Ancient philosophy

• Gorgias
  Gorgias
  Gorgias ,Greek sophist, pre-socratic philosopher and rhetorician, was a native of Leontini in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxographers report that he was a pupil of Empedocles, although he would only have been a few years younger...
  
  , On What is Not
• Plato
  Plato
  Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
  
  , Charmides
  Charmides (dialogue)
  The Charmides is a dialogue of Plato, in which Socrates engages a handsome and popular boy in a conversation about the meaning of sophrosyne, a Greek word usually translated into English as "temperance", "self-control", or "restraint"...
  
  
• Plato, Lysis
  Lysis (dialogue)
  Lysis is a dialogue of Plato which discusses the nature of friendship. It is generally classified as an early dialogue.The main characters are Socrates, the boys Lysis and Menexenus who are friends, as well as Hippothales, who is in unrequited love with Lysis and therefore, after the initial...
  
  
• Plato, Laches
  Laches (dialogue)
  The Laches is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. Participants in the discourse present competing definitions of the concept of courage.-Characters:*Socrates*Lysimachus - Son of the Athenian general and statesman, Aristides....
  
  
• Plato, Protagoras
  Protagoras (dialogue)
  Protagoras is a dialogue of Plato. The traditional subtitle is "or the Sophists, probative". The main argument is between the elderly Protagoras, a celebrated sophist, and Socrates...
  
  
• Plato, Euthydemus
  Euthydemus (dialogue)
  Euthydemus , written 380 BCE, is dialogue by Plato which satirizes what Plato presents as the logical fallacies of the Sophists. It describes a visit paid by Socrates and various youths to two brothers, Euthydemus and Dionysodorus, both of whom are prominent Sophists...
  
  
• Plato, Cratylus
  Cratylus (dialogue)
  Cratylus is the name of a dialogue by Plato. Most modern scholars agree that it was written mostly during Plato's so-called middle period...
  
  
• Plato, Phaedrus
• Plato, Ion
  Ion (dialogue)
  In Plato's Ion Socrates discusses with Ion, a professional rhapsode who also lectures on Homer, the question of whether the rhapsode, a performer of poetry, gives his performance on account of his skill and knowledge or by virtue of divine possession...
  
  
• Plato, Symposium
• Plato, Meno
• Plato, Euthyphro
  Euthyphro
  Euthyphro is one of Plato's early dialogues, dated to after 399 BC. Taking place during the weeks leading up to Socrates' trial, the dialogue features Socrates and Euthyphro, a man known for claiming to be a religious expert. They attempt to pinpoint a definition for piety.-Background:The dialogue...
  
  
• Plato, Apology
  Apology (Plato)
  The Apology of Socrates is Plato's version of the speech given by Socrates as he unsuccessfully defended himself in 399 BC against the charges of "corrupting the young, and by not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daimonia that are novel"...
  
  
• Plato, Crito
  Crito
  Crito is a short but important dialogue by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. It is a conversation between Socrates and his wealthy friend Crito regarding justice , injustice , and the appropriate response to injustice. Socrates thinks that injustice may not be answered with injustice, and...
  
  
• Plato, Phaedo
  Phaedo
  Plato's Phaedo is one of the great dialogues of his middle period, along with the Republic and the Symposium. The Phaedo, which depicts the death of Socrates, is also Plato's seventh and last dialogue to detail the philosopher's final days .In the dialogue, Socrates...
  
  
• Plato, Gorgias
  Gorgias (dialogue)
  Gorgias is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato around 380 BC. In this dialogue, Socrates seeks the true definition of rhetoric, attempting to pinpoint the essence of rhetoric and unveil the flaws of the sophistic oratory popular in Athens at this time...
  
  
• Plato, The Republic
  Republic (Plato)
  The Republic is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato around 380 BC concerning the definition of justice and the order and character of the just city-state and the just man...
  
  
• Plato, Timaeus
  Timaeus (dialogue)
  Timaeus is one of Plato's dialogues, mostly in the form of a long monologue given by the title character, written circa 360 BC. The work puts forward speculation on the nature of the physical world and human beings. It is followed by the dialogue Critias.Speakers of the dialogue are Socrates,...
  
  
• Plato, Critias
  Critias (dialogue)
  Critias, one of Plato's late dialogues, contains the story of the mighty island kingdom Atlantis and its attempt to conquer Athens, which failed due to the ordered society of the Athenians...
  
  
• Plato, Parmenides
• Plato, Theaetetus
  Theaetetus (dialogue)
  The Theaetetus is one of Plato's dialogues concerning the nature of knowledge. The framing of the dialogue begins when Euclides tells his friend Terpsion that he had written a book many years ago based on what Socrates had told him of a conversation he'd had with Theaetetus when Theaetetus was...
  
  
• Plato, Sophist
  Sophist (dialogue)
  The Sophist is a Platonic dialogue from the philosopher's late period, most likely written in 360 BCE. Having criticized his Theory of Forms in the Parmenides, Plato presents a new conception of the forms in the Sophist, more mundane and down-to-earth than its predecessor...
  
  
• Plato, Statesman
• Plato, Philebus
  Philebus
  The Philebus , composed between 360 and 347 BC, is among the last of the late Socratic dialogues of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. Socrates is the primary speaker in Philebus, unlike in the other late dialogues...
  
  
• Plato, Laws
  Laws (dialogue)
  The Laws is Plato's last and longest dialogue. The question asked at the beginning is not "What is law?" as one would expect. That is the question of the Minos...
  
  
• Aristotle
  Aristotle
  Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
  
  , Organon
  Organon
  The Organon is the name given by Aristotle's followers, the Peripatetics, to the standard collection of his six works on logic:* Categories* On Interpretation* Prior Analytics* Posterior Analytics...
  
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  • Categories
    Categories (Aristotle)
    The Categories is a text from Aristotle's Organon that enumerates all the possible kinds of thing that can be the subject or the predicate of a proposition...
    
    
  • De Interpretatione
  • Prior Analytics
    Prior Analytics
    The Prior Analytics is Aristotle's work on deductive reasoning, specifically the syllogism. It is also part of his Organon, which is the instrument or manual of logical and scientific methods....
    
    
  • Posterior Analytics
    Posterior Analytics
    The Posterior Analytics is a text from Aristotle's Organon that deals with demonstration, definition, and scientific knowledge. The demonstration is distinguished as a syllogism productive of scientific knowledge, while the definition marked as the statement of a thing's nature, .....
    
    
  • Topics
    Topics (Aristotle)
    The Topics is the name given to one of Aristotle's six works on logic collectively known as the Organon. The other five are:*Categories*De Interpretatione*Prior Analytics*Posterior Analytics*On Sophistical Refutations...
    
    
  • On Sophistical Refutations
    On Sophistical Refutations
    Sophistical Refutations is a text in Aristotle's Organon.Aristotle identified thirteen fallacies, as follows:Verbal fallacies* Accent or emphasis* Amphibology* Equivocation* Composition* Division...
    
    
• Aristotle, Physics
  Physics (Aristotle)
  The Physics of Aristotle is one of the foundational books of Western science and philosophy...
  
  
• Aristotle, On the Heavens
  On the Heavens
  On the Heavens is Aristotle's chief cosmological treatise: it contains his astronomical theory and his ideas on the concrete workings of the terrestrial world...
  
  
• Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption
  On Generation and Corruption
  On Generation and Corruption , , also known as On Coming to Be and Passing Away) is a treatise by Aristotle. Like many of his texts, it is both scientific and philosophic...
  
  
• Aristotle, Meteorology
  Meteorology (Aristotle)
  Meteorology is a treatise by Aristotle which contains his theories about the earth sciences. These include early accounts of water evaporation, weather phenomena, and earthquakes....
  
  
• Aristotle, Metaphysics
  Metaphysics (Aristotle)
  Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the branch of philosophy with the same name. The principal subject is "being qua being", or being understood as being. It examines what can be asserted about anything that exists just because of its existence and...
  
  
• Aristotle, On the Soul
  On the Soul
  On the Soul is a major treatise by Aristotle on the nature of living things. His discussion centres on the kinds of souls possessed by different kinds of living things, distinguished by their different operations...
  
  
• Aristotle, Parva Naturalia
  Parva Naturalia
  The Parva Naturalia are a collection of seven works by Aristotle, which discuss natural phenomena involving the body and the soul:* Sense and Sensibilia * On Memory...
  
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  • Sense and Sensibilia
  • On Memory
  • On Sleep
  • On Dreams
    On Dreams
    On Dreams is one of the short treatises that make up Aristotle's Parva Naturalia.-External links:*, translated by J. I. Beare*HTML Greek text: ,...
    
    
  • On Divination in Sleep
  • On Length and Shortness of Life
  • On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration
    On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration
    On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration is one of the short treatises that make up Aristotle's Parva Naturalia.-Place in the Parva Naturalia:...
    
    
• Aristotle, On Breath
  On Breath
  On Breath is a philosophical treatise included in the Corpus Aristotelicum but usually regarded as spurious...
  
  
• Aristotle, History of Animals
  History of Animals
  History of Animals is a zoological natural history text by Aristotle.-Arabic translation:The Arabic translation of Historia Animalium comprises treatises 1-10 of the Kitāb al-Hayawān .-See also:...
  
  
• Aristotle, Parts of Animals
• Aristotle, Movement of Animals
• Aristotle, Progression of Animals
• Aristotle, Generation of Animals
  Generation of Animals
  The Generation of Animals is a text by Aristotle.-Arabic translation:...
  
  
• Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics
  Nicomachean Ethics
  The Nicomachean Ethics is the name normally given to Aristotle's best known work on ethics. The English version of the title derives from Greek Ἠθικὰ Νικομάχεια, transliterated Ethika Nikomacheia, which is sometimes also given in the genitive form as Ἠθικῶν Νικομαχείων, Ethikōn Nikomacheiōn...
  
  
• Aristotle, Politics
  Politics (Aristotle)
  Aristotle's Politics is a work of political philosophy. The end of the Nicomachean Ethics declared that the inquiry into ethics necessarily follows into politics, and the two works are frequently considered to be parts of a larger treatise, or perhaps connected lectures, dealing with the...
  
  
• Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians
  Constitution of the Athenians
  The Constitution of the Athenians is the name of either of two texts from Classical antiquity, one probably by Aristotle or a student of his, the other attributed to Xenophon, but not by him....
  
  
• Aristotle, Rhetoric
  Rhetoric (Aristotle)
  Aristotle's Rhetoric is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of persuasion, dating from the 4th century BC. In Greek, it is titled ΤΕΧΝΗ ΡΗΤΟΡΙΚΗ, in Latin Ars Rhetorica. In English, its title varies: typically it is titled Rhetoric, the Art of Rhetoric, or a Treatise on...
  
  
• Aristotle, Poetics
• Lucretius
  Lucretius
  Titus Lucretius Carus was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is an epic philosophical poem laying out the beliefs of Epicureanism, De rerum natura, translated into English as On the Nature of Things or "On the Nature of the Universe".Virtually no details have come down concerning...
  
  , On the Nature of Things
  On the Nature of Things
  De rerum natura is a 1st century BC didactic poem by the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius with the goal of explaining Epicurean philosophy to a Roman audience. The poem, written in some 7,400 dactylic hexameters, is divided into six untitled books, and explores Epicurean physics through richly...
  
  
• Epictetus
  Epictetus
  Epictetus was a Greek sage and Stoic philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia , and lived in Rome until banishment when he went to Nicopolis in northwestern Greece where he lived the rest of his life. His teachings were noted down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses...
  
  , Discourses
  Discourses of Epictetus
  The Discourses of Epictetus are a series of extracts of the teachings of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus written down by Arrian c. 108 AD. There were originally eight books, but only four now remain in their entirety, along with a few fragments of the others...
  
  , AD 101
• Epictetus, Enchiridion
  Enchiridion of Epictetus
  The Enchiridion, or Handbook of Epictetus, , often shortened to simply "The Handbook", is a short manual of Stoic ethical advice compiled by Arrian, who had been a pupil of Epictetus at the beginning of the 2nd century....
  
  , AD 135
• Marcus Aurelius, Meditations
  Meditations
  Meditations is a series of personal writings by Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor 161–180 CE, setting forth his ideas on Stoic philosophy....
  
  
• Plotinus
  Plotinus
  Plotinus was a major philosopher of the ancient world. In his system of theory there are the three principles: the One, the Intellect, and the Soul. His teacher was Ammonius Saccas and he is of the Platonic tradition...
  
  , Enneads
  Enneads
  The Six Enneads, sometimes abbreviated to The Enneads or Enneads , is the collection of writings of Plotinus, edited and compiled by his student Porphyry . Plotinus was a student of Ammonius Saccas and they were founders of Neoplatonism...
  
  

Medieval philosophy

• Augustine of Hippo
  Augustine of Hippo
  Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
  
  , Enchiridion
  Enchiridion of Augustine
  The Enchiridion, Manual, or Handbook of Augustine of Hippo is alternatively titled, "Faith, Hope, and Love". The Enchiridion is a compact treatise on Christian piety, written in response to a request by an otherwise unknown person, named Laurentius, shortly after the death of Saint Jerome in 420...
  
  
• Augustine of Hippo, Confessions
  Confessions (St. Augustine)
  Confessions is the name of an autobiographical work, consisting of 13 books, by St. Augustine of Hippo, written between AD 397 and AD 398. Modern English translations of it are sometimes published under the title The Confessions of St...
  
  , circa AD 397
• Augustine of Hippo, The City of God, Early 5th century
• Boethius
  Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius
  Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, commonly called Boethius was a philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to an ancient and important family which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls. His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after...
  
  , Consolation of Philosophy
  Consolation of Philosophy
  Consolation of Philosophy is a philosophical work by Boethius, written around the year 524. It has been described as the single most important and influential work in the West on Medieval and early Renaissance Christianity, and is also the last great Western work that can be called Classical.-...
  
  , circa 500
• Maimonides
  Maimonides
  Moses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...
  
  , Guide for the Perplexed
  Guide for the Perplexed
  The Guide for the Perplexed is one of the major works of Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides or "the Rambam"...
  
  
• Maimonides, Mishneh Torah
  Mishneh Torah
  The Mishneh Torah subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka is a code of Jewish religious law authored by Maimonides , one of history's foremost rabbis...
  
  
• Yehuda Halevi
  Yehuda Halevi
  Judah Halevi was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. He was born in Spain, either in Toledo or Tudela, in 1075 or 1086, and died shortly after arriving in Palestine in 1141...
  
  , Kuzari
  Kuzari
  The Kitab al Khazari, commonly called the Kuzari, is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi, completed around 1140. Its title is an Arabic phrase meaning Book of the Khazars...
  
  
• Saadia Gaon
  Saadia Gaon
  Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon was a prominent rabbi, Jewish philosopher, and exegete of the Geonic period.The first important rabbinic figure to write extensively in Arabic, he is considered the founder of Judeo-Arabic literature...
  
  , Emunot ve-Deot
• Al-Ghazali
  Al-Ghazali
  Abu Hāmed Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzālī , known as Algazel to the western medieval world, born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia was a Persian Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher, and mystic....
  
  , The Incoherence of the Philosophers
  The Incoherence of the Philosophers
  The Incoherence of the Philosophers is the title of a landmark 11th century polemic by the Sufi sympathetic Imam Al-Ghazali of the Asharite school of Islamic theology criticizing the Avicennian school of early Islamic philosophy...
  
  
• Averroes
  Averroes
  ' , better known just as Ibn Rushd , and in European literature as Averroes , was a Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy,...
  
  , The Incoherence of the Incoherence
  The Incoherence of the Incoherence
  The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Andalusian Muslim polymath and philosopher Ibn Rushd is an important Islamic philosophical treatise, in which the author defends the use of Aristotelian philosophy within Islamic thought.It was written in the style of a dialogue against Al-Ghazali's claims...
  
  
• Thomas Aquinas
  Thomas Aquinas
  Thomas Aquinas, O.P. , also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis...
  
  , Summa contra Gentiles
  Summa contra Gentiles
  The Summa contra Gentiles by St. Thomas Aquinas has traditionally been dated to 1264, though more recent scholarship places it towards the end of Thomas’ life, 1270-73 . The work has occasioned much debate as to its purpose, its intended audience and its relationship to his other works...
  
  , circa 1260
• Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae
  Summa Theologica
  The Summa Theologiæ is the best-known work of Thomas Aquinas , and although unfinished, "one of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the most influential works of Western literature." It is intended as a manual for beginners in theology and a compendium of all of the main...
  
  

Modern philosophy

• Niccolò Machiavelli
  Niccolò Machiavelli
  Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian historian, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He is one of the main founders of modern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic...
  
  , The Prince
  The Prince
  The Prince is a political treatise by the Italian diplomat, historian and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From correspondence a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus . But the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after...
  
  , 1532
• Sir Francis Bacon, Advancement of Learning
• Sir Francis Bacon, Novum Organum
  Novum Organum
  The Novum Organum, full original title Novum Organum Scientiarum, is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon, written in Latin and published in 1620. The title translates as new instrument, i.e. new instrument of science. This is a reference to Aristotle's work Organon, which was his treatise on...
  
  
• René Descartes
  René Descartes
  René Descartes ; was a French philosopher and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day...
  
  , Rules for the Direction of the Mind
  Rules for the Direction of the Mind
  In 1619, René Descartes began work on an unfinished treatise regarding the proper method for scientific and philosophical thinking entitled Regulae ad directionem ingenii, or Rules for the Direction of the Mind. This work outlined the basis for his later work on complex problems of mathematics,...
  
  
• René Descartes, Discourse on Method
  Discourse on Method
  The Discourse on the Method is a philosophical and autobiographical treatise published by René Descartes in 1637. Its full name is Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One's Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences .The Discourse on Method is best known...
  
  
• René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy
  Meditations on First Philosophy
  Meditations on First Philosophy is a philosophical treatise written by René Descartes and first published in 1641 . The French translation was published in 1647 as Méditations Metaphysiques...
  
  
• René Descartes, Objections Against the Meditations and Replies
• Baruch Spinoza
  Baruch Spinoza
  Baruch de Spinoza and later Benedict de Spinoza was a Dutch Jewish philosopher. Revealing considerable scientific aptitude, the breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death...
  
  , Ethics
  Ethics (book)
  Ethics is a philosophical book written by Benedict de Spinoza. It was written in Latin. Although it was published posthumously in 1677, it is his most famous work, and is considered his magnum opus....
  
  
• Blaise Pascal
  Blaise Pascal
  Blaise Pascal , was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen...
  
  , Provincial Letters
  Lettres provinciales
  The Lettres provinciales are a series of eighteen letters written by French philosopher and theologian Blaise Pascal under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte...
  
  
• Blaise Pascal, Pensées
  Pensées
  The Pensées represented a defense of the Christian religion by Blaise Pascal, the renowned 17th century philosopher and mathematician. Pascal's religious conversion led him into a life of asceticism, and the Pensées was in many ways his life's work. "Pascal's Wager" is found here...
  
  
• Gottfried Leibniz
  Gottfried Leibniz
  Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a German philosopher and mathematician. He wrote in different languages, primarily in Latin , French and German ....
  
  , Discourse on Metaphysics
  Discourse on Metaphysics
  The Discourse on Metaphysics is a short treatise by Gottfried Leibniz in which he develops a philosophy concerning physical substance, motion and resistance of bodies, and God's role within the universe...
  
  
• Gottfried Leibniz, Monadology
  Monadology
  The Monadology is one of Gottfried Leibniz’s best known works representing his later philosophy. It is a short text which sketches in some 90 paragraphs a metaphysics of simple substances, or monads.- Text :...
  
  
• Gottfried Leibniz, New Essays Concerning Human Understanding
• Thomas Hobbes
  Thomas Hobbes
  Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury , in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy...
  
  , Leviathan
  Leviathan (book)
  Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil — commonly called simply Leviathan — is a book written by Thomas Hobbes and published in 1651. Its name derives from the biblical Leviathan...
  
  , 1651
• John Locke
  John Locke
  John Locke FRS , widely known as the Father of Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social...
  
  , An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
  An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
  First appearing in 1690 with the printed title An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding by John Locke concerns the foundation of human knowledge and understanding. He describes the mind at birth as a blank slate filled later through experience...
  
  
• John Locke, Two Treatises of Government
  Two Treatises of Government
  The Two Treatises of Government is a work of political philosophy published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke...
  
  , 1689
• George Berkeley
  George Berkeley
  George Berkeley , also known as Bishop Berkeley , was an Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism"...
  
  , Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge
  Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge
  A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge is a 1710 work by Anglo-Irish Empiricist philosopher George Berkeley. This book largely seeks to refute the claims made by his contemporary John Locke about the nature of human perception...
  
  
• Adam Smith
  Adam Smith
  Adam Smith was a Scottish social philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations...
  
  , The Wealth of Nations
  The Wealth of Nations
  An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, generally referred to by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations, is the magnum opus of the Scottish economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith...
  
  
• David Hume
  David Hume
  David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment...
  
  , A Treatise of Human Nature
  A Treatise of Human Nature
  A Treatise of Human Nature is a book by Scottish philosopher David Hume, first published in 1739–1740.The full title of the Treatise is 'A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects'. It contains the following sections:* Book 1:...
  
  
• David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
  An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
  An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in 1748. It was a revision of an earlier effort, Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature, published anonymously in London in 1739–40...
  
  
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought.His novel Émile: or, On Education is a treatise...
  
  , The Social Contract
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile
  Emile: Or, On Education
  Émile, or On Education is a treatise on the nature of education and on the nature of man written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who considered it to be the “best and most important of all my writings”. Due to a section of the book entitled “Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar,” Émile was be...
  
  
• Immanuel Kant
  Immanuel Kant
  Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher from Königsberg , researching, lecturing and writing on philosophy and anthropology at the end of the 18th Century Enlightenment....
  
  , Critique of Pure Reason
  Critique of Pure Reason
  The Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is considered one of the most influential works in the history of philosophy. Also referred to as Kant's "first critique," it was followed by the Critique of Practical Reason and the Critique of Judgement...
  
  
• Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason
  Critique of Practical Reason
  The Critique of Practical Reason is the second of Immanuel Kant's three critiques, first published in 1788. It follows on from his Critique of Pure Reason and deals with his moral philosophy....
  
  , 1788
• Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals
  Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals
  The Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals , also known as Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals or Grounding of the Metaphysics of Morals, is Immanuel Kant's first contribution to moral philosophy. It argues for an a priori basis for morality...
  
  , 1785
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
  Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
  Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher, one of the creators of German Idealism. His historicist and idealist account of reality as a whole revolutionized European philosophy and was an important precursor to Continental philosophy and Marxism.Hegel developed a comprehensive...
  
  , Phenomenology of Spirit
  Phenomenology of Spirit
  Phänomenologie des Geistes is one of G.W.F. Hegel's most important philosophical works. It is translated as The Phenomenology of Spirit or The Phenomenology of Mind due to the dual meaning in the German word Geist. The book's working title, which also appeared in the first edition, was Science of...
  
  
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, The Philosophy of Right
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, The Philosophy of History
• Arthur Schopenhauer
  Arthur Schopenhauer
  Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher known for his pessimism and philosophical clarity. At age 25, he published his doctoral dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, which examined the four separate manifestations of reason in the phenomenal...
  
  , The World as Will and Representation
  The World as Will and Representation
  The World as Will and Representation is the central work of the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. The first edition was published in December 1818, and the second expanded edition in 1844. In 1948, an abridged version was edited by Thomas Mann....
  
  
• Søren Kierkegaard
  Søren Kierkegaard
  Søren Aabye Kierkegaard was a Danish Christian philosopher, theologian and religious author. He was a critic of idealist intellectuals and philosophers of his time, such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel...
  
  , Either/Or
  Either/Or
  Published in two volumes in 1843, Either/Or is an influential book written by the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, exploring the aesthetic and ethical "phases" or "stages" of existence....
  
  , 1843
• Søren Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling
  Fear and Trembling
  Fear and Trembling is an influential philosophical work by Søren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym Johannes de silentio...
  
  , 1843
• Mary Wollstonecraft
  Mary Wollstonecraft
  Mary Wollstonecraft was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book...
  
  , A Vindication of the Rights of Women
• Karl Marx
  Karl Marx
  Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement...
  
  , The Communist Manifesto
  The Communist Manifesto
  The Communist Manifesto, originally titled Manifesto of the Communist Party is a short 1848 publication written by the German Marxist political theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It has since been recognized as one of the world's most influential political manuscripts. Commissioned by the...
  
  
• Karl Marx, Das Kapital
  Das Kapital
  Das Kapital, Kritik der politischen Ökonomie , by Karl Marx, is a critical analysis of capitalism as political economy, meant to reveal the economic laws of the capitalist mode of production, and how it was the precursor of the socialist mode of production.- Themes :In Capital: Critique of...
  
  
• John Stuart Mill
  John Stuart Mill
  John Stuart Mill was a British philosopher, economist and civil servant. An influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy, his conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of...
  
  , On Liberty
  On Liberty
  On Liberty is a philosophical work by British philosopher John Stuart Mill. It was a radical work to the Victorian readers of the time because it supported individuals' moral and economic freedom from the state....
  
  , 1859
• John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism
  Utilitarianism (book)
  John Stuart Mill's book Utilitarianism is a philosophical defense of utilitarianism in ethics. The essay first appeared as a series of three articles published in Fraser's Magazine in 1861; the articles were collected and reprinted as a single book in 1863...
  
  
• John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic
  A System of Logic
  A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive is an 1843 book by English philosopher John Stuart Mill. In this work, he formulated the five principles of inductive reasoning that are known as Mill's methods.-References:...
  
  
• John Stuart Mill, The Subjection of Women
  The Subjection of Women
  The Subjection of Women is the title of an essay written by John Stuart Mill in 1869, possibly jointly with his wife Harriet Taylor Mill, stating an argument in favour of equality between the sexes...
  
  
• Friedrich Nietzsche
  Friedrich Nietzsche
  Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was a 19th-century German philosopher, poet, composer and classical philologist...
  
  , Thus Spoke Zarathustra
• Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals
• Charles Sanders Peirce
  Charles Peirce
  Charles Sanders Peirce September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist, born at 3 Phillips Place in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years...
  
  , Logic of Relatives, 1870

Buddhist philosophy

• Abhidhamma
• Nagarjuna
  Nagarjuna
  Nāgārjuna was an important Buddhist teacher and philosopher. Along with his disciple Āryadeva, he is credited with founding the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism...
  
  , Mulamadhyamakakarika
  Mulamadhyamakakarika
  The Mūlamadhyamakakārikā , or Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, is a key text by Nagarjuna, one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.-Competing interpretations:...
  
   (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way)

Confucianism

• Five Classics, edited or compiled by Confucius
  Confucius
  Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
  
  
• The I Ching
  I Ching
  The I Ching or "Yì Jīng" , also known as the Classic of Changes, Book of Changes and Zhouyi, is one of the oldest of the Chinese classic texts...
  
  
• The Shi Jing
  Shi Jing
  The Classic of Poetry , translated variously as the Book of Songs, the Book of Odes, and often known simply as its original name The Odes, is the earliest existing collection of Chinese poems and songs. It comprises 305 poems and songs, with many range from the 10th to the 7th centuries BC...
  
   or The Book of Odes
• The Classic of Rites
  Classic of Rites
  The Classic of Rites , also known as the Book of Rites, Book of Customs, the Record of Rites, was one of the Chinese Five Classics of the Confucian canon. It described the social forms, governmental system, and ancient/ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty...
  
  
• The Classic of History
  Classic of History
  The Classic of History is a compilation of documentary records related to events in ancient history of China. It is also commonly known as the Shàngshū , or simply Shū...
  
  
• The Spring and Autumn Annals
  Spring and Autumn Annals
  The Spring and Autumn Annals is the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 BCE to 481 BCE. It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged on annalistic principles. The text is extremely concise and, if all the commentaries are excluded, about 16,000...
  
  
• Four Books, selected by Zhu Xi
  Zhu Xi
  Zhū​ Xī​ or Chu Hsi was a Song Dynasty Confucian scholar who became the leading figure of the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist Neo-Confucian in China...
  
   (1130 1200)
• Confucius and Zeng Zi, The Great Learning
  Great Learning
  The Great Learning was one of the "Four Books" in Confucianism. The Great Learning had come from a chapter in the Classic of Rites which formed one of the Five Classics. It consists of a short main text attributed to the teachings of Confucius and then ten commentary chapters accredited to one...
  
  
• Confucius, The Analects of Confucius
  Analects of Confucius
  The Analects, or Lunyu , also known as the Analects of Confucius, are considered a record of the words and acts of the central Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held....
  
  
• Zisi, The Doctrine of the Mean
  Doctrine of the Mean
  The Doctrine of the Mean , is both a concept and one of the books of Confucian teachings. The composition of the text is attributed to Zisi the only grandson of Confucius, and it came from a chapter in the Classic of Rites...
  
  
• Mencius
  Mencius
  Mencius was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.-Life:Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng , Shandong province, only thirty kilometres ...
  
  , The Mencius
• Xun Zi
  Xun Zi
  Xun Zi was a Chinese Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring States Period and contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Xun Zi believed man's inborn tendencies need to be curbed through education and ritual, counter to Mencius's view that man is innately good...
  
  , Xunzi

Hindu philosophy

• The Upanishads
• The Bhagavad Gita
  Bhagavad Gita
  The ' , also more simply known as Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata, but is frequently treated as a freestanding text, and in particular, as an Upanishad in its own right, one of the several books that constitute general Vedic tradition...
  
   ("The Song of God")
• Samkhya school
  Samkhya
  Samkhya, also Sankhya, Sāṃkhya, or Sāṅkhya is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered as the founder of the Samkhya school, although no historical verification is possible...
  
  :
  • Isvarakrsna
    Isvarakrsna
    Isvarakrsna Whose name is connected with the Samkya Karika, probably the oldest of the six traditional systems of Indian philosophy which has its foundation attributed to the sage Kapila....
    
    , Sankhya Karika
• Nyaya school
  Nyaya
  ' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
  
  :
  • Aksapada Gautama, Nyaya Sutras
    Nyaya Sutras
    The Nyāya Sūtras are an ancient Indian text on of philosophy composed by ' . The sutras contain five chapters, each with two sections...
    
    
• Vaisheshika school
  Vaisheshika
  Vaisheshika or ' is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy of India. Historically, it has been closely associated with the Hindu school of logic, Nyaya....
  
  :
  • Kanada
    Kanada
    It has been claimed that Kashyapa, later known as Kanada was a Hindu sage and philosopher who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. He talked of Dvyanuka and tryanuka...
    
    , Vaishashik Darshana
• Yoga school
  Yoga
  Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
  
  :
  • Patañjali
    Patañjali
    Patañjali is the compiler of the Yoga Sūtras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice. According to tradition, the same Patañjali was also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a commentary on Kātyāyana's vārttikas on Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as an unspecified work of medicine .In...
    
    , Yoga Sutras
    Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
    The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are 194 Indian sūtras that constitute the foundational text of Rāja Yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, and Rāja Yoga is the highest practice....
    
    
  • Swami Swatamarama, Hatha Yoga Pradipika
    Hatha Yoga Pradipika
    The Hatha Yoga Pradipika is a classic Sanskrit manual on hatha yoga, written by Svami Svatmarama, a disciple of Swami Gorakhnath. Said to be the oldest surviving text on the hatha yoga, it is one of the three classic texts of hatha yoga, the other two being the Gheranda Samhita and the Shiva...
    
    
• Vedanta school
  Vedanta
  Vedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal...
  
  :
  • Vyasa
    Vyasa
    Vyasa is a central and revered figure in most Hindu traditions. He is also sometimes called Veda Vyasa , or Krishna Dvaipayana...
    
    , Brahma Sutras
    Brahma Sutras
    The Brahma sūtras , also known as Vedānta Sūtras , are one of the three canonical texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. A thorough study of Vedānta requires a close examination of these three texts, known in Sanskrit as the Prasthanatrayi, or the three starting points...
    
    

Taoism

• Lao Zi, Tao Te Ching
  Tao Te Ching
  The Tao Te Ching, Dao De Jing, or Daodejing , also simply referred to as the Laozi, whose authorship has been attributed to Laozi, is a Chinese classic text...
  
  , approximately 600 BC ??
• Chuang Tzu
  Zhuangzi
  Zhuangzi was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th century BCE during the Warring States Period, a period corresponding to the philosophical summit of Chinese thought — the Hundred Schools of Thought, and is credited with writing—in part or in whole—a work known by his name,...
  
  , Zhuangzi
  Zhuangzi (book)
  The Taoist book Zhuangzi was named after its purported author Zhuangzi, the philosopher. Since 742 CE, when Emperor Xuanzong of Tang mandated honorific titles for Taoist texts, it has also been known as the Nánhuá Zhēnjīng , literally meaning "True Classic of Southern Florescence," alluding to...
  
  
• Liezi
  Lie Yukou
  Lie Yukou is considered the author of the Daoist book Liezi, which uses his honorific name Liezi . The second Chinese character in Yukou is written kou 寇 "bandit; enemy"; the first is written yu 圄 "imprison", yu 禦 "resist; ward off", or occasionally yu 御 "drive ; ride ; control" Lie Yukou is...
  
  , Liezi
  Liezi
  The Liezi is a Daoist text attributed to Lie Yukou, a circa 5th century BCE Hundred Schools of Thought philosopher, but Chinese and Western scholars believe it was compiled around the 4th century CE.-Textual history:...
  
  

Epistemology

• Bertrand Russell
  Bertrand Russell
  Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things...
  
  , The Problems of Philosophy
  The Problems of Philosophy
  The Problems of Philosophy is one of Bertrand Russell's attempts to create a brief and accessible guide to the problems of philosophy...
  
  
• G.E. Moore, "A Defence of Common Sense
  A Defence of Common Sense
  A Defence of Common Sense is an influential 1925 essay by philosopher G. E. Moore. In it, he attempts to refute skepticism by arguing that at least some of our beliefs about the world are absolutely certain...
  
  "
• Edmund Gettier
  Edmund Gettier
  Edmund L. Gettier III is an American philosopher and Professor Emeritus at the University of Massachusetts Amherst; he owes his reputation to a single three-page paper published in 1963 called "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?"Gettier was educated at Cornell University, where his mentors...
  
  , "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", 1963

Metaphysics

• John Dewey
  John Dewey
  John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology...
  
  , Experience and Nature, c. 1929
• William James
  William James
  William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a physician. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism...
  
  , Pragmatism
• G. E. Moore, "The Refutation of Idealism", 1903
• Ludwig Wittgenstein
  Ludwig Wittgenstein
  Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein was an Austrian philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. He was professor in philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1939 until 1947...
  
  , Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
  Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
  The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is the only book-length philosophical work published by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein in his lifetime. It was an ambitious project: to identify the relationship between language and reality and to define the limits of science...
  
   (a.k.a. The Tractatus)
• Alfred North Whitehead
  Alfred North Whitehead
  Alfred North Whitehead, OM FRS was an English mathematician who became a philosopher. He wrote on algebra, logic, foundations of mathematics, philosophy of science, physics, metaphysics, and education...
  
  , Process and Reality
  Process and Reality
  In philosophy, especially metaphysics, the book Process and Reality by Alfred North Whitehead sets out its author's philosophy of organism, also called process philosophy...
  
  
• Martin Heidegger
  Martin Heidegger
  Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher known for his existential and phenomenological explorations of the "question of Being."...
  
  , Being and Time
  Being and Time
  Being and Time is a book by the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. Although written quickly, and despite the fact that Heidegger never completed the project outlined in the introduction, it remains his most important work and has profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, particularly...
  
  
• A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth, and Logic
  Language, Truth, and Logic
  Language, Truth, and Logic is a work of philosophy by Alfred Jules Ayer, published in 1936 when Ayer was 26...
  
  
• W.V.O. Quine, "Two Dogmas of Empiricism
  Two Dogmas of Empiricism
  W. V. Quine's paper Two Dogmas of Empiricism, published in 1951, is one of the most celebrated papers of twentieth century philosophy in the analytic tradition. According to Harvard professor of philosophy Peter Godfrey-Smith, this "paper [is] sometimes regarded as the most important in all of...
  
  "
• W.V.O. Quine, "On What There Is"
• W.V.O. Quine, From a Logical Point of View, 1980
• Saul Kripke
  Saul Kripke
  Saul Aaron Kripke is an American philosopher and logician. He is a professor emeritus at Princeton and teaches as a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the CUNY Graduate Center...
  
  , Naming and Necessity.
• Derek Parfit
  Derek Parfit
  Derek Parfit is a British philosopher who specializes in problems of personal identity, rationality and ethics, and the relations between them. His 1984 book Reasons and Persons has been very influential...
  
  , Reasons and Persons
  Reasons and Persons
  Reasons and Persons is a philosophical work by Derek Parfit, first published in 1984. It focuses on ethics, rationality and personal identity....
  
  

Philosophy of biology

• Elliot Sober, The Nature of Selection
• Erwin Schrödinger
  Erwin Schrödinger
  Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger was an Austrian physicist and theoretical biologist who was one of the fathers of quantum mechanics, and is famed for a number of important contributions to physics, especially the Schrödinger equation, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933...
  
  , What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell
  What is Life? (Schrödinger)
  What Is Life? is a 1944 non-fiction science book written for the lay reader by physicist Erwin Schrödinger. The book was based on a course of public lectures delivered by Schrödinger in February 1943, under the auspices of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies at Trinity College, Dublin...
  
  , 1945

Philosophy of chemistry

• J. van Brakel, Philosophy of Chemistry
  Philosophy of chemistry
  The philosophy of chemistry considers the methodology and underlying assumptions of the science of chemistry. It is explored by philosophers, chemists, and philosopher-chemist teams...
  
  , Leuven University Press, 2000.

Philosophy of mind

• David Chalmers
  David Chalmers
  David John Chalmers is an Australian philosopher specializing in the area of philosophy of mind and philosophy of language, whose recent work concerns verbal disputes. He is Professor of Philosophy and Director of the Centre for Consciousness at the Australian National University...
  
  , The Conscious Mind
  The Conscious Mind
  The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory is a 1996 book by David Chalmers, an Australian philosopher specializing in the area of philosophy of mind...
  
  
• Daniel Dennett
  Daniel Dennett
  Daniel Clement Dennett is an American philosopher, writer and cognitive scientist whose research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary biology and cognitive science. He is currently the Co-director of...
  
  , Consciousness Explained
  Consciousness Explained
  Consciousness Explained is a 1991 book by the American philosopher Daniel Dennett which offers an account of how consciousness arises from interaction of physical and cognitive processes in the brain.-Synopsis:...
  
  
• Edmund Husserl
  Edmund Husserl
  Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl was a philosopher and mathematician and the founder of the 20th century philosophical school of phenomenology. He broke with the positivist orientation of the science and philosophy of his day, yet he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic...
  
  , Ideas, 1913
• Edmund Husserl, Logical Investigations, 1900-1901
• Thomas Nagel
  Thomas Nagel
  Thomas Nagel is an American philosopher, currently University Professor of Philosophy and Law at New York University, where he has taught since 1980. His main areas of philosophical interest are philosophy of mind, political philosophy and ethics...
  
  , "What is it Like to be a Bat?
  What Is it Like to Be a Bat?
  "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?" is a well-known paper by the American philosopher Thomas Nagel, first published in The Philosophical Review in October 1974, and later in Nagel's Mortal Questions...
  
  "
• Hilary Putnam
  Hilary Putnam
  Hilary Whitehall Putnam is an American philosopher, mathematician and computer scientist, who has been a central figure in analytic philosophy since the 1960s, especially in philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, and philosophy of science...
  
  , "The Meaning of Meaning"
• Gilbert Ryle
  Gilbert Ryle
  Gilbert Ryle , was a British philosopher, a representative of the generation of British ordinary language philosophers that shared Wittgenstein's approach to philosophical problems, and is principally known for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for which he coined the phrase "the ghost in the...
  
  , The Concept of Mind
  The Concept of Mind
  The Concept of Mind is a book by the philosopher Gilbert Ryle. It argues that the concept of "mind" is "a philosophical illusion hailing chiefly from Descartes and sustained by logical errors and 'category mistakes' which have become habitual." Richard Webster praises its "lucidity and vigour",...
  
  , 1949
• Wilfrid Sellars
  Wilfrid Sellars
  Wilfrid Stalker Sellars was an American philosopher. His father was the Canadian-American philosopher Roy Wood Sellars, a leading American philosophical naturalist in the first half of the twentieth-century...
  
  , "Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind", 1956

Philosophy of physics

• Hans Reichenbach
  Hans Reichenbach
  Hans Reichenbach was a leading philosopher of science, educator and proponent of logical empiricism...
  
  , The Philosophy of Space and Time
• John Stuart Bell, "On the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox", 1964

Philosophy of psychology

• William James
  William James
  William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a physician. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism...
  
  , Principles of Psychology
  Principles of Psychology
  The Principles of Psychology is a monumental text in the history of psychology, written by William James and published in 1890.There were four methods in James' psychology: analysis , introspection , experiment The Principles of Psychology is a monumental text in the history of psychology, written...
  
  
• Donald Davidson
  Donald Davidson (philosopher)
  Donald Herbert Davidson was an American philosopher born in Springfield, Massachusetts, who served as Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley from 1981 to 2003 after having also held teaching appointments at Stanford University, Rockefeller University, Princeton...
  
  , "The Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme"

Philosophy of science

• Karl Pearson
  Karl Pearson
  Karl Pearson FRS was an influential English mathematician who has been credited for establishing the disciplineof mathematical statistics....
  
  , The Grammar of Science
  The Grammar of Science
  The Grammar of Science is a book by Karl Pearson first published in hardback in 1892. In 1900, the second edition, published by Adam & Charles Black, appeared. The third, revised, edition was also published by Adam & Charles Black in 1911. It was recommended by Einstein to his friends of the...
  
  , 1892
• Nelson Goodman
  Nelson Goodman
  Henry Nelson Goodman was an American philosopher, known for his work on counterfactuals, mereology, the problem of induction, irrealism and aesthetics.-Career:...
  
  , Fact, Fiction, and Forecast
  Fact, Fiction, and Forecast
  Fact, Fiction, and Forecast is a book by Nelson Goodman in which he explores some problems regarding scientific law and counterfactual conditionals and presents his New Riddle of Induction...
  
  , 1954
• Karl Popper
  Karl Popper
  Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH FRS FBA was an Austro-British philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics...
  
  , The Logic of Scientific Discovery
  The Logic of Scientific Discovery
  The Logic of Scientific Discovery is a 1934 book by Karl Popper. It was originally written in German and titled Logik der Forschung. Then Popper reformulated his book in English and republished it in 1959. This forms the rare case of a major work to appear in two languages, both written and one...
  
  , 1959
• Thomas Samuel Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions , by Thomas Kuhn, is an analysis of the history of science. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of scientific knowledge and it triggered an ongoing worldwide assessment and reaction in — and beyond — those scholarly...
  
  , 1962
• Hans Reichenbach
  Hans Reichenbach
  Hans Reichenbach was a leading philosopher of science, educator and proponent of logical empiricism...
  
  , The Rise of Scientific Philosophy
• Paul Feyerabend
  Paul Feyerabend
  Paul Karl Feyerabend was an Austrian-born philosopher of science best known for his work as a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked for three decades . He lived a peripatetic life, living at various times in England, the United States, New Zealand,...
  
  , Against Method
  Against Method
  Against Method is a book by Paul Feyerabend. In this work, Feyerabend argues that science is an anarchic enterprise. In the context of this work, the term anarchy refers to epistemological anarchy...
  
  : Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge, 1975
• Bas C. van Fraassen
  Bas C. van Fraassen
  Bastiaan Cornelis van Fraassen is a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at San Francisco State University, teaching courses in philosophy of science, the role of models in scientific practice and philosophical logic...
  
  , The Scientific Image, 1980

Aesthetics

• Martin Heidegger
  Martin Heidegger
  Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher known for his existential and phenomenological explorations of the "question of Being."...
  
  , The Origin of the Work of Art
  The Origin of the Work of Art
  The Origin of the Work of Art is the title of an article by German philosopher Martin Heidegger. Heidegger drafted the text between 1935 and 1937, reworking it for publication in 1950 and again in 1960...
  
  
• R.G. Collingwood, The Principles of Art
• Nelson Goodman
  Nelson Goodman
  Henry Nelson Goodman was an American philosopher, known for his work on counterfactuals, mereology, the problem of induction, irrealism and aesthetics.-Career:...
  
  , Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols, 1968

Ethics

• G. E. M. Anscombe
  G. E. M. Anscombe
  Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe , better known as Elizabeth Anscombe, was a British analytic philosopher from Ireland. A student of Ludwig Wittgenstein, she became an authority on his work and edited and translated many books drawn from his writings, above all his Philosophical Investigations...
  
  , "Modern Moral Philosophy
  Modern Moral Philosophy
  Modern Moral Philosophy was an influential article on moral philosophy by G. E. M. Anscombe, originally published in the journal Philosophy, vol. 33, no. 124 ....
  
  "
• Gilles Deleuze
  Gilles Deleuze
  Gilles Deleuze , was a French philosopher who, from the early 1960s until his death, wrote influentially on philosophy, literature, film, and fine art. His most popular works were the two volumes of Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus , both co-written with Félix...
  
   and Félix Guattari
  Félix Guattari
  Pierre-Félix Guattari was a French militant, an institutional psychotherapist, philosopher, and semiotician; he founded both schizoanalysis and ecosophy...
  
  , "Capitalism and Schizophrenia
  Capitalism and Schizophrenia
  Capitalism and Schizophrenia is a two-volume theoretical work by the French authors Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. Its volumes, published eight years apart, are Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus ....
  
  "
• John McDowell
  John McDowell
  John Henry McDowell is a South African philosopher, formerly a fellow of University College, Oxford and now University Professor at the University of Pittsburgh. Although he has written extensively on metaphysics, epistemology, ancient philosophy, and meta-ethics, McDowell's most influential work...
  
  , "Values as Secondary Qualities"
• Alasdair MacIntyre
  Alasdair MacIntyre
  Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre is a British philosopher primarily known for his contribution to moral and political philosophy but known also for his work in history of philosophy and theology...
  
  , After Virtue
  After Virtue
  After Virtue is a book on moral philosophy by Alasdair MacIntyre. MacIntyre provides a bleak view of the state of modern moral discourse, regarding it as failing to be rational, and failing to admit to being irrational. He claims that older forms of moral discourse were in better shape,...
  
  
• G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica
  Principia Ethica
  Principia Ethica is a monograph by philosopher G. E. Moore, first published in 1903. It is one of the standard texts of modern ethics, and introduced the term naturalistic fallacy.-External links:* of Principia Ethica....
  
  
• P. F. Strawson
  P. F. Strawson
  Sir Peter Frederick Strawson FBA was an English philosopher. He was the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at the University of Oxford from 1968 to 1987. Before that he was appointed as a college lecturer at University College, Oxford in 1947 and became a tutorial fellow the...
  
  , "Freedom and Resentment"

Bioethics

• Paul Ramsey, The Patient as a Person
• Paul Ramsey, Fabricated Man
• Judith Jarvis Thomson
  Judith Jarvis Thomson
  Judith Jarvis Thomson is an American moral philosopher and metaphysician, best known for her use of thought experiments to make philosophical points.- Career :...
  
  , "A Defense of Abortion
  A Defense of Abortion
  A Defense of Abortion is a moral philosophy paper by Judith Jarvis Thomson first published in 1971. Granting for the sake of argument that the fetus has a right to life, Thomson uses thought experiments to argue for the moral permissibility of induced abortion. Her argument has many critics on both...
  
  "

Existentialism

• Jean-Paul Sartre
  Jean-Paul Sartre
  Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy, particularly Marxism, and was one of the key figures in literary...
  
  , Being and Nothingness
• Jean-Paul Sartre, "Existentialism is a Humanism"

Philosophy of education

• B.F. Skinner, Walden Two
• John Dewey
  John Dewey
  John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology...
  
  , Democracy and Education
  Democracy and Education
  Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education is a book written in 1916 by John Dewey. .Dewey's philosophical anthropology, unlike Egan, Vico, Ernst Cassirer, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Nietzsche, does not account for the origin of thought of the modern mind in the...
  
  
• Paulo Freire
  Paulo Freire
  Paulo Reglus Neves Freire was a Brazilian educator and influential theorist of critical pedagogy.-Biography:...
  
  , Pedagogy of the Oppressed
  Pedagogy of the Oppressed
  Pedagogy of the Oppressed is the most widely known of educator Paulo Freire's works. It proposes a pedagogy with a new relationship between teacher, student, and society...
  
  

Philosophy of law

• John Finnis
  John Finnis
  John Finnis , is an Australian legal scholar and philosopher, specializing in the philosophy of law. He is Professor of Law at University College, Oxford and at the University of Notre Dame, teaching jurisprudence, political theory, and constitutional law...
  
  , Natural Law and Natural Rights
• H.L.A. Hart, The Concept of Law
  The Concept of Law
  The Concept of Law is the most famous work of the legal philosopher H. L. A. Hart. It was first published in 1961 and develops Hart's theory of legal positivism within the framework of analytic philosophy...
  
  , 1994
• Lon L. Fuller
  Lon L. Fuller
  -Selected secondary bibliography:* Robert S Summers .* W. J. Witteveen and Wibren van der Burg .-External links:* from Harvard University Library*...
  
  , The Morality of Law
• Ronald Dworkin
  Ronald Dworkin
  Ronald Myles Dworkin, QC, FBA is an American philosopher and scholar of constitutional law. He is Frank Henry Sommer Professor of Law and Philosophy at New York University and Emeritus Professor of Jurisprudence at University College London, and has taught previously at Yale Law School and the...
  
  , Law's Empire

Political philosophy

• Karl Popper
  Karl Popper
  Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH FRS FBA was an Austro-British philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics...
  
  , The Open Society and Its Enemies
  The Open Society and Its Enemies
  The Open Society and Its Enemies is an influential two-volume work by Karl Popper written during World War II. Failing to find a publisher in the United States, it was first printed in London by Routledge in 1945...
  
  
• John Rawls
  John Rawls
  John Bordley Rawls was an American philosopher and a leading figure in moral and political philosophy. He held the James Bryant Conant University Professorship at Harvard University....
  
  , A Theory of Justice
  A Theory of Justice
  A Theory of Justice is a book of political philosophy and ethics by John Rawls. It was originally published in 1971 and revised in both 1975 and 1999. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls attempts to solve the problem of distributive justice by utilising a variant of the familiar device of the social...
  
  , 1971
• Robert Nozick
  Robert Nozick
  Robert Nozick was an American political philosopher, most prominent in the 1970s and 1980s. He was a professor at Harvard University. He is best known for his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia , a right-libertarian answer to John Rawls's A Theory of Justice...
  
  , Anarchy, State, and Utopia
  Anarchy, State, and Utopia
  Anarchy, State, and Utopia is a work of political philosophy written by Robert Nozick in 1974. This minarchist book was the winner of the 1975 National Book Award...
  
  
• Lenin, V.I. State and Revolution
  State and Revolution
  The State and Revolution , by Vladimir Lenin, describes the role of the State in society, the necessity of proletarian revolution, and the theoretic inadequacies of social democracy in achieving revolution to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat.Citing Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, Lenin...
  
  

Logic and philosophy of logic

• Charles Peirce
  Charles Peirce
  Charles Sanders Peirce September 10, 1839 – April 19, 1914) was an American philosopher, logician, mathematician, and scientist, born at 3 Phillips Place in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Peirce was educated as a chemist and employed as a scientist for 30 years...
  
  , "How to Make Our Ideas Clear"
• Gottlob Frege
  Gottlob Frege
  Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege was a German mathematician, logician and philosopher. He is considered to be one of the founders of modern logic, and made major contributions to the foundations of mathematics. He is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, for his writings on...
  
  , Begriffsschrift
  Begriffsschrift
  Begriffsschrift is a book on logic by Gottlob Frege, published in 1879, and the formal system set out in that book...
  
  
• Bertrand Russell
  Bertrand Russell
  Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things...
  
   and Alfred North Whitehead
  Alfred North Whitehead
  Alfred North Whitehead, OM FRS was an English mathematician who became a philosopher. He wrote on algebra, logic, foundations of mathematics, philosophy of science, physics, metaphysics, and education...
  
  , Principia Mathematica
  Principia Mathematica
  The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910, 1912, and 1913...
  
  , 1910-1913
• Kurt Gödel
  Kurt Gödel
  Kurt Friedrich Gödel was an Austrian logician, mathematician and philosopher. Later in his life he emigrated to the United States to escape the effects of World War II. One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel made an immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the...
  
  , "On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems
  On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems
  Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I is a paper in mathematical logic by Kurt Gödel...
  
  ", 1931
• Saul Kripke
  Saul Kripke
  Saul Aaron Kripke is an American philosopher and logician. He is a professor emeritus at Princeton and teaches as a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the CUNY Graduate Center...
  
  , "Semantical Considerations on Modal Logic"
• Alfred Tarski
  Alfred Tarski
  Alfred Tarski was a Polish logician and mathematician. Educated at the University of Warsaw and a member of the Lwow-Warsaw School of Logic and the Warsaw School of Mathematics and philosophy, he emigrated to the USA in 1939, and taught and carried out research in mathematics at the University of...
  
  , "The Concept of Truth "
• Hans Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method
  Truth and Method
  Truth and Method is the major philosophical work by Hans-Georg Gadamer, first published in 1960.The book draws heavily on the work of Wilhelm Dilthey, and Romantic hermeneutics...
  
  
• Donald Davidson
  Donald Davidson (philosopher)
  Donald Herbert Davidson was an American philosopher born in Springfield, Massachusetts, who served as Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley from 1981 to 2003 after having also held teaching appointments at Stanford University, Rockefeller University, Princeton...
  
  , "Truth and Meaning"

Philosophy of language

• Bertrand Russell
  Bertrand Russell
  Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these things...
  
  , "On Denoting
  On Denoting
  "On Denoting", written by Bertrand Russell, is one of the most significant and influential philosophical essays of the 20th century. It was published in the philosophy journal Mind in 1905; then reprinted, in both a special 2005 anniversary issue of the same journal and in Russell's Logic and...
  
  "
• Ludwig Wittgenstein
  Ludwig Wittgenstein
  Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein was an Austrian philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. He was professor in philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1939 until 1947...
  
  , Philosophical Investigations
  Philosophical Investigations
  Philosophical Investigations is, along with the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one of the most influential works by the 20th-century philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein...
  
  
• J. L. Austin
  J. L. Austin
  John Langshaw Austin was a British philosopher of language, born in Lancaster and educated at Shrewsbury School and Balliol College, Oxford University. Austin is widely associated with the concept of the speech act and the idea that speech is itself a form of action...
  
  , "A Plea for Excuses"
• Saul Kripke
  Saul Kripke
  Saul Aaron Kripke is an American philosopher and logician. He is a professor emeritus at Princeton and teaches as a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the CUNY Graduate Center...
  
  , Naming and Necessity
  Naming and Necessity
  Naming and Necessity is a book by the philosopher Saul Kripke that was first published in 1980 and deals with the debates of proper nouns in the philosophy of language. The book is based on a transcript of three lectures given at Princeton University in 1970...
  
  
• H. P. Grice, "Logic and Conversation"
• Gottlob Frege
  Gottlob Frege
  Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege was a German mathematician, logician and philosopher. He is considered to be one of the founders of modern logic, and made major contributions to the foundations of mathematics. He is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, for his writings on...
  
  , "Sense and Reference
  Sense and reference
  Sinn and bedeutung are usually translated, respectively, as sense and reference. Two different aspects of some terms' meanings, a term's reference is the object that the term refers to, while the term's sense is the way that the term refers to that object.Sinn and bedeutung were introduced by...
  
  "

Further reading

• What Are the Modern Classics? The Baruch Poll of Great Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, Douglas P. Lackey, Philosophical Forum 30(4): 329-346 (1999).
• American Philosophical Association
• Epistemology Research Guide
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Annotated Bibliography on Analysis
• Contemporary Philosophy of Mind: An Annotated Bibliography
• London Philosophy Study Guide