Water supply and sanitation in Jordan

Jordan Jordan Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing... : Water and Sanitation

Data
Water coverage (broad definition)	97%
Sanitation coverage (broad definition)	93%
Continuity of supply in Jordan	once per week
Average urban water use (l/c/d)	120
Average urban water and sewer tariff (US$/m3)	0.65 (2009, for Amman only, corresponding to a consumption of 20m3/month)
Share of household metering	100%
Share of collected wastewater treated	98%
Non-revenue water	44% (2008)
Annual investment in WSS	n/a
Share of self-financing by utilities	low
Share of tax-financing	n/a
Share of external financing	high
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalities	No
National water and sanitation company	No
Water and sanitation regulator	Project Management Unit (PMU), only for private operators
Responsibility for policy setting	Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)
Sector law	various
Number of urban service providers	4 (WAJ, Miyahuna, Aqaba Water Company, Yarmouk Water Company)
Number of rural service providers	None

Water supply and sanitation in Jordan is characterized by severe water scarcity, which has been exacerbated by forced immigration as a result of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Six-Day War

Six-Day War

The Six-Day War , also known as the June War, 1967 Arab-Israeli War, or Third Arab-Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10, 1967, by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt , Jordan, and Syria...

in 1967, the Gulf War

Gulf War

The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...

of 1990 and the Iraq War of 2003. Jordan

Jordan

Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...

is considered as one of the ten most water scarce countries in the world. High population growth, the depletion of groundwater reserves and the impacts of climate change

Effects of global warming

This article is about the effects of global warming and climate change. The effects, or impacts, of climate change may be physical, ecological, social or economic. Evidence of observed climate change includes the instrumental temperature record, rising sea levels, and decreased snow cover in the...

are likely to aggravate the situation in the future.

The country's major surface water resources, the Jordan River and the Yarmouk River

Yarmouk River

The Yarmouk River is the largest tributary of the Jordan River. It drains much of the Hauran Plateau. It is one of three main tributaries which enter the Jordan between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. To the south, are the Jabbok/Zarqa and the Arnon/Wadi Mujib) rivers...

, are shared with Israel

Israel

The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...

and Syria

Syria

Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....

who leave only a small amount for Jordan. Groundwater

Groundwater

Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock...

resources are overexploited. It is planned to bridge the gap between demand and supply through increased use on non conventional water resources like desalinated water

Desalination

Desalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from saline water...

, including as part of the Red Sea-Dead Sea canal, wastewater reuse and a 320 km long conveyor from the non-renewable Disi aquifer

Aquifer

An aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology...

to the capital Amman

Amman

Amman is the capital of Jordan. It is the country's political, cultural and commercial centre and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The Greater Amman area has a population of 2,842,629 as of 2010. The population of Amman is expected to jump from 2.8 million to almost...

.

Despite Jordan's severe water scarcity, more than 97% of Jordanians have access to an improved water source

Improved water source

According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" water sources:* household connections* public standpipes* boreholes* protected dug wells...

and 93% have access to improved sanitation

Improved sanitation

According to the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" sanitation:* connection to a public sewer* connection to a septic system* pour-flush latrine...

. This is one of the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa. However, water supply is intermittent and it is common to store water in rooftop tanks. A National Water Strategy adopted in 2009 emphasizes desalination and wastewater reuse and recommends a new law that would create a regulatory agency. Concerning infrastructure financing, the country relies largely on external funding.

Access

Jordan has reached a high level of providing water supply and sanitation services (see table). 97% of the population have access to improved water supply

Improved water source

, 93% to improved sanitation

Improved sanitation

, which is high compared to other developing countries and considering Jordan's very scarce resources. Although the physical infrastructure exists, a lack of available water causes a rising demand of bottled and tanked water for many households.

Access to Water and Sanitation in the Jordan (2004)
		Urban (79% of the population)	Rural (21% of the population)	Total
Water	Improved water source Improved water source According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" water sources:* household connections* public standpipes* boreholes* protected dug wells...	99%	91%	97%
Water	House connections	96%	81%	93%
Sanitation	Improved sanitation Improved sanitation According to the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" sanitation:* connection to a public sewer* connection to a septic system* pour-flush latrine...	94%	87%	93%
Sanitation	Sewerage	72%	6%	58%

According to the Water Authority of Jordan, 98% of the Jordanian population is served with water and 65% is served with sewerage services, without giving a date.

Continuity of supply

Water supply in the Jordanian highlands, where most of the population lives, is generally intermittent. According to a 2008 study by the University of Michigan

University of Michigan

The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...

, water is delivered once a week in big cities like Amman and once every twelve days in rural areas. Wadi Musa

Wadi Musa

Wadi Musa, , is the name of a town located in the Ma'an Governorate in southern Jordan east of Petra at latitude 30.317N and longitude 35.483E....

and the neighboring villages of Taiba, B'Doul and Beida are among the few localities in the Highlands that enjoy continuous water supply after a new well field had been built and the distribution network had been rehabilitated in 2001. Aqaba

Aqaba

Aqaba is a coastal city in the far south of Jordan, the capital of Aqaba Governorate at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. Aqaba is strategically important to Jordan as it is the country's only seaport. Aqaba is best known today as a diving and beach resort, but industrial activity remains important...

has always enjoyed continuous water supply thanks to abundant gravity-fed water supply from the fossil Disi aquifer in the Highlands above the coastal city.

Drinking water quality

The drinking water standard in Jordan is based on the guidelines of the World Health Organization

World Health Organization

The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...

. Jordan's standards were raised in 2001, after a major drinking water pollution outbreak occurred in Amman

Amman

in the summer of 1998 due to a malfunction of the capital’s major drinking water treatment plant. The standard now includes specific measures to be undertaken in case of the occurrence of pollution in drinking water samples. A 2005 study of different potable water sources in four governorates showed that drinking water quality was in compliance with national standards. A network of observation wells is installed in each of the “groundwater basins” for the purpose of monitoring groundwater quality. At the household level water is stored in water tank

Water tank

A Water tank is a container for storing water. The need for a water tank is as old as civilized man, providing storage of water for drinking water, irrigation agriculture, fire suppression, agricultural farming, both for plants and livestock, chemical manufacturing, food preparation as well as many...

s (usually on top of the buildings) to be used until the next turn of water supply. Many water contamination incidents were caused due to bad storage conditions like uncovered water tanks or insufficient frequency of tank cleaning.

Sewer services

Only 58% of the population, and only 6% in rural areas are connected to the sewerage system

Sanitary sewer

A sanitary sewer is a separate underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater...

. The rest uses on-site sanitation solutions such as septic tank

Septic tank

A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment system common in areas with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or private corporations...

s. These septic tanks, if not lined properly, may leak to the groundwater aquifers and contaminate them.

Wastewater treatment and reuse

Jordan's first wastewater treatment plant

Sewage treatment

Sewage treatment, or domestic wastewater treatment, is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage, both runoff and domestic. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants...

was established in 1970. The total number of treatment plants is currently 22, treating about 107 million cubic metres/year, or about 98% of the collected wastewater. The Jordanian standards restrict the re-use of treated wastewater. Water is reused mainly for irrigation in the Jordan Valley

Jordan Valley (Middle East)

The Jordan Valley forms part of the larger Jordan Rift Valley. It is 120 kilometers long and 15 kilometers wide, where it runs from Lake Tiberias in the north to northern Dead Sea in the south. It runs for an additional 155 kilometer south of the Dead Sea to Aqaba, an area also known as Wadi...

, though a small share is allocated to industry. The Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation plans to increase the amount of reused wastewater to 232 million cubic metres/year by 2020. Some treatment plants exceed their capacity, resulting in a reduced quality of the treated wastewater. Besides a water reuse demonstration project at the University of Irbid

Irbid

Irbid , known in ancient times as Arabella or Arbela , is the capital and largest city of the Irbid Governorate. It also has the second largest metropolitan population in Jordan after Amman, with a population of around 660,000, and is located about 70 km north of Amman on the northern ridge of...

, there are two more demonstration farms in Wadi Musa

Wadi Musa

Wadi Musa, , is the name of a town located in the Ma'an Governorate in southern Jordan east of Petra at latitude 30.317N and longitude 35.483E....

and Aqaba

Aqaba

. A strategy for pricing and marketing reclaimed water and the resulting crops has also been established. Furthermore, revised industrial reuse standards were adopted and a Reuse Coordination Committee has been established. A major water reuse project is being planned to reuse the wastewater from three wastewater treatment plants receiving the effluent of Irbid

Irbid

in the North of Jordan. As of 2006, only 14% of the wastewater was being reused, because farmers in the Jordan Valley are reluctant to use the poor quality reclaimed water for irrigation. Only the wastewater from the relatively small Wadi Hassan treatment plant is being reused to irrigate green spaces on the campus of the University of Irbid, and for commercial fruit plantations. The unused wastewater does no flow into a wadi, but through a canal, in order to by-pass and protect the Wadi Arab reservoir, destined for future drinking water supply. The wastewater then flows into the Jordan River, unused. Through a project supported in the framework of Jordanian-German cooperation it is planned to mix the treated wastewater with freshwater, further treat it and to deliver it to the farmers in good quality. The wastewater will be channeled in pipes so that the elevation differential of more than 1,000m can be used to generate electricity from hydropower.

Water resources and water balance

Jordan is considered as one of the four most water scarce countries in the World. The limited water resources

Water resources

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water....

are exposed to pollution

Water pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies . Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds....

. Population growth

Population growth

Population growth is the change in a population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals of any species in a population using "per unit time" for measurement....

is expected to increase the pressure on available water resources. Conventional water resources in Jordan consist of groundwater and surface water. Twelve groundwater basins have been identified in Jordan. Some of them are exploited to their maximum capacity, and others are overexploited, threatening their future use. The long term safe yield of renewable groundwater has been estimated at 275 million cubic metres/year. The major surface water sources are the Jordan River, the Yarmouk River

Yarmouk River

and the Zarqa River

Zarqa River

The Zarqa River is the second largest tributary of the lower Jordan River, after the Yarmouk River. It is the third largest river in the region by annual discharge, and its watershed encompasses the most densely populated areas east of the Jordan River...

. Much of the flow of the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers is diverted by the upstream riparians Israel

Israel

The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...

and Syria

Syria

, leaving only a small share to Jordan. The Zarqa River is severely polluted by industry, municipal wastewater and non-point sources. The King Talal Dam, Jordan's largest surface water reservoir, faces low water levels and pollution. However, water quality in the King Talal reservoir has improved as a result of the construction of the new As-Samra wastewater treatment plant.

The National Water Strategy estimates total renewable freshwater resources at 575 million cubic metres/year plus 90 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater, totaling 665 million cubic metres/year. "Water demand" was estimated at 1,505 million cubic metres/year in 2007. The deficit was partly filled through pumping from non-renewable aquifers (90 million cubic metres/year), desalination (10 million cubic metres/year) and, most importantly, an unquantified amount of overexploitation of renewable aquifers. However, total water use is still below "water demand", as calculated in Jordan's National Water Strategy. Due to population growth and increasing living standards, it is expected that the total "water demand" will rise to 1,635 million cubic metres/year in 2020. The government plans to satisfy the rising demand mainly through desalination

Desalination

Desalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from saline water...

and to some extent also through increased wastewater reuse. In 2007, the major consumer of freshwater was the agricultural sector, using about 72%. The municipal share was 24% and the share of tourism and industries was 3% and 1%, respectively. The share used for agricultural purposes is expected to decrease in the future.

Climate change

In 2009 another government report noted that "Jordan’s remarkable development achievements are
under threat due to the crippling water scarcity, which is expected to be aggravated by climate change." Rainfall is expected to decline significantly and evaporation and transpiration of plants will increase due to increased temperatures. The National Water
Strategy has been criticized for missing out the impact that climate change is projected to have on the availability of water resources.

Infrastructure

Jordan’s water resources are located far away from its population centers, in particular the Greater Amman area where about half the country’s population lives and which lies at about 1,000 meter above sea level. To address this challenge, Jordan has developed an extensive bulk water supply infrastructure to provide water for both irrigation and municipal uses.

Existing infrastructure

The key elements of Jordan’s water infrastructure are the Al Wahda Dam

Al Wahda Dam

The Al Wahda Dam , formerly known as Maqarin Dam, is a roller-compacted concrete gravity dam on the Yarmouk River on the border between Syria and Jordan. It can hold up to of water and is designed to provide Jordan with water for both human consumption and agriculture, while boosting power...

on the Yarmouk River

Yarmouk River

; the King Abdullah Canal (KAC) in the Jordan Valley

Jordan Valley (Middle East)

which is fed primarily by the Yarmouk River

Yarmouk River

, the Mukhaibah springs near the Yarmouk River and a number of wadis draining into the Jordan Valley; the Deir Alla-Amman system that treats and pumps water from the KAC to Amman; the Samra treatment plant that treats most of Greater Amman’s wastewater and discharges it to the Zarqa River

Zarqa River

; and the King Talal Dam

King Talal Dam

The King Talal Dam is a large dam in the hills of northern Jordan, across the Zarqa River.The King Talal dam was started in 1971, with the original construction being completed in 1977...

on the Zarqa River

Zarqa River

from where the water returns to the KAC downstream of Deir Alla for irrigation in the Lower Jordan Valley. This system has been complemented in 2007 by the Main-Mujib

Wadi Mujib

Wadi Mujib is a gorge in Jordan which enters the Dead Sea at 410 meters below sea level.The Mujib Reserve of Wadi Mujib is the lowest nature reserve in the world, located in the mountainous landscape to the east of the Dead Sea, approximately 90 km south of Amman...

pipeline that pumps desalinated brackish water from the Northeastern shore of the Dead Sea to Amman.

Water sources of Greater Amman. The main source of water for Greater Amman is the Deir Alla-Amman carrier, which pumps water almost 1,200m up to Amman. It has a capacity of 90 million cubic metres/year and treats the water along the way in the Zai treatment plant. The second water source of the capital is the Main-Mujib pipeline with a capacity of 38 million cubic metres/year, followed by a pipeline from a wellfield near the Azraq oasis to the East, local wells, and a small wellfield South of Amman.

Infrastructure under construction

Disi-Amman Carrier. In August 2008 Jordanian Prime Minister Nader al-Dahabi cut the ribbon on this 990-million-dollar project to extract 100 million cubic metres of water a year from the fossil Disi aquifer in the Mudawwara area, 325 kilometres south of Amman. The project will be executed by GAMA Energy, a Turkish firm. Work on the project is expected to take around four years. The Disi aquifer is non-renewable. It is expected to provide 125 million cubic metres/year for 50 years, when it will be used up. This missing sustainability causes major criticism. The aquifer lies under Jordanian and Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...

n territory, which might cause a conflict between the two states. Once completed the carrier will be operated and maintained by Disi Amman Operation Maintenance LLC, a fully owned subsidiary of Suez Environnement

Suez Environnement

Suez Environnement S.A. is a French-based utility company which operates largely in the water treatment and waste management sectors. Formerly an operating division of Suez, the company was spun out as a stand-alone entity as part of the merger to form GDF Suez on 22 July 2008. GDF Suez remains...

Planned infrastructure

Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal. The proposed Two Seas Canal is a multi-billion dollar plan to build a canal from the Red Sea

Red Sea

The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...

to the slowly evaporating Dead Sea

Dead Sea

The Dead Sea , also called the Salt Sea, is a salt lake bordering Jordan to the east and Israel and the West Bank to the west. Its surface and shores are below sea level, the lowest elevation on the Earth's surface. The Dead Sea is deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world...

, the shores of which are now the lowest point on the surface of the Earth on dry land. The project also incorporates the construction of a desalination plant. It is expected to provide Jordan with 500 million cubic metres of water annually. In August 2008 the Jordanian Minister of Water and Irrigation Raed Abu Soud

Raed Abu Soud

Raed M. Abu Soud is a Jordanian engineer and politician. He has held several key positions in a number of Jordanian Government Cabinets, with his first appointment being that of Jordanian Minister of Transportation between 2000 and 2003...

said the project was "the solution to our water problems."

Water use and environmental awareness

Given the high water scarcity in Jordan, the average per capita use is lower than in most other countries. Water production before network losses is about 120 liters per person and day and actual consumption is close to 80 liters per capita and das. A survey of water consumption habits by households in Eastern Amman and in 14 villages in the Northern Governorates showed total consumption per capita lies between 60 and 80 liters per day. About 20-30% of this water is obtained from others sources than the public piped system, including from bottled water, water bought from tankers, rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulating and storing of rainwater for reuse before it reaches the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and local institutions can...

and springs. In rural areas in 28% of households surveyed harvest rainwater and store it in cisterns for drinking, since it is considered of better quality than piped water. In Eastern Amman, 12% of households buy water in large bottles and 30% buy water from private tankers. Most households have roof storage tanks with a volume of 1-2 cubic meters.

There have been various efforts to increase public awareness of water scarcity and to encourage water conversation. One example is the Water Wise Women Initiative carried out since 2007 in initially five local communities throughout Jordan. It trains female volunteers called "change pioneers" in topics such as water saving, rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting

, water storage, plumbing, hygiene and water use for house gardening. It thus provides opportunities for women to generate income and to reduce expenses for bottled water, water bought from trucks and hired plumbers. A cartoon has also been produced targeting children. In addition, the initiative reaches out to school girls. The initiative builds on the efforts of volunteers organized in 50 community development centers by supported by the Jordanian Hashemite Fund for Human Development (JOHUD).

History and recent developments

Due to the arid and semi-arid climate, the sound management of water resources has been an issue in Jordan since the establishment of the Kingdom in 1946 and before.

Institutional shifts. In 1959 the Central Water Authority was created with the responsibility for municipal water supply, centralizing a function that was previously the responsibility of municipalities. In 1965 it merged with an irrigation agency to become the National Resources Authority (NRA), only to be split again to become the Domestic Water Supply Corporation in 1974 and the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) in 1983. The latter was subordinated under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) when it was created in 1988, thus institutionally separating policy-making from service provision.

Private sector participation. Major reforms were undertaken in 1993 when it was decided to bring in a private company under a management contract to run the water and sanitation system of Amman and to increase cost recovery. The management contract ended in 2007 when a subsidiary of WAJ, Miyahuna, took over the management of the system.

National Water Master Plan. A digital National Water Master Plan was launched in 2004. The Master Plan is an integrated plan that enables decision makers to set polices and strategies based on planning scenarios derived from sectoral water consumption trends. The Master Plan is based on the Water Information System (WIS) which contains all monitoring data related to demands and resources.

National Water Strategy. In May 2009 King Abdullah gave the go-ahead for a National Water Strategy until 2022. The strategy includes investments of Jordanian Dinar 5.86 billion (USD 8.24 billion) over a period of 15 years, corresponding to more than 160% of Jordan's GDP. It also foresees a decreasing reliance on groundwater from 32 percent in 2007 to 17 percent, increased use of treated wastewater in agriculture from 10 percent to 13 percent and increased use of desalination from 1 percent to 31 percent. According to the Minister of Water, Raed Abu Soud

Raed Abu Soud

, even when the Disi conveyor will be completed, the water deficit in 2022 will still be about 500 million cubic metres, highlighting the need for desalination under the Red Sea-Dead Sea canal. The Plan also envisages institutional reforms such as enacting a new water law, separating operational from administrative functions, as well as production from distribution operations, creating a Water Council with advisory functions and establishing a Water Regulatory Commission.

Policy and regulation

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is the official apex body responsible for the formulation of national water strategies, policies and planning, subject to approval by the Council of Ministers. The MWI has been established in 1988 through a bylaw. The establishment of the MWI was in response to Jordan's recognition for the need of a more integrated approach to national water management. Since its establishment, MWI has been supported by several donor organizations that have assisted in the development of water policy and water master planning as well as restructuring the water sector. Two key agencies in the water sector are under the authority of the Ministry: The Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) in charge of water and sanitation service provision directly or through public companies that it owns (see below). WAJ is also responsible, together with the Ministry, for water resources planning and monitoring. WAJ also regulates water abstraction by all users, including itself, by issuing licenses. It thus combines both regulatory and service provision functions.

There is also a Performance Monitoring Unit (PMU), which was previously called Programme Management Unit, that is in charge of projects with private sector participation. It also carried out major investment projects such as the water loss reduction program in Amman and, from 1999 to 2006, regulated the private operator in Amman. The PMU was supposed to be an embryonic unit for a future semi-autonomous water regulatory agency for the entire country, to be established by law outside of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation. As a step in that direction, a Water Sector Audit Unit (WSAU) was established in the PMU in May 2008. The unit has set up a benchmarking system using performance indicators that have initially been applied to the Aqaba Water Company and Miyahuna. In the absence of a regulatory agency, tariff setting is the responsibility of the Cabinet, after proposal from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation.

Service providers

WAJ is responsible for planning, construction, operating and maintaining the public water supply and sewer services either directly or indirectly through its subsidiaries. It has been established as an autonomous corporate body, with financial and administrative independence linked with the Minister of Water and Irrigation.

One of WAJ’s subsidiaries is the Aqaba Water Company (AWC), a public company established in August 2004 as Jordan's first semi-autonomous water utility. It is owned by WAJ (85%) and the Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZA) which owns 15%. The establishment of ASEZA had triggered the establishment of AWC. A second public water company, the Jordan Water Company (Miyahuna), was set up in 2006 for the Governorate of Amman. The company, which was created to take over service responsibility from a private operator, is a 100% subsidiary of WAJ. A third public company, the Yarmouk Water Company (YWC), has been be set up in 2010, serving the four Northern Governorates of Jordan, namely Irbid

Irbid Governorate

Irbid or Irbed is one of the governorates of Jordan. It is located north of Amman, Jordan's capital. The capital of the governorate of Irbid is the city of Irbid...

, Jerash

Jerash Governorate

Jerash is one of the governorates of Jordan; it is located north of Amman, Jordan's capital. It carrys the name of its capital and largest city, Jerash City....

, Ajloun

Ajloun

Ajloun also written Ajlun is the capital town of the Ajloun Governorate . A hilly town in the north of Jordan, located 76 kilometers north west of Amman. It is noted for its impressive ruins the 12th century castle which known nowadays as Ajlun Castle...

and Mafraq

Mafraq Governorate

Mafraq is one of the governorates of Jordan, located to the north-east of Amman, capital of Jordan. It has a population of 254,219 with a percentage of 4.5% of Jordan's population...

. YWC is also a 100% subsidiary of WAJ and replaces the Northern Governorates Water Administration (NGWA).

Private participation

Amman management contract. In 1999, a public-private partnership

Public-private partnership

Public–private partnership describes a government service or private business venture which is funded and operated through a partnership of government and one or more private sector companies...

(PPP) went underway with the signing of a Management Contract between WAJ and the private joint venture Lyonnaise des Eaux - Montgomery Watson - Arabtech Jardaneh (LEMA). According to the contract, LEMA was responsible for operating and managing water and wastewater services in the Greater Amman area on behalf of WAJ. The original five-year contract which began in August 1999 was extended until December 2006. The contract was intended to strengthen the technical structure and management capability as well as to develop the skills and knowledge of the staff. To do this, a small team of experienced ex-patriates worked with, and trained, around 1250 local staff. LEMA treated water received from a number of WAJ sources and delivered it to the population of Amman; it also collected wastewater from its customers and transported this to treatment works. The company was able to comply with 12 out of 15 performance targets. In the service area, access to supply increased from 90% in 2000 to universal access in 2005. At the same time, sewer connections increased from 69% to 80%. In 2007 the Jordan Water Company Miyahuna replaced LEMA after its contract had been extended one final time for an extra six months.

As-Samra BOT. The wastewater treatment plant As-Samra, the largest such plant in Greater Amman, is being operated by a consortium led by SUEZ under a 25-year Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contract with WAJ.

Madaba Micro-PSP. In the Madaba Governorate

Madaba Governorate

Madaba, is one of the governorates of Jordan, it is located south west of Amman, capital of Jordan. Its capital is Madaba. The governorate is ranked eighth by population and by area in Jordan...

a different model of private sector participation (PSP), called Micro PSP has been carried out starting in 2006. The Micro PSP involved outsourcing customer service operations to Engicon, a local operator hired on a three-year performance-based contract. Aims of the project were to improve water and wastewater revenue, to increase the billing rate and to develop the customer management organisation thereby improving efficiency. To achieve this, Engicon trained staff, surveyed and mapped all subscribers and regulated routes to meter readers (to eliminate reader monopoly). As a result, the Madaba Water Administration could start issuing its own bills instead of having to rely on WAJ structures. The accuracy of meter reading improved and net billed water increased by 75%. Net collections increased from 0.9 million in 2005 to 1.9 million in 2008. The levels of non-revenue water

Non-revenue water

Non revenue water is water that has been produced and is “lost” before it reaches the customer. Losses can be real losses or apparent losses . High levels of NRW are detrimental to the financial viability of water utilities, as well to the quality of water itself...

(NRW) initially dropped from an average of 45% to 34%, but in 2009 they were back at 40% due to an increase in water pumping pressure. Advantages of the Micro-PSP model include the fact that WAJ maintained asset ownership and that all revenue collected went to WAJ, so that investment costs could be fully recovered within 13 months of operation. The performance-based contract set strong incentives for the private operator to deliver concrete results.

Other functions

More than 15 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) work directly or indirectly on water issues in Jordan, including the Jordan Environment Society (JES) and the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature

Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature

The Royal Society for The Conservation of Nature is an independent voluntary organization devoted to the conservation of Jordan's natural resources established in 1966 under the patronage of Her Majesty Queen Noor with the late King Hussein as Honorary President.RSCN has the mission of protecting...

. NGOs carry out awareness projects and provide support to community projects together with national and international partners. NGOs are particularly engaged in water harvesting and water reuse. The Royal Scientific Society

Royal Scientific Society

The Royal Scientific Society is the largest applied research institution, consultancy, and technical support service provider in Jordan and is a regional leader in the fields of science & technology....

, through its Environmental Research Center, undertakes applied research including water quality assessments and wastewater management.

Efficiency

The share of non-revenue water (NRW)

Non-revenue water

, water which is produced but not billed was estimated at 44% in 2008. The main reasons leading to this high rate are leakage, by-passing of meters, illegal connections, unreliable water meter

Water meter

A water meter is a device used to measure the volume of water usage. This article provides an overview of technical aspects of water meters. The worldwide prevalence of metering as well as its economic benefits and costs are covered in the separate article on water metering.In many developed...

s and problems concerning the reading of those meters. Measures to decrease the rate of NRW can thus contribute to relieve the high pressure on water resources. In Amman, the level of non-revenue water has been reduced from an estimated 46% in 2005 to an estimated 34% in 2010. During the same period the average hours of service per week declined from 66 to 36.

Tariffs and cost recovery

Water and sewer services in Jordan are heavily subsidized. The revenue covers only part of the operation and maintenance costs. The tariff system is an increasing-block system, under which users pay a higher tariff per cubic meter if they consume more water. The tariff system distinguishes between Amman, where tariffs are higher, and the rest of the governorates.
The first block corresponding to a consumption of 20m3 per quarter is a minimum charge independent of the amount of water consumed. In 2010 the residential minimum charge in Amman was JD5.12/quarter for water and sewerage, including a fixed surcharge of JD2.15JD and a meter fee of JD0.3. This corresponds to an average unit tariff of JD0.26/m3 (US$0.37/m3) for this consumption level. For a consumption level of 20m3 per month (60m3 per quarter) the average unit tariff is JD0.47/m3 (US$0.65/m3). Tariffs in Zarqa and the rest of the country are lower than in Amman with a minimum charge of JD4.42/month and JD4.35/month respectively. The price for each next cubic meter increases until it reaches a tariff of JD1.24/m3 plus a fixed surcharge and meter fee of JD5.45 at a consumption of more than 130m3/month. Tariffs for non-residential customers are set JD1.56/m3 independently of the level of consumption. The MWI plans to set municipal water and wastewater tariffs at a level which recovers at least operation and maintenance (O&M) costs and to establish different prices according to water quality and end use. In September 2009, King Abdullah stated that water tariffs would not be increased. In June 2010 the government announced the first tariff increase since 1997, emphasizing that low-volume consumers would not be affected because the tariff in the first block remained unchanged. The tariff increase of 9% for volumes beyond the first block would become effective in January 2011.

The intermittent supply leads many to rely on bottled or tanked water, which is about 8 to 10 times higher than piped water, so that total household expenditures are often much higher than the utility bill.

Investment and financing

Jordan’s Water Strategy 2009-2022 includes investments of Jordanian Dinar 5.86 billion (USD 8.24 billion) over a period of 15 years, corresponding to more than 160% of Jordan's GDP.

According to an earlier water sector investment plan for the time from 1998 to 2010 published in 1997, the estimated costs for water projects were 1916 million US$, while sanitation projects were estimated at 926 million US$. Actual investments in that period remained below what had been expected. Most investments in the Jordanian water and sanitation sector are financed through grants and soft loans from external public donors. Some financing is also obtained from private sources through Build-Operate Transfer (BOT) projects. For example, the BOT for the Disi-Amman carrier will be partially financed by about US$190m of private equity from GAMA Energy, a joint venture between the Turkish firm GAMA Holding and the US firm General Electric

General Electric

General Electric Company , or GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in Schenectady, New York and headquartered in Fairfield, Connecticut, United States...

Energy Financial Services. The government will provide a grant of US$300m and loans totaling US$475m will be provided by the Overseas Private Investment Corporation

Overseas Private Investment Corporation

The Overseas Private Investment Corporation is an independent agency of the United States Government that mobilizes U.S. private sector investment in new and emerging markets overseas in order to support both the sustainable economic development of those markets and the creation of American jobs...

of the United States, the European Investment Bank

European Investment Bank

The European Investment Bank is the European Union's long-term lending institution established in 1958 under the Treaty of Rome. A policy-driven bank, the EIB supports the EU’s priority objectives, especially European integration and the development of economically weak regions...

and Proparco of France.

External cooperation

The major external public donors in water supply and sanitation are the United States, Japan, Germany and the European Union, primarily through the European Investment Bank (EIB)

European Investment Bank

. Other donors are the United Nations (UN)

United Nations

The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...

, the World Bank

World Bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...

, the Islamic Development Bank

Islamic Development Bank

The Islamic Development Bank is a multilateral development financing institution located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. It was founded by the first conference of Finance Ministers of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference , convened 23 Dhu'l Qa'dah 1393 AH.The bank officially began its activities on...

, the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, the Saudi Fund for Development, the Abu Dhabi Fund, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Italy

Italy

Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...

, France

France

The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...

, Norway

Norway

Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...

, South Korea

South Korea

The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...

, The Netherlands

Netherlands

The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...

, Canada

Canada

Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...

, Spain

Spain

Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...

, Sweden

Sweden

Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....

, China

China

Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...

and Libya

Libya

Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....

. The following paragraphs summarize the cooperation with some of Jordan's most active external partners in the water sector.

European Investment Bank

The European Investment Bank

European Investment Bank

(EIB) approved two loans for the rehabilitation of the water supply network in Greater Amman in 1996 and 1998 for a total of 49 million Euro. WAJ has benefited from 8 EIB loans amounting to 61.5 million Euro between 1984 and 1998.

France

The French Development Agency

French Development Agency

French Development Agency is the French international development agency.The Agence Française de Développement is a public institution providing development financing...

AFD and its private investment arm PROPARCO support the Disi-Amman conveyor through two projects, each of US$100 million, approved in 2009.

Germany

Germany has been enaged in supporting the Jordanian water sector for several decades through three agencies: GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) in charge of technical cooperation, the development Bank KfW

KFW

KFW may refer to:*Keith Fullerton Whitman , an American musician*KfW or Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, a German public-sector financial institution...

in charge of financial cooperation and the Federal Geological Agency BGR in charge of hydro-geological studies.

GIZ. The German technical cooperation agency GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) supports the Management of Water Resources Programme initiated in 2006. The Jordanian partner is the MWI. The main objective of the program is to increase sustainable use of the available water resources. Furthermore, it seeks to resolve conflicts between the different water demanding sectors, namely the domestic, industrial and agricultural sector. To achieve these objectives, the program "examines legal and institutional frameworks", offers training, supports the establishment of databases and sets up "organisational structures and processes to improve efficiency". The use of treated wastewater by farmers and the establishment of water user associations is encouraged. GIZ works together with German companies which participate under the framework of a public-private partnership.

KfW. The German government-owned development Bank KfW

KFW

KFW may refer to:*Keith Fullerton Whitman , an American musician*KfW or Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, a German public-sector financial institution...

has a series of water and sanitation projects in Jordan with a total commitment of Euro 245m in 2009. The currently largest project supports the extension of sewer networks and the construction of a wastewater treatment plant in Irbid

Irbid

through a Euro 62.95m loan approved in 2000. The treated wastewater is to be reused for irrigated agriculture. Other projects approved around 2000 include a Water Loss Reduction project for Irbid

Irbid

and Jerash

Jerash

Jerash, the Gerasa of Antiquity, is the capital and largest city of Jerash Governorate , which is situated in the north of Jordan, north of the capital Amman towards Syria...

(EUR 18.2 m loan), a Water Loss Reduction project for the Northern Governorates (EUR 21.7 m loan and EUR 3.5 m grant), a Water Loss Reduction project in Karak

Al Karak

Karak is a city in Jordan that is known for the famous crusader castle Kerak. The castle is one of the three largest castles in the region, the other two being in Syria...

(EUR 16.2 m loan and EUR 2.24 m grant) and a sanitation project in Karak and Kofranjah (EUR 15m loan and EUR 1.45m in grants). In 2006 KfW approved another series of loans, including for a third project to support the reduction of distribution losses in Amman in partnership with other donors through a 11m Euro loan with the objective of saving 2.5 million cubic meters of water per year, enough to provide 70,000 beneficiaries with water. Other projects approved around 2006 include a project for water transmission in the Northern Governorates (EUR 15m loan) and a project for water management in the Middle Governorates (EUR 5.3m). In 2009 KfW modified its cooperation with Jordan from a project approach to a program approach, bundling its new funding in a single "Water Resources Management Program" (2009–2014) that covers water loss reduction, sanitation and the use of reclaimed water from Irbid for irrigation in the Northern Jordan Valley. The new program approach is expected to allow flexible responses to changing circumstances.

Past projects financed by KfW include a water supply project in Wadi Musa

Wadi Musa

Wadi Musa, , is the name of a town located in the Ma'an Governorate in southern Jordan east of Petra at latitude 30.317N and longitude 35.483E....

; an integrated poverty-oriented project targeted at refugees and squatters which included investmetns in water supply and sanitation; sewage disposal for Greater Irbid; and a trunk sewer and associated pumping stations linking up to the wastewater treatment plant As-Samra near Amman. In Wadi Musa the Euro 11.3m project achieved, uniquely in Jordan, continuous water supply as well as a reduction in distribution losses. The project was co-financed by France and, concerning sanitation, by the US. The Euro 16.3m poverty-oriented infrastructure project implemented by the Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) of Jordan increased access to water and sanitation in two squatter settlements and four refugee camps. The investments in the camps were identified in close dialogue with the residents who were organized in Community Improvement Committees, and were carried out between 1999 and 2002. The project complemented the World Bank-financed Community Infrastructure Development Project. The Euro 60.1m Greater Irbid sewage disposal project (1994–2002) included the construction of two wastewater treatment plants and associated sewer infrastructure connecting 202,000 residents, as well as training for operational staff. Both treatment plants operated satisfactorily four years after they had been completed. Residual sludge is being properly disposed on a landfill.

Japan

Japan supports the Jordanian water sector primarily through three projects:

Improving water supply in Zarqa Governorate
Zarqa Governorate
Zarqa Governorate is the third largest governorate in Jordan by population. The capital of Zarqa governorate is Zarqa City, which is the largest city in the governorate. It is located 25 km east of the Jordanian capital Amman...

(US$37.2 million grants since 2002), including through loss reduction, reaching a total of 780,000 residents in East Zarqa and Russeifa
Russeifa
Russeifa, also spelled Russiefa, , making it the forth largest city in Jordan, after Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa.-Geography:The city of Russeifa is located in the Central region of Jordan, in the Zarqa River basin, on the Amman-Zarqa highway...

(Phase I) and in West Zarqa, Hashmeyeh, and Sukhna (Phase II).
Reduction of non-revenue water
Non-revenue water
Non revenue water is water that has been produced and is “lost” before it reaches the customer. Losses can be real losses or apparent losses . High levels of NRW are detrimental to the financial viability of water utilities, as well to the quality of water itself...

(NRW) in Amman through technical assistance since 1999.
Energy conservation through the upgrading of the water supply network in Zarqa Governorate (about US$12 million) since 2009. The program also includes technical assistance for operation and maintenance.

Japanese aid is in the form of grants administered by the Japan International Cooperation Agency

Japan International Cooperation Agency

The Japan International Cooperation Agency is an independent governmental agency that coordinates official development assistance for the government of Japan...

(JICA). Japanese assistance is tied, meaning that consultants and contractors have to be from Japan.

An important completed project supported by Japan was the doubling the capacity of Zai Water Treatment Plant on the carrier from Deirala in the Jordan Valley to Amman to 250 million liter/day, covering a population of 1.9 million people (US$79.1 million grant, 1998–2001).

United States of America

US assistance to the water and sanitation sector in Jordan is provided through the United States Agency for International Development

United States Agency for International Development

The United States Agency for International Development is the United States federal government agency primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid. President John F. Kennedy created USAID in 1961 by executive order to implement development assistance programs in the areas...

(USAID) and the Millennium Challenge Corporation

Millennium Challenge Corporation

The Millennium Challenge Corporation is a bilateral United States foreign aid agency created by the George W. Bush administration in 2004, applying a new philosophy towards foreign aid.-Background and formation:...

(MCC).

USAID support for infrastructure.Under the Wadi Ma’in, Zara and Mujib water treatment and conveyance project the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funded a water treatment plant that delivers 100,000 cubic meter per day of water to about 700,000 people in the Greater Amman area. The treatment plant captures water from brackish

Brackish water

Brackish water is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. The word comes from the Middle Dutch root "brak," meaning "salty"...

streams. The water is desalinated using reverse osmosis

Reverse osmosis

Reverse osmosis is a membrane technical filtration method that removes many types of large molecules and ions from solutions by applying pressure to the solution when it is on one side of a selective membrane. The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and...

. The remaining highly saline water (brine) is discharged to the Dead Sea. Also in Amman, in addition to the $125 million Zara Ma’in Water Supply project mentioned above, USAID partially funded the construction of the As Samra $167 million build-operate-transfer (BOT) contract for wastewater treatment of 60 million cubic meters per year. Approximately 46 percent of the cost was provided by USAID in the form of a grant. USAID also is implementing a $72 million component of the multi-donor rehabilitation of Amman’s potable water distribution system. In Aqaba

Aqaba

, USAID also supported the rehabilitation and expansion of a $31 million wastewater treatment plant and rehabilitation of the water distribution system.

Technical assistance and training by USAID. The USAID-funded Watershed Management project strengthened the relationship between the Ministries of Health and Water related to water standards and regulations, Quality Assurance/Quality Control program for laboratories, and new procedures that aim at reducing water treatment plant shutdowns. A Water Demand Management (WDM) Unit was established at the Ministry of Water and Irrigation with assistance from USAID, and a WDM curriculum has been inserted into Jordanian classroom textbooks from grades 1 through 11. A Masters Degree program has been established at Jordan University of Science and Technology

Jordan University of Science and Technology

The Jordan University of Science and Technology , often abbreviated JUST, is a comprehensive, state-supported university located on the outskirts of Irbid at Ar Ramtha region, in northern Jordan....

, and journalists have been trained. Auditing and retrofitting of public and private buildings (hotels, schools, hospitals, government and commercial) indicated that 40 to 60 percent are now using water-saving devices. A “model” community was rehabilitated to demonstrate water and associated energy conservation. Twenty-seven grants have been awarded to poor communities to alleviate water shortages and inefficient water usage. Furthermore, training courses under a program with Washington State University have been completed for more than 800 employees from the Jordan Valley Authority, Water Authority of Jordan and Ministry of Water and Irrigation to improve and standardize accounting systems, and to improve efficiency.

Millennium Challenge Corporation. In October 2010 the MCC and the Jordanian government signed a US$275.1m grant agreement to expand water distribution, wastewater collection and the As Samra wastewater treatment plant, all in the Zarqa governorate.

World Bank

From 1999 to 2007, the World Bank

World Bank

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...

contributed with US$55 million to the Amman Water and Sanitation Management Project. One objective of the project was to lay the groundwork for sustainable private participation in the sector through a management contract. According to the World Bank, although the management was not extended, "the management operator was able to comply substantially with 12 of 15 performance targets" and, in the seven and a half years of the project, "the practice of modern utility management was introduced, and the accountability of the operator was established".

Access

Continuity of supply

Drinking water quality

Sewer services

Wastewater treatment and reuse

Water resources and water balance

Climate change

Infrastructure

Existing infrastructure

Infrastructure under construction

Planned infrastructure

Water use and environmental awareness

History and recent developments

Policy and regulation

Service providers

Private participation

Other functions

Efficiency

Tariffs and cost recovery

Investment and financing

External cooperation

European Investment Bank

France

Germany

Japan

United States of America

World Bank

External links

Further reading