 250 fully equipped warships "including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean". It is reported in Turkish chronicles that Sokollu Mehmed Pasha had said to the Venetian Ambassador "By conquering Cyprus we have cut off one of your arms; at Inebahti by defeating our navy you have only shaved off our beard. However, you know that a cut-off arm cannot be replaced but shaved-off beard grows thicker." Indeed, the Holy League (1571) ships had to retire to ports and Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean was restored. The new Ottoman Navy that started a naval expedition in summer of 1573 under Kılıç Ali Pasha found no rivals in the Mediterranean and ravaged the coasts of Sicily and southern Italy and in 1574 it captured Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
from the Hafsids, who for some time had been supported by Spanish troops, thus restoring Ottoman domination of Western Mediterranean.
On March 3, 1573, Venetian Republic signed a new peace treaty with Ottomans under Mehmed Pasha, thereby bringing the Holy League to an end, accepting the loss of Cyprus and increasing the tribute payments. He also extended for eight more years the peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire and maintained good relations with France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
and Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
. He was preparing for a fresh attack on Venice when the Sultan's death on 12 December 1574 cut short his plans.
Last years
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's wealth reached its peak around 1573. The worth of his personal property (cash, goods, accounts, objects) amounted to 18 million ducats. Mehmed received the standard Grand Vizier's wage of 20 ducats every day. His wealth increased greatly through gifts and taxes of Ottoman officials: anyone who became a Vizier had to pay Mehmed Pasha 50,000-60,000 ducats, and every Governor-General had to pay 15,000-20,000 or even sometimes 30,000-40,000 ducats upon ascending to office. The provincial governor of Egypt at Cairo alone dispatched 100,000 ducats to the Grand Vizier every year.On 30 August 1574, Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha installed his nephew Antonije Sokolović, then the Metropolitan
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
of Hum
Herzegovina
Herzegovina is the southern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. While there is no official border distinguishing it from the Bosnian region, it is generally accepted that the borders of the region are Croatia to the west, Montenegro to the south, the canton boundaries of the Herzegovina-Neretva...
, as the new Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
Archbishop
Archbishop
An archbishop is a bishop of higher rank, but not of higher sacramental order above that of the three orders of deacon, priest , and bishop...
of Ochryd
Ohrid
Ohrid is a city on the eastern shore of Lake Ohrid in the Republic of Macedonia. It has about 42,000 inhabitants, making it the seventh largest city in the country. The city is the seat of Ohrid Municipality. Ohrid is notable for having once had 365 churches, one for each day of the year and has...
. On 23 October the same year, upon Peć Patriarch Makarije's death, Antonije became the new Serbian Orthodox Christian Patriarch of Peć. Antonije died soon, in 1575, and was replaced by yet another one of Mehmed's nephews, Gerasim Sokolović.
When Sultan Selim II died, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa again kept this secret until the Selim's oldest son Murad arrived from Manisa
Manisa
Manisa is a large city in Turkey's Aegean Region and the administrative seat of Manisa Province.Modern Manisa is a booming center of industry and services, advantaged by its closeness to the international port city and the regional metropolitan center of İzmir and by its fertile hinterland rich in...
. Mehmed Pasha bowed to the new Sultan, Murad III
Murad III
Murad III was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death.-Biography:...
, and remained Grand Vizier. He now had to cope with the ascendancy of the political influences of Palace women, first with Sultan's mother Nurbanu Sultan and then his wife of Venetian origin, Safiye Sultan. Murad III gradually soured on Mehmed's overwhelming power within the Empire, and Mehmed's influence declined.
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha was involved in the Polish
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
Crown's succession disputes in 1576 and 1577, but this did not reach greater measures.
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha signed numerous treaties of friendship with Venice, Florence
Florence
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the province of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with approximately 370,000 inhabitants, expanding to over 1.5 million in the metropolitan area....
, Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
and Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
. He also managed to force a number of European states to pay tribute. Austria paid 9,000 ducats; Transylvania 3,000; Wallachia
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
7,000; Moldavia
Moldavia
Moldavia is a geographic and historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river...
3,000. Eventually, even Venice had to pay him 4,000 ducats annually. This altogether gave him an annual income of 31,000 ducats in gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
.
Sultan Murad III began to limit Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's powers by slowly removing his allies from high offices. Mehmed was known to be opposed to the war with Persia which started in 1578. The state secretary Feridun, Mehmed Paşa's veteran from the siege of Szigetvár, was sent to Belgrade, away from Constantinople. Mehmed's faithful Arab friend, the Governor-General of Cyprus, was lynched by mutinous soldiers. Mehmed's greatest rivals, Hamid Efendi and Piyale Paşa, arranged the execution of the Grand Vizier's protector, Michael Cantakuzines. On 10 October 1578, Sokollu Mustafa Bey, Mehmed Paşa's nephew and Governor-General of Budin, was assassinated. On the anniversary of this day, on 10 October 1579, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa had his servant Hasan Bey read to him about the Battle of Kosovo
Battle of Kosovo
The Battle of Kosovo took place on St. Vitus' Day, June 15, 1389, between the army led by Serbian Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, and the invading army of the Ottoman Empire under the leadership of Sultan Murad I...
.
The next day, on 11 October, a mentally unstable dervish
Dervish
A Dervish or Darvesh is someone treading a Sufi Muslim ascetic path or "Tariqah", known for their extreme poverty and austerity, similar to mendicant friars in Christianity or Hindu/Buddhist/Jain sadhus.-Etymology:The Persian word darvīsh is of ancient origin and descends from a Proto-Iranian...
demanded to see the Grand Vizier. Sokollu Mehmed Paşa allowed the dervish to enter his quarters, whereupon the dervish took out a knife and stabbed the Grand Vizier. After three hours, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa died. There are some who claim that the assassin was a janissary in disguise in employment of Safiye Sultan, the wife of Murad III. Also, some sources claim that he was a target of Hashshashin
Hashshashin
The Assassins were an order of Nizari Ismailis, particularly those of Persia that existed from around 1092 to 1265...
agent, as he was opposed to war with Persia where this order was stationed which was not in their interest, although this is a very controversial claim as this order was destroyed by Mongols
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
long time before.
He is buried at his complex, Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Külliyesi at the back of Eyüp Mosque
Eyüp Sultan Mosque
The Eyüp Sultan Mosque is situated in the district of Eyüp on the European side of Istanbul, near the Golden Horn, outside the Walls of Constantinople...
, in Constantinople, at the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Türbe built by famous architect Mimar Sinan for him c. 1572. His wife Ismihan (or Esma Han) is buried near him and in the little garden of the Türbe are buried the family and descendants of Sokollu Mehmed Paşa. After his death, the religious freedom which he gave to the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire was re-guaranteed.
Heritage and legacy
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha has left numerous architecturally well known buildings in Constantinople and in Ottoman lands of his day. A few of the most noteworthy can be cited here.Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Mosque and the complex built at Kadirga district of İstanbul by architect Mimar Sinan is considered to be the most beautiful of the smaller mosques in İstanbul . It is well known for unusually fine ordering of medrese (cells and lecture hall) over the entry stairs; for its lofty elegant interior; the first (but then well-copied) hooded fountain; ogival arches of the arcades; but above all the fine and well deservedly famed Iznik tiles. In İstanbul at Azapkapi district he also has another mosque, also known as the Azapkapi Mosque, built by Sinan in 1577-1578, which is called most important Ottoman monument in Galata. In Eyub district of İstanbul, there is the Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Kulliyesi again built by Sinan c.1572, which is a complex including a medrese, a school and his tomb. On the main highway between the two Ottoman capitals of İstanbul and Edirne, at Luleburgaz there is well-known Sokollu Mehmed Paşa Complex of a caravanserai, bathhouse, mosque, madrasah, a school, market streets and private apartments for Sultan's use (when it became a palace) built in 1549 and extended at 1569, both times by Sinan. He has further complexes built at Havsa, a city on the Istanbul-Edirne highway and in Payas, in southern Turkey near Antakya. Again, built by Sinan and known by the name of Sokollu Mehmed Paşa are the bridges at Alpullu, Luleburgaz and Corlu. There are in Havsa, Yesildirek (İstanbul), Edirne and Luleburgaz public bathhouses that were built by Sinan in the name Sokollu Mehmed Paşa.
His most renowned endowment is an eleven-arched bridge
Bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle...
in his home town Višegrad
Višegrad
Višegrad is a town and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is part of the Republika Srpska entity. It is on the river Drina, located on the road from Goražde and Ustiprača towards Užice, Serbia.-History:...
. Building and history of the Višegrad bridge is the topic of the world renowned novel The Bridge on the Drina
The Bridge on the Drina
The Bridge on the Drina , sometimes restyled as The Bridge Over the Drina, is a novel by Yugoslav writer Ivo Andrić. Andrić wrote the novel while living quietly in Belgrade during World War II, publishing it in 1945...
(Serbo-Croatian: Na Drini ćuprija - На Дрини ћуприја), written by Ivo Andrić
Ivo Andric
Ivan "Ivo" Andrić was a Yugoslav novelist, short story writer, and the 1961 winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature. His writings dealt mainly with life in his native Bosnia under the Ottoman Empire...
, a Yugoslav
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
novelist of Bosnian Serb origins
Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina are people of Serb ethnicity inhabiting the Balkan regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, or, since the establishment of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a state in the 1990s, the Serbs who have its citizenship. The Serbs are one of the three constitutive nations of this...
For that novel, Andrić was awarded the Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
for literature. His life also interested Meša Selimović
Meša Selimovic
Mehmed "Meša" Selimović was a Yugoslav writer. His novel Death and the Dervish is one of the most important literary works in post-war Yugoslavia. Some of the main themes in his works are relations between individual and authority, life and death, and other existential problems...
. There were numerous Serbian
Serbs
The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group of the Balkans and southern Central Europe. Serbs are located mainly in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and form a sizable minority in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia. Likewise, Serbs are an officially recognized minority in...
, Croatian and Bosnian
History of Bosnia and Herzegovina
-Pre-Slavic Period :Bosnia has been inhabited at least since Neolithic times. In the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th and 3rd century BCE displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former...
legends on the bridge's construction. According to one, Mehmed Paşa built the bridge in his son's name. Another is present through Ivo Andrić
Ivo Andric
Ivan "Ivo" Andrić was a Yugoslav novelist, short story writer, and the 1961 winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature. His writings dealt mainly with life in his native Bosnia under the Ottoman Empire...
's "Bridge on the Drina". It tells the tale of Rade the Architect who built the bridge.
In his native village of Sokolovići he has built a mosque
Mosque
A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. The word is likely to have entered the English language through French , from Portuguese , from Spanish , and from Berber , ultimately originating in — . The Arabic word masjid literally means a place of prostration...
, maktab
Maktab
Maktab , also called kuttab , is an Arabic word meaning elementary schools...
and musafirhana (guest house). His foundations are spread over Edirne
Edirne
Edirne is a city in Eastern Thrace, the northwestern part of Turkey, close to the borders with Greece and Bulgaria. Edirne served as the capital city of the Ottoman Empire from 1365 to 1453, before Constantinople became the empire's new capital. At present, Edirne is the capital of the Edirne...
, Halep, Medina
Medina
Medina , or ; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and...
, Bečkerek, Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade is the capital and largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans. According to official results of Census 2011, the city has a population of 1,639,121. It is one of the 15 largest cities in Europe...
and alongside Bosnia
Bosnia Province, Ottoman Empire
The Bosnia Vilayet was an Ottoman vilayet, mostly based on the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as most of Slavonia, Lika and Dalmatia in present-day Croatia. It bordered Kosovo Vilayet to the south. Before the administrative reform in 1864, it was called the...
, where he is especially remembered for his bridges. Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
and Constantinople
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
contained numerous mosques alone. Apart from the Višegrad bridge, Arslanagić bridge in Trebinje
Trebinje
Trebinje is the southernmost municipality and town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is administratively part of the Republika Srpska entity and is located in southeastern Herzegovina, some from the Adriatic Sea....
, Vizier's bridge in Podgorica
Podgorica
Podgorica , is the capital and largest city of Montenegro.Podgorica's favourable position at the confluence of the Ribnica and Morača rivers and the meeting point of the fertile Zeta Plain and Bjelopavlići Valley has encouraged settlement...
, the bridge on Žepa
Žepa
Žepa is a town in the east of Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina in the municipality of Rogatica. Žepa is located northeast of Rogatica itself, southwest of Srebrenica and northwest of Višegrad...
and Kozja ćuprija in Sarajevo
Sarajevo
Sarajevo |Bosnia]], surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans....
are attributed to his name. Between Višegrad
Višegrad
Višegrad is a town and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is part of the Republika Srpska entity. It is on the river Drina, located on the road from Goražde and Ustiprača towards Užice, Serbia.-History:...
and Sarajevo
Sarajevo
Sarajevo |Bosnia]], surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans....
, on Glasinac, he built a Road of four paces and a castle. Of the castle, only a drinking-fountain remained – the Mehmed Sokolović's han.
See also
External links
- Bosniak Mehmed Pasha Sokolovic - Article by Prof. Muhamed Filipovic (historian) examining history of Bosniak hero Mehmed-pasa Sokolovic
- "Myth and Reality – Mehmed Pasha Sokolović", Ismet Kočan, feuilleton in Večernje Novosti (in Serbian).
- Photos of Sokollu Mehmet Pasa Mosque at Kadirga, Constantinople