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Siege of Malta (1940)
Encyclopedia
The Siege of Malta was a military campaign
in the Mediterranean Theatre
of the Second World War
. From 1940-1942, the fight for the control of the strategically important island of Malta
pitted the air forces and navies of Fascist Italy
and Nazi Germany
against the Royal Air Force
and the Royal Navy
.
The opening of a new front in North Africa
in mid-1940 increased Malta's already considerable value. British air and sea forces based on the island could attack Axis
ships transporting vital supplies and reinforcements from Europe. Field Marshal Erwin Rommel
, in command of Axis forces in North Africa
, recognised its importance quickly. In May 1941, he warned that "Without Malta the Axis will end by losing control of North Africa".
The Axis resolved to bomb
, or starve Malta into submission by attacking its ports, towns, cities and Allied shipping supplying the island. Malta was one of the most intensively bombed areas during the war. The Luftwaffe
(German Air Force) and the Italian Regia Aeronautica
(Italian Royal Air Force) flew a total of 3,000 bombing raids over a period of two years in an effort to destroy RAF defences and the ports. Success would have made possible a combined German—Italian amphibious landing
(Operation Herkules
) supported by German airborne forces
(Fallschirmjäger
). It was never carried out. In the end, Allied convoys
were able to supply and reinforce Malta, while the RAF defended its airspace, though at great cost in material and lives.
By November 1942, the Axis had lost the Second Battle of El Alamein
and the Allies landed forces in Vichy French Morocco
and Algeria
under Operation Torch
. The Axis diverted their forces to the Battle of Tunisia, and attacks on Malta were rapidly reduced. The siege effectively ended in November 1942.
In December 1942, air and sea forces operating from Malta went over to the offensive. By May 1943, they had sunk 230 Axis ships in 164 days, the highest Allied sinking rate of the war. The Allied victory played a major role in the eventual Allied success in North Africa.
and Alexandria
, Egypt
. It became a linchpin in the British Empire overseas—a vital way station along Britain's lifeline, through Egypt and the Suez Canal
to India
and the Far East
. It offered a haven for British shipping to and from those places, but also it gave the British an excellent staging platform of offensive thrusts against naval, land, air and shipping targets in the central Mediterranean. Owing to its exposed position, close to a potentially hostile Italy, the British had moved the headquarters of the Royal Navy
Mediterranean Fleet from Valletta
, Malta in the mid-1930s to Alexandria in October 1939.
The island itself had an area of just under 100 square miles (259 km²) and a population of around 250,000, all but three or four per cent native Maltese. According to the 1937 census, most of the inhabitants lived within 4 miles (6.4 km) of the Grand Harbour, where the population density was more than six times that of the island as a whole. Amongst the most congested spots was Valletta
, the capital and political, military and commercial centre. In this city, 23,000 people lived in an area of around 0.25 square mile (0.6474970275 km²). Across the Grand Harbour, in the so-called Three Cities, where the dockyards were located and the Admiralty
had its headquarters, 28,000 more were packed into 0.5 square miles (1.3 km²). It was these small areas that absorbed the heaviest, most sustained and concentrated of aerial bombing in history.
The state of Malta's defences was poor, verging on non-existent. This stemmed from a pre-war conclusion that the island was indefensible and should not be defended. The Italian and British surface fleets were evenly matched, but the Italians had a significant numerical advantage in submarine
s and aircraft. The British, in particular the Admiralty, suffered from having to cover the Suez Canal
, with the Mediterranean Fleet
under Admiral
Andrew Cunningham
and Gibraltar with Force H
under Vice-Admiral James Somerville
. In October 1939, the Mediterranean Fleet was moved east to Egypt, practically stripping the island of its naval protection. Just the monitor Terror and a few British submarines were left to defend the island from the sea. When the Maltese government questioned the British rationale, they were told that the island could be defended just as adequately from Alexandria as from Malta's Grand Harbour. This was not true, and the Maltese suspected Britain's commitment to defending the island was not as strong as it could have been.
While there were concerns that the island, far from Britain and near Italy, could not be defended, the British decided in July 1939 to increase the number of anti-aircraft guns
and fighter
s on Malta. The British leadership had further doubts about whether to hold the island in May 1940 when French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud
reported that the situation in France was dire, but that Italian dictator Benito Mussolini
might be appeased by concessions, including Malta. After some discussion, Winston Churchill
convinced the British War Cabinet
that no concessions should be made. With Britain itself at risk, Malta was not the highest priority, so it was lightly protected. Only six Gloster Sea Gladiator
biplane
s were stationed on the island, with another six in crates, when on 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on the United Kingdom
and France
.
In the 1930s, Italy had looked for expansion in the Mediterranean and Africa
; regions dominated by the British and French. The defeat of France in May–June 1940 removed the French Navy
from the Allied order of battle
and changed the balance of naval and air power in the Italians' favour.
Upon declaring war, Mussolini called for an offensive throughout the Mediterranean. Within hours, the first bombs had dropped on Malta. After the French surrender on 25 June, Mussolini tried to take advantage of a Britain heavily engaged in the Battle of Britain
by attacking Egypt
in September, but was heavily defeated in a counter-offensive
. Adolf Hitler
was forced to rescue his ally. In February 1941, the Deutsches Afrikakorps (German Africa Corps, or DAK) commanded by Generalfeldmarschall
(Field Marshal
) Erwin Rommel
was sent to North Africa to prevent an Axis rout. RAF and Royal Navy anti-shipping squadrons and submarines posed a significant threat to Axis supply and communications between Europe and North Africa, and both sides soon recognised the importance of the island in controlling the Mediterranean.
The timidity of the Italian Navy helped the Allied cause — they would only attack under favourable conditions. In 1940, conditions were more than favourable for an assault on Malta. Such a move stood a reasonable chance of gaining control of the island, which would have given the Italians naval and air supremacy
in the central Mediterranean. Such a turn of events would have split the area in two and the British could not have transported supplies between their strongholds in the east and west without severe danger. The reluctance of the Italians to act throughout 1940 was strengthened by the Battle of Taranto
, in which the Italian surface fleet was severely damaged by the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
. To the Italians (and later the Germans), air power was the key weapon against Malta. The only immediate action the Italian navy would take was the interdiction of submarine phone cables
linking Malta to Gibraltar and Algeria. Several thousands of meters were removed by Italian small vessels from 11 June to 16 August, effectively isolating Malta from the outside world.
of the island. On the first day, 55 Italian bombers and 21 fighters flew over Malta and dropped 142 bombs on the three airfields at Luqa, Hal Far and Ta Qali. Later, 10 Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
s and 20 Macchi C.200
s flew over the island, with no air opposition. At the time of these first air raids
, the defending fighters on Malta consisted of obsolete Gloster Sea Gladiators, in the Hal Far Fighter Flight
. Legend has it that there were just three aircraft, nicknamed 'Faith', 'Hope' and 'Charity' but, in reality, at least six Gladiators were deployed. There were also Hurricanes based there from the start, and it was this fighter which did most of the damage.
The Italians flew at around 20,000 feet. The monitor ship Terror
and gunboats Aphis and Ladybird
opened fire. In the afternoon, another 38 bombers escorted by 12 fighters raided the capital. The effect of the raids were designed to impact the morale of the population rather than inflict damage to dockyards and installations. A total of eight raids were flown on that first day. The bombing did not cause much damage and most of the casualties suffered were civilian. No interception of the raiders was made because there was no RAF force ready to meet them. No RAF airfield on Malta was operational at that time. One at Luqa, was near to completion.
Despite the absence of any operational airfields, at least one RAF Gladiator flew against a raid of 55 Savoia Marchetti SM 78a and their 20 escorting fighters on 11 June. It surprised the Italians, but the defences, almost non-existent on the ground and in the air, failed to impede the Italian force. On 12 June, an Italian aircraft on a reconnaissance flight over Malta was shot down.
An odd development took place on 19 June. Fairey Swordfish
, 12 in total, flew into the Fleet Air Arm
(FAA) base at Hal Far; the 767 Training Squadron, who had escaped southern France following the French capitulation. They flew to the French colony of Tunisia
, but insecurity compelled them to seek friendly surroundings. The FAA aircraft were to form the nucleus of what was to become the No. 830 Squadron FAA, providing Malta with its first offensive strike aircraft. Before June was out, they raided Sicily and sank one Italian destroyer, damaged a cruiser and knocked out oil storage tanks in the port of Augusta.
By the start of July, the Gladiators had been reinforced by Hawker Hurricane
s and the defences organised into No. 261 Squadron RAF
in August. Twelve were delivered by in August, the first of several batches ferried to the island by the carrier. A further attempt to fly 12 Hurricanes into Malta on 17 November, led by a FAA Blackburn Skua
, (Operation White
) ended in disaster with the loss of eight Hurricanes. They took off too far west of the island and ran out of fuel. Several pilots were lost. A further two Hurricanes crashed, with one of the pilots rescued by a Short Sunderland
flying boat
. The arrival of more fighters was welcome. After just eight weeks, the original force of Hurricane units were grounded owing to a lack of spare parts.
The year ended with little impression made by the Regia Aeronautica. The RAF claimed 45 Italian aircraft shot down for minimal losses. The Italians admitted the loss of 23 bombers and 12 fighters with a further 187 bombers and seven fighters having suffered damage, mainly to anti-aircraft artillery.
In 1938 Mussolini had considered the invasion of Malta under Plan DG10/42. He envisaged the use of 40,000 men in its capture. He accepted the loss of nearly all the purpose-built 80-strong sea-craft that would land the Italian Army ashore. Landings would be made in the north, with attack upon the Victoria Line
which lay across the centre of the island. Secondary landings would go ahead at Gozo
, an island adjacent and north of Malta as well as the tiny island of Comino
, which lay between the two. The entire navy would be involved as well as 500 aircraft. However, the lack of the means (logistical among other things), meant the planners did not believe the operation could be carried out. With Germany's success in May 1940, the plan was reduced to 20,000 men and included tanks. The elimination of the French and withdrawal of the British would give the Italians a prime opportunity to seize Malta. But Italian intelligence had overestimated the defences, and Mussolini's belief that Britain would sue for peace with Germany meant Malta would fall and be annexed without the need for military action on a large scale. Mussolini also thought that Franco's Spain
would soon be in the war. If they captured Gibraltar, then the Mediterranean would be barred from Britain to the west. The failure to force the issue when the balance of power was in their favour was to have serious consequences for the Axis. It would not take long for the Royal Navy to realise the islands potential as a base for offensive operations, and thus conclude it was worth defending.
during their occupation of the country), were small. The Germans took most of the oil from Romania
and left scarce resources for Italy to pursue large-scale operations on the Mediterranean. Not only did this negate any large-scale naval operations, it also left the Italians without adequate fuel for sharpening their combat skills at sea. By the start of 1941, total stocks meant only seven months of fuel could be guaranteed. Offensive naval sweeps by the British Mediterranean Fleet confirmed to Admiral Cunningham that the Italians had an inferiority complex. The British confidence was eroded when aircraft began to dominate the actions at sea later on in 1941 and
1942.
Cunningham revealed the reluctance of the Italian Navy to engage by probing their defences. On 9 July 1940, the Battle of Calabria
was the only time the main Italian and British (with supporting Royal Australian Navy
vessels) fleets engaged each other. It confirmed to the Maltese people that the British still controlled the seas, if not from the Grand Harbour. This was confirmed again in March 1941, when Royal Navy forces decisively defeated Italian naval forces in the Battle of Cape Matapan
. The Italians had been heading to intercept the British convoys sending reinforcements to aid Greece
in the Greco-Italian War
.
When it became clear to the British that the Italian air forces were limited and having little impact on the population which could endure, a steady stream of reinforcements arrived. The potential of the base was released and Whitehall
ordered further aircraft into the island; including Hurricane fighters, Martin Marylands, Sunderlands, Vickers Wellington
s, more Swordfish and submarines. It provided an increasingly potent offensive arm. The Wellingtons arrived in October, from No. 148 Squadron RAF
.
Meanwhile the Italian invasion of Egypt
had failed to achieve its goals and the British counter-offensive, Operation Compass
, drove the Italians back into Libya
. The diversion of the North African Campaign
drew away significant Italian air units which were rushed from Italy and Sicily to deal with the disasters. The relief on Malta was significant as the British could concentrate their forces for offensive, rather than defensive operations. In November 1940, after months of poorly coordinated Italian air strikes, the FAA and Royal Navy struck at Italian naval forces in Taranto
. The following Battle of Taranto
was a victory for sea-air power. Fairey Swordfish torpedo bomber
s disabled a number of Italian heavy units. The withdrawal of the Italian fleet to Naples
, out of reach of British aircraft was a strategic victory which handed naval supremacy to the British for the time being.
The Royal Navy's submarines also began a period of offensive operations. British U class submarine
began operations as early as June. Larger submarines also began operations, but after 50 per cent losses per mission, they were withdrawn. U Class submarines operated from the Manoel Island Base known as HMS Talbot. Unfortunately no bomb-proof pens were available as the building project had been scrapped before the war owing to cost cutting policies. The new force was named the Tenth Submarine Flotilla and was placed under Flag Officer Submarines (FOS) Admiral Max Horton who appointed Commander G.W.G Simpson to command the unit. Administratively, the Tenth Flotilla operated under the First Submarine Flotilla at Alexandria, itself under Cunningham. In reality, Cunningham gave Simpson and his unit a free hand. Until U Class vessels could be made available in numbers, British T class submarine
s were used. They had successes, but suffered heavy losses when they began operations on 20 September 1940. Owing to the shortage of torpedo weapons, enemy ships could not be attacked unless the target in question was a warship, tanker or other "significant vessel".
The performance of the fleet was mixed at first. They sank 37,000 tons of Italian shipping, half by one vessel, the submarine HMS Truant. It amounted to one Italian submarine, nine merchant vessels and one Motor Torpedo Boat
(MTB). The loss of nine submarines and their trained crews and commanders was serious. Most of the losses were to mines. On 14 January 1941, U Class submarines arrived, and the submarine offensive began in earnest.
was dispatched to secure the Axis front in Africa in February 1941. Operation Colossus
signalled a dramatic turn around. The Germans launched Operation Sonnenblume
, which reinforced the Italians in North Africa. They then began a counter-offensive and drove the British back into Egypt. But operating overseas in Africa meant most of the supplies to Axis forces would come via the sea. This made Malta a dangerous threat to Axis logistical concerns. In response, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe
(OLK or Air Force High Command) sent Fliegerkorps X
(Flying Corps Ten) to Sicily, which arrived in January 1941, to strike at naval forces in and around Malta, as well as RAF positions on the island to ease the passage of supplies.
In the interim period the best protection for German ships transporting the German forces to Libya proved to be the Royal Navy itself. The British submarines failed to interdict them successfully. The damaging of the 7,889-ton German ship Duisberg was the only noteworthy attack. On 9 February 1941 three submarines missed the same convoy bringing supplies to Tripoli
. It was this city which was the principal Italian port. It could receive six ships being unloaded at a time making the port the best facility west of Alexandria, 1,000 miles to the east. A large part of the Axis defensive success was naval mines. The Italians deployed 54,000 mines around Malta to prevent it being supplied. These mines were the bane of the Royal Navy's submarines. Around 3,000 mines were laid off Tunisia
's coast by Italian naval forces as well.
The failure to intercept Axis shipping was evident in the figures which extended far beyond February 1941. In January–April 1941 the Axis sent 321,259 tons to Libya and all but 18,777 tons reached port. This amounted to a 94 per cent success rate. Of the 73,991 men sent by sea, 71,881 (97 per cent) arrived in Africa.
On 10 December 1940 Fliegerkorps X
under the command of Hans Ferdinand Geisler
, and with support of his chief of staff
Major Martin Harlinghausen
, was ordered to Sicily in order to attack Allied shipping in the Mediterranean. By the start of the first German operation, Geisler had 95 aircraft and 14,389 men in Sicily. Geisler persuaded the OKL to give him four more dive-bomber gruppen (Groups). On 10 January he could muster 255 (179 serviceable) aircraft including 209 dive and medium bombers.
By 2 January 1941, the first German units reached Trapani
on Sicily's southern coast. The Luftwaffes two units were both Junkers Ju 87
Stuka Gruppen (Groups). The first was I./Sturzkampfgeschwader 1
and II./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2
(I and II Group Dive Bomber Wings 1 and 2). The units numbered some 80 Ju 87s. This led to a notable increase in the bombing of Malta. A Stabsstaffel of Sturzkampfgeschwader 3
(StG 3) arrived. Oberstleutnant
Karl Christ
, Geschwaderkommodore
of StG 3 gave orders to intercept heavy units. One particular target was aircraft carrier
s. Days later he ordered the Ju 87 gruppen to sink the carrier . The new 23,000-ton carrier was the British' newest aircraft carrying vessel. It had taken part in the Battle of Taranto
which handed naval supremacy to the British. The success of the vessel, however, put it at the top of the Axis' target list. The Italians had failed to sink her, now the Ju 87s would try.
was launched which included a series of convoy operations by the British across the Mediterranean Sea. On 10 January they were within range of the Ju 87 bases. II./StG 2 sent 43 Ju 87s with support from I./StG 1. Ten Italian SM 79s had drawn off the carrier's Fairey Fulmar
fighters while the escorting cruiser HMS Bonaventure
sank the Italian torpedo boat Vega. Some 10 Ju 87s attacked the carrier unopposed. Witnessed, by Andrew Cunningham
, C-in-C of the Fleet from HMS Warspite, the Ju 87s scored six hits. One destroyed a gun, another near her bow, a third demolished another gun, while two hit the descending lift wrecking the aircraft below deck causing explosions of fuel and ammunition below deck. Another went through the armoured deck and exploded deep inside the ship. Two further attacks were made without result. Heavily damaged, her main engines were intact and she steered for the now dubious haven of Malta. The attack lasted six minutes and killed 126 crew members and wounded 91. Within sight of Malta, Italian torpedo bombers attacked the carrier, but were driven off by intense anti-aircraft fire.
The operation should not have been launched. Ultra had informed the Air Ministry
of Fliegerkorps Xs presence on Sicily as early as the 4 January. They did not pass on the intelligence to the Admiralty
, who likely would not have sailed within range of the Ju 87s.
The RAF was in no condition to prevent a major German air attack, with only 16 Hurricanes and a couple of Gladiator aircraft serviceable. On 11 January 1941 10 more Ju 87s were sent to sink her. They chanced upon HMS Southampton and HMS Gloucester. Hits were scored on both. Southampton was so badly damaged her navy escorts scuttled her. Over the next 12 days the workers at the shipyard in the Grand Harbour repaired the carrier under determined air attack so that she might make Alexandria. On 13 January the Ju 87s, now equipped with SC 1000 bombs failed to achieve a hit. On 14 January 44 Ju 87s scored a near hit on the ill-fated aft after lift. On 18 January, the Germans switched to attacking the airfields at Hal Far and Luqa in an attempt to win air superiority before returning to the Illustrious. On 20 January two close hit alongside her breached the hull below the water line and hurled her hull against the Wharf. Still, the engineers won the battle. On 23 January she slipped out of the Grand Harbour and arrived in Alexandria two days later. The carrier later sailed to America
where she was out of action for a year.
The Luftwaffe had failed to sink the carrier. However, their losses were few—three losses on 10 January and four Ju 87s over several following weeks—and the Germans had impressed the British with the effectiveness of land-based air power. They withdrew their fleet's heavy units from the central Mediterranean and risked no more than trying to send cruisers through the Sicilian Narrows. Both the British and Italian navies digested their experiences over Taranto and Malta.
The appearance in February of a staffel (squadron) of Messerschmitt Bf 109
E-7 fighters of 7. Staffel Jagdgeschwader 26
(Fighter Wing 26 or JG 26), led by Oberleutnant
Joachim Müncheberg
, quickly led to a sudden and marked rise in RAF losses, as the experienced, confident, tactically astute, better equipped and trained German fighter units made their presence felt. The Allied pilots on Malta had little combat experience and their Hawker Hurricanes were well worn. Over the next four months, few of JG 26's Bf 109s were damaged, let alone shot down. In exchange they claimed 42 air victories, twenty of them (including one over Yugoslavia) were credited to Müncheberg.
In contrast, the Hurricanes were patched up, and cannibalised well past the usual shelf-life. Their performance, already inferior to the Bf 109E-7, was greatly reduced as a result of being patched up. Small numbers of reinforcements arrived; five at the beginning of March, another six on the 18 March. However five were lost in between costing the RAF five pilots. The odds of surviving combat for RAF pilots was poor.
On 1 March, the Luftwaffe mounted very effective raids. Attacks on the airfields destroyed all the Wellingtons brought in October. Royal Navy warships and Sunderland flying boats could not use the island for offensive operations. The two main fighter squadrons, No. 261 and 274 Squadrons, were put under severe pressure.
German air superiority was taking its toll on the island. There were several raids per day. Over 107 Axis attacks took place in February and 105 in March with Bf 109 fighters contribution by strafing any signs of movement on the ground. Rationing also started, reducing morale further. All males between the age of 16 and 56 were conscripted into Maltese service. Large numbers of Maltese had already volunteered. By February around 14,600 men, one-sixth of the island's work force had answered the call to arms. By this time Royal Malta Artillery now guarded the Grand Harbour. By this time the Axis bombing had already done severe damage to the Three Cities.
Some prestige was gained in April, with the victory at sea in the Battle of the Tarigo Convoy
. Allied surface forces would managed to sink only one small Axis convoy in daylight hours during the whole North African Campaign
, but at night the British proved that they could destroy Axis shipping. On the night of the 15/16 April 1941 Axis ships were intercepted by Commander P.J Mack's 14th Destroyer Flotilla, containing the destroyers, HMS Janus
, Jervis
, Mohawk, Juno and Nubian. They sank five ships (mainly German); Sabaudia (1,500 tons), the Aegina (2,447 tons), Adana (4,205 tons), Isetlhon (3,704 tons) and Arta. Three Italian destroyers, the Tarigo, Lampo and Baleno were sunk for the loss of Mohawk. The mounting, albeit small, losses were starting to concern Rommel.
The flotilla had been officially formed on 8 April 1941, in response to the need for Malta Strike Force. This strike force was to interdict Axis convoys. Later, Commander Lord Louis Mountbatten's 5th Destroyer Flotilla was ordered to merge with Mack's fleet to increase its striking power. The destroyers HMS Jackal
, Kashmir
, Kipling
, Kelly
, Kelvin
and Jersey
were a part of Mountbatten’s fleet. The cruisers HMS Dido
and Gloucester accompanied the ships as part of the force. The strike force had considerable success, which justified basing it at Malta despite the threat from air attack. On 21 May, the force was sent to join the Battle of Crete
. It was several months before a strike force would return.
Further success was had by the Malta Convoys
. An urgent supply convoy from Gibraltar to Alexandria (Operation Tiger) coincided with reinforcements for the Mediterranean Fleet, two small convoys from Egypt to Malta, and 48 more Hurricanes flown off HMS Ark Royal and (Operation Splice). The only loss was one transport , which hit a mine and sank. The ship took 10 Hurricane fighters and 57 tanks with it. Tiger was transporting 295 tanks (Matildas and the new Crusader tank
s) and 24,000 tons of oil needed for the operations in North Africa. The operation was completed on 12 May. I., II., and III., StG 1 made a determined effort against Tiger and Malta without result.
Nevertheless, the Germans held air superiority. Hitler ordered Fliegerkorps X to protect Axis shipping, prevent Allied shipping passing through the central Mediterranean, and neutralise Malta altogether as an Allied base. Around 180 German and 300 Italian aircraft would carry out the directive. The Luftwaffe in particular swarmed over the island almost at will. The RAF was barely able to put more than six to eight fighters in the air at one time. Occasionally a dozen would be flown in off British carriers, but being heavily outnumbered, the replacements were soon used up. The Axis were successful in implementing Hitler's directive. By mid-May, the central Mediterranean had been sealed off to Allied shipping, and the DAK was able to send reinforcements to Rommel in North Africa with the loss of only three per cent of its supplies, personnel and equipment. From 11 April to 10 May, just 111 Axis raids were carried out. All targeted military installations. Most heavy equipment in the Grand Harbour was destroyed; the dry-docks could only be operated by hand. Workshop efficiency was down to 50 per cent, some down to 25 per cent.
During the first four months of German operations, the Luftwaffe had dropped 2,500 tons of high explosives on Malta. It was many more times the tonnage dropped by the Italians but would fall far short of the amount dropped in the coming year. According to official figures, more than 2,000 civilian buildings were destroyed as opposed to only 300 during the Italian siege. Human casualties remained light. After the bombing of HMS Illustrious, most of the civilians moved out to safer surroundings. By May 1941, nearly 60,000 people had left the cities. In the capital Valletta, some 11,000 people (two-thirds) left the area. One of the main reasons for this was a lack of shelter—the British focused on protecting military targets. Eventually 2,000 miners and stonemasons were recruited to build public shelters. The pay was poor and the miners threatened strike action, only to be threatened in turn with a draft into the army. They backed down, but worked as little as possible. Had they been motivated, the shelters could have built twice as cheaply and at one-third the cost.
which led to the Balkans Campaign (German invasion of Yugoslavia and the Battle of Greece
) owing to the failed Italian invasion of Greece
. The subsequent campaign and the heavy German losses in the Battle of Crete
convinced Hitler that air drops behind enemy lines, using paratroopers, was no longer feasible unless surprise was achieved. He acknowledged the chances of surprise in an air operation of that kind were worn out. Hitler lived up to his word, and the German airborne forces did not undertake any operations again. This had important consequences for Malta, as it indicated the island would have to fall to an Axis siege. In June, Hitler attacked the Soviet Union
under Operation Barbarossa
. Fliegerkorps X departed for the Eastern Front, and the Regia Aeronautica was left to continue its ineffective hit and run tactics against Malta in the coming months. Geisler, commanding the remnants of Fliegerkorps X, could count upon mine laying aircraft from Kampfgeschwader 4
(KG 4) and Ju 87s in night operations. Supply issues were bad, and the small German force left was forced to abandon operations on 22 April 1941. By early May 1941, the Luftwaffe had flown 1,465 strike, 1,144 fighter and 132 reconnaissance missions for just 44 losses. III./Kampfgeschwader 30
(KG 30) and III./Lehrgeschwader 1
(KG 1) flew sporadic night attacks during April.
Within a few hours Lloyd had made an inspection tour of the airfields and the main workshops at Kalafrana. The state of the island was worse than he expected. The slackening of German air activity had allowed the number of aircraft to increase, but the RAF still had fewer than 60 of all types. Maintenance was difficult. Hardly any spare or replacement parts were available. Spares had to be obtained by sifting through the debris of wrecks or by cannibalising undamaged aircraft. Furthermore; the airfields were too small; there was no heavy equipment to work with; and even the commonest sorts of tools, such as hammers and wrenches, were all but impossible to find. All refuelling had to be done by hand from individual drums. The shelter was also inadequate, so there was little protection for what equipment they did have. Most aircraft were clustered together on open runways, presenting tempting targets. At Kalafrana, all the buildings were close together and above ground. The single engine-repair facility on Malta was located right next to the only test benches. Lloyd himself said, "a few bombs on Kalafrana in the summer of 1941 would have ruined any hope of Malta ever operating an air force".
Usually the protection of air defences and naval assets on the island would have had priority. Certainly bringing in more supplies would have made greater strategic sense, before risking going on to the offensive and thus in turn risking the wrath of the enemy. But the time period was an eventful one. In North Africa, the DAK was on the move and Rommel was pressing his army towards the Suez Canal
and Alexandria
in Egypt. RAF forces on Malta could not afford to sit idle. They could prevent Rommel's advance, or slow it, by striking at his supply lines. Malta was the only place where British strike aircraft could launch their attacks from. Lloyd's bombers and a small Flotilla
of submarines were the only forces to harass Rommel's supply lines into the autumn. Only then did the surface fleets return to Malta to support the offensive.
While the Regia Aeronautica was ineffective, so was the Italian Navy. The defeat in the Battle of Cape Matapan
encouraged the Italians to be even more half-hearted in their operations against Malta. A lack of oil also crippled their ability to attack the British sea-lanes. The defeat stunned Mussolini. He still maintained a healthy numerical superiority over the enemy, but he was convinced of Italian inferiority. Much to the anger of the Germans, he refused to seek out and engage the British thereafter. British naval forces passed through to Malta, almost unchallenged. Several hundred tons of supplies, 2,000 soldiers and 200 tons of medical stores made it to Malta untouched, which undid all of the work of the Luftwaffe in the first four months of 1941. The supply situation was described as excellent by the autumn, 1941. With the exception of coal, fodder, kerosene and essential civilian supplies were such that an eight to fifteen month reserve was built up. Operation Substance
was particularly successful in July 1941. The supplies included spares and aircraft. Around 60 bombers and 120 Hurricanes were now available. Around 65,000 tons made it into Malta altogether in July. No supplies were sent in August, but Operation Halberd
in September 1941 brought in a large 85,000 tons of supplies, shipped by nine merchant vessels escorted by one aircraft carrier, five cruisers and 17 destroyers. One cargo ship, the Imperial Star was sunk, and the battleship HMS Nelson was damaged by a torpedo. This convoy proved critical to saving Malta, as it supplies proved essential when the Germans returned in December.
In mid-1941, new squadrons — No. 185 and No. 126 — were formed and the defenders received the first cannon-armed Hurricane Mk IIAs. Naval carriers flew in a total of 81 more fighters in April–May. By the 12 May, there were 50 Hurricanes on the island. On 21 May No. 249 Squadron RAF
arrived, taking over from No. 261. No. 46 Squadron RAF
arrived in June, to be renumbered No. 126 Squadron RAF
. In May 1941, 47 Hurricanes were flown into the island. From May to December 1941 also saw the arrival of the first Bristol Blenheim
units (No. 113 Squadron RAF
and No. 105 Squadron RAF
) and Bristol Beaufighter
units, 252
and 272 Squadrons
. Malta was now being used as a base for supplying Egypt. Between July and December 1941, 717 RAF fighters passed through Malta and 514 left for North Africa. By early August 1941, Malta now had 75 fighters and 230 anti-aircraft guns. Bristol Blenheim
bombers also joined the defenders and began offensive operations.
Besides preparing for offensive operations and reinforcing the RAF on the island, Lloyd also rectified many of the deficiencies. Thousands of Maltese and 3,000 British Army
soldiers were drafted by him to prepare better protection for the airfields. Even technical staff, clerks and flight crews helped when required. Dispersal strips were built, repair shops were moved underground from dockyards and airfields. Underground shelters were also created in the belief that the Luftwaffe would soon return.
The Allies were able to launch offensive operations from Malta. Some 60% of Axis shipping was sunk in the second half of 1941. The DAK and its allies needed 50000 ST (45,359.2 t) of supplies a month, but were not receiving that much, and as a result were unable to resist a strong counter-offensive by British forces in Operation Crusader
.
For example, in July 62,276 tons of supplies was landed by the Axis in July, half of the figure in June. In September 1941, the No. 830 Naval Air Squadron sank or damaged the ships Andrea Gritti (6,338 tons) and the Pietro Barbaro (6,330 tons). Ultra intercepts confirmed that 3,500 tons of air bombs, 4,000 tons of ammunition, 5,000 tons of food, one entire tank workshop, 25 Bf 109 engines and 25 cases of glycol coolant for their engines were lost. Further success was had later in the month, though the losses against anti-aircraft fire from Italian ships was sometimes heavy.
One reason for accepting heavy losses was the difficulty in bombing inaccurately. Lloyd asked his bombers to attack at mast-height, making them easier targets for anti-aircraft defences. Losses averaged 12 percent during this time. No. 38
, 40
and 104 Squadrons
equipped with Wellington bombers hit Axis convoys in Tripoli
doing some damage to shipping.
In concert with Royal Navy submarines, the RAF and FAA sank 108 Axis ships (300,000 grt) between June and September. In September one-third of the 96,000 tons of supplies dispatched was lost to British submarine and air attack. In October 18,800 tons of Axis shipping was sunk. During November, submarines cut Axis supplies to Africa by 62 per cent of the total sent that month. In June, the Italians unloaded 125,000 tons (37,000 for the Germans). But that figure fell to 83,000 tons (27,300 for the Germans) and by November it was just 29,843 tons (5,100 tons for the Germans), from 79,208 sent out.
Part of the reason for the success in November 1941, was the arrival of the Royal Navy's Force K
. It's forces successfully destroyed an entire Axis convoy during the Battle of the Duisburg Convoy
, which practically blockaded Libyan ports. Soon after, Force K was reinforced by the arrival in Malta of Force B with two light cruisers, Ajax
and Neptune
, and two K-class destroyers
, Kimberley and Kingston, on 27 November 1941. Joint operations with the RAF were so effective that during November 1941 the Axis supply line suffered significant losses. Among the lost Axis cargo was precious fuel stores. The total loss of fuel amounted to 49,365 tons out of 79,208 tons. Among the contributors to the sinking of Axis shipping was No. 828 Naval Air Squadron, No. 830 Naval Air Squadron, the British 10th Naval Flotilla, and No. 69 Squadron RAF
which shadowed convoys with their Maryland aircraft. In particular, special flights of RAF Wellingtons, which were fitted with air to surface vessel radar, were critical to Force K operations. ULTRA intelligence would reach Malta on Axis Convoy movements. The RAF Malta Command would then dispatch the ASV-Wellingtons to sweep the seas and direct the British naval forces to the targeted convoy.
However the success did not come without cost. On 13 November 1941 the carrier HMS Ark Royal
, whilst transporting aircraft to Malta, was sunk by a U-Boat. Just 12 days later, HMS Barham was sunk by a U-Boat. This was followed by HMS Galatea
on 15 December. On 19 December 1941 ships from both Forces ran into a minefield
while pursuing an Italian convoy. Damage from the mines sank one cruiser (Neptune) and damaged another (Aurora). A destroyer (Kandahar)
was also mined while attempting to assist the stricken Neptune. The damaged Kandahar was scuttled the next day by destroyer Jaguar
. Following this, and with a resurgence of the aerial bombardment of Malta, surface ships were withdrawn from the central Mediterranean in January 1942.
In response to the reverses, the Luftwaffe returned in force in December 1941 to renew intensive bombing. The response was also naval. The Kriegsmarine
sent nearly half of all the German U-Boat
s on operations in the Atlantic Ocean
to the Mediterranean Sea to support the effort against Malta. By 15 December, half of these vessels were either in the Mediterranean, or on their way to the Theatre. The RAF was, however, making life difficult for the German submarines, which had to pass by the British naval and air base at Gibraltar
to reach the contested waters.
Up until the return of the Luftwaffe over Malta, the RAF defenders had claimed 199 aircraft shot down from June 1940—December 1941, while losses were at least 90 Hurricanes, three Fairey Fulmar
, one Gladiators in air combat; ten more Hurricanes and one Gladiator destroyed in accidents and many more knocked out on the ground. Eight Marylands, two other aircraft, three Beaufighters, one fighter variant of the Blenheim, and a very large number of bombers lost in action. No. 185 Squadron claimed 18 destroyed, seven probable victories and 21 damaged for 11 killed or missing. Among those losses was Squadron Leader
Peter "Boy" Mould. Actual Axis losses amounted to 135 bombers (80 German) and 56 fighters plus a number of other aircraft.
. In the Mediterranean and on Malta, the Allies recovered and began offensive operations against Axis shipping bringing supplies to the DAK in North Africa. The mounting shipping supply losses affected Geisler's ability to support Erwin Rommel and his forces, which caused tension between the Heer
and the Luftwaffe. Geisler was to be returned to Sicily with his remaining air strength to solve the issue. However, the Germans backed down over Italian protests. On 6 October Geisler did extend his air sector responsibilities to cover the Tripoli-Naples sea route in order to curtail losses. On 2 October, Hermann Göring
, commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe met with his Regia Aeronautica counterpart Francesco Pricolo
to discuss reinforcements. Göring displayed surprising sensitivity to Italian failings while discussing sending German reinforcements. Hans Jeschonnek
, Goring's chief of staff, suggested sending Luftflotte 2
and its commander Albert Kesselring
to Sicily from the Eastern Front. Göring agreed, and was willing to send 16 Gruppen to Sicily, anticipating a Soviet collapse in the east. This level of support did not arrive. However, Bruno Loerzer
and his command, Fliegerkorps II
, did arrive in January 1942, with Kesselring as the Southern Commander in Chief, a post which had nominally been Benito Mussolini
's responsibility. Kesselring was given this role officially on 1 December 1941.
German reinforcements were swift to arrive. Messerschmitt Bf 110
s and Ju 88 night fighter
s were flown into to Sicily to support Fliegerkorps II from Zerstörergeschwader 26
(ZG 26, or Destroyer Wing 26) and Nachtjagdgeschwader 1
(NJG 1 or Night Fighter Wing 1). They quickly eliminated Malta's striking force, which was beyond the range of fighter escort while over the Mediterranean. In the first two months, around 20 RAF bombers and reconnaissance aircraft were shot down. The success against Axis shipping soon dried up. The only notable triumph was the sinking of the 13,089-ton Victoria merchant ship. It was one of the fastest supply ships then afloat. It was sunk by an Albacore of 826 Squadron, flown by Lieutenant Baxter Ellis, on 23 January.
Over the island the defensive arm of the RAF was also put under pressure. Kesselring began 1942 with a raid on New Year's Day
. It was the 1,175th raid since the war began. The pressure increased and in January the RAF lost 50 Hurricanes on the ground and another eight shot down in combat. Of the 340 fighters that had passed through or stayed on the island since the war began, only 28 remained. AOC Lloyd was starting to wonder if his fighter forces could hold out. The Axis conducted 263 raids in that month, a significant jump from 169 in December 1941. Loerzer's Fliegerkorps II was still recovering from its losses in the Soviet Union, and could only contributed 118 aircraft in January, growing to 390 in March. More machines were collected, and the Korps reached a peak strength of 425.
One-third of all raids were directed against airfields. One of the bases, at Takali 841 tons of bombs were dropped. The effort was made because the Germans believed the British were operating an underground hangar. They used rocket-assisted PC 18000RS Panther Bombs. The usual tactic would involve a sweep ahead of the bombers by German fighters to clear the skies. This worked, and air superiority was maintained. Only light losses were suffered by the bombers. One notable loss being the Geschwaderkommodore
of KG 77, Arved Cruger
. Around 94 per cent of the strikes were made in daylight and the Italians supported the Luftwaffe by flying 2,455 sorties in February and March.
Both the Navy and Air Commanders, as well as Governor Dobbie, argued for modern aircraft, particularly the Spitfire, to be sent to Malta. AOC Middle East, Arthur Tedder, sent Group Captain
Basil Embry to Malta to assess the situation. The pilots told Embry that the Hurricanes were useless and that the Spitfire was their only hope. They claimed that the Germans purposely flew in front of the Hurricanes in their Bf 109Fs to show off the performance superiority of the Bf 109. The Squadron Leaders argued the inferiority of their aircraft was affecting morale. Embry agreed, and recommended the Spitfire be sent in sufficient numbers. The type began arriving in March 1942.
and Benito Mussolini
during a meeting at Berchtesgaden
. It envisioned an airborne assault with one German and one Italian airborne division, under the command of German General
Kurt Student
. This would have been followed by a seaborne landing of two or three divisions protected by the Regia Marina. The Italians, in agreement with Kesselring, put invading Malta at the top of Axis priorities in the region. However, two major factors stopped Hitler from giving the operation the green light. The first was Erwin Rommel
. Thanks to Kesselring's pounding of the island Rommel had his supply lines secured. He was able to gain the ascendancy in North Africa once again. Although Rommel believed Malta should be invaded, he insisted the conquest of Egypt and the Suez Canal, not Malta, was the priority. The second was Hitler himself. After the Battle of Crete
in May and June 1941, Hitler was nervous about using paratroopers to invade the island since the Crete campaign had cost this arm heavy losses and he started to procrastinate in making a decision. Kesselring complained. Hitler proposed a compromise. He suggested that if Rommel reached the Egyptian border once again in the coming months (the fighting at the time was taking place in Libya), the Axis could invade in July or August 1942 when a full moon would provide ideal conditions for a landing. Although frustrated, Kesselring was relieved the operation had seemingly been postponed rather than shelved.
Before the Spitfires arrived, other attempts were made to reduce losses. In February 1942, Squadron Leader Stan Turner arrived to take over 249 Squadron. Lloyd had requested a highly experienced combat leader be sent and Turner's experience flying with Douglas Bader
over Europe soon meant he was qualified to lead the unit. He began the adoption of the loose finger-four
formation in an attempt to cut RAF losses by introducing more flexible tactics to compensate for technical inferiority. The outmoded Hurricanes still struggled against the very latest Bf 109Fs of Jagdgeschwader 53
(JG 53) and the Italian Macchi C.202s now operating over the island. The Junkers Ju 88
bomber version also proved a difficult enemy.
To restore qualitive parity, on 7 March 1942, a contingent of 16 Supermarine Spitfire
Mk Vs flew to Malta from the aircraft carrier as part of Operation Spotter. A further run by Eagle delivered nine Spitfires. The reinforcement of Malta by carrier
("Club Runs") became more frequent through 1942. Then, and HMS Eagle despatched 47 more (Operation Calendar
) on 13 April 1942. All but one reached the island. While the Spitfires were a match for the Axis aircraft, many of the ones delivered in March and April were destroyed on the ground and in the air—where they were outnumbered. For instance, for five days in April there was just one Spitfire available to defend the island; for two days there were none. The Germans had watched their delivery, and pressed home heavy attacks. By the 21 April 1942, just 27 Spitfires were still airworthy. By that evening, that had fallen to 17.
The overwhelming Axis bombardments had also substantially eroded Malta's offensive naval and air capabilities. By March–April 1942 it was clear the Luftwaffe had achieved a measure of air superiority. The Regia Aeronautica also pressed home attacks with determination. Often, three to five Italian bombers would fly very low over their targets and drop their bombs with precision, regardless of the RAF attacks and heavy ground fire.
Along with the advantage in the air, the Germans soon discovered that the British submarines were operating from Manoel Island, not Grand Harbour, and exploited their air superiority to eliminate the threat. The base soon came under attack. The vessels had to spend most of their time submerged, and the surrounding flats and residences where crews had enjoyed brief rest periods had to be abandoned. Minelaying by Axis aircraft also caused a steady rise in submarnine losses. By the end of March 1942, 19 submarines had been lost. The effectiveness of the air attacks against Allied naval assets was apparent in the Italian naval records. In April, 150,389 tons of supplies that were sent to North Africa from Italy reached their destination out of a total of 150,578. Hitler's strategy of neutralising Malta by siege was working. Kesselring reported to the German High Command that "There is nothing left to bomb." The determination of the Axis effort against Malta is indicated in the sorties flown. Between 20 March and 28 April 1942, the Germans flew 11,819 sorties against the island and dropped 6,557 tons of bombs (3,150 tons on Valletta). The Germans lost 173 aircraft in the operations.
The Allies moved to increase the number of Spitfires on the island. On 9 May 1942, Wasp and Eagle delivered 64 more Spitfires (Operation Bowery
). Malta now had five full Sptifire squadrons; No. 126, 185, 249, 601
and 603 Squadrons
. The impact of the Spitfires was apparent. On 9 May the Italians announced 37 Axis losses. On 10 May 1942, the Axis lost 65 aircraft destroyed or damaged in large air battles over the island. The Hurricanes were able to focus on the Axis bombers and dive-bombers at lower heights, while the Spitfires, with their superior rate of climb, engaged enemy aircraft at higher levels. Between 18 May and 9 June 1942, Eagle made three runs carrying another 76 Spitfires to Malta. With such a force established, the RAF had the firepower to deal harshly with any Axis attacks.
By the spring, 1942, the Axis air forces ranged against the island were at their maximum strength. The main adversaries for the defenders were the 137 Bf 109Fs of JG 53 and II./JG 3 'Udet' and the 80 Macchi C.202s of the 4th and 51st Stormo. Bomber units included 199 Junkers Ju 88
s of II./Lehrgeschwader 1
, II and III./Kampfgeschwader 77
, I./Kampfgeschwader 54
, and 32 to 40 Ju 87s. However, in May the numerical and technical improvements in the RAF defences wrestled air superiority from the Luftwaffe. By the end of May 1942, Kesselring's forces had been reduced to just 13 serviceable reconnaissance aircraft, six Bf 110s, 30 Bf 109s and 34 bombers (mostly Ju 88s): a total of 83 compared with several hundred aircraft of two months prior.
he would win a major victory while the Battle of Bir Hakeim
was less successful. Still, he would soon be back in Egypt fighting the First Battle of El Alamein
. Despite the reduction in direct air pressure over Malta itself, the situation on the island was serious. It was running out of all essential commodities, particularly food and water supplies, as the bombing damage had crippled pumps and distribution pipes. Clothing was also hard to come by. All live stock had been slaughtered and the lack of leather meant people were forced to use curtains and used tyres to replace clothing and shoe soles. Though the civilian population was enduring, the threat of starvation was very real. Poor nutrition and sanitation led to the spread of disease. Soldiers’ rations were also reduced, from four to two thousand calories a day. Malta was starting to starve. The British prepared to supply the island with two major convoy operations.
In June, the Royal Navy undertook Operation Harpoon
and Operation Vigorous
. The two convoys departed for Malta, the former from Gibraltar
and the latter from Haifa
and Port Said
. The move was designed to split Axis naval forces attempting to intercept. If one was caught, the other, it was hoped, would get through. AOC Lloyd wanted to give No. 601 Squadron over to convoy escort duty. Although he could afford this diversion, he could only cover the convoy with four Spitfires at one time if he wanted to provide constant cover, as the others would need to be returning and taking off after refuelling. If Axis aircraft attacked as they were withdrawing, they had to stay and fight. Bailing out if the pilots ran low on fuel was the only alternative to landing on Malta. The pilots had to hope that they would be picked up by the ships.
The eastern convoy was forced to turn back after a series of naval and air engagements, despite the British ships still having 20 percent of their ammunition left. It was considered insufficient to see them into Malta. The losses of the convoy were heavy. Among the British losses was HMS Hermione
. Three other destroyers and two of the 11 merchant vessels were also sunk. Malta did send Bristol Beaufort
s to engage the Italian fleet and German U-Boats attacking the convoy and they torpedoed and sank a heavy cruiser and damaged a battleship. Two freighters of the western convoy made it to Malta and delivered supplies, making them the only ships out of a total of 17 to deliver their loads – a mere 25,000 tons of supplies. A further 16 Malta-based pilots were lost in the operations.
In August, Operation Pedestal
brought vital relief to the besieged island, but at heavy cost. It was attacked by sea, but also air. Some 146 Ju 88s, 72 Bf 109s, 16 Ju 87s, 232 Italian fighters, and 139 Italian bombers (a large number being the highly effective torpedo bomber the Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
) took part in the action against the convoy. Out of the 14 merchant ships sent, nine were sunk. Moreover, the aircraft carrier
HMS Eagle, one cruiser and three destroyers were sunk by a combined effort from the Italian Navy, Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe. Nevertheless, the operation was vital in bringing in much-needed war materials and supplies. British destroyers saved 950 of Eagles crew. The Luftwaffe had played the central role against the convoys. at a cost of 16 aircraft.
The surface fleets were not the only supply line to Malta. British submarines also made a substantial effort. One submarine, HMS Clyde
, was converted into an underwater supply ship. It weighed 2,000 tons and could reach 18 knots on the surface. She could not go as deep or dive as quickly as the T and U Class types, but it still made nine supply missions to Malta, which was more than any other submarine. The ability of the submarine to carry large loads enabled it to be of great value in the campaign to lift the siege.
replaced Lloyd as AOC. Park arrived on 14 July 1942 by flying boat. He landed in the midst of a raid despite the fact Lloyd had specifically requested he circle the Harbour until it had passed. Lloyd met Park and admonished him for taking an unnecessary risk.
Park had faced Kesselring before during the Battle of Britain
. During that battle, Park had advocated sending small numbers of fighters into battle to meet the enemy. There were three fundamental reasons for this. First, there would always by fighters in the air covering those on the ground if one did not send their entire force to engage at once. Secondly, small numbers were quicker to position and easier to move around. Thirdly, the preservation of his force was critical. The fewer fighters he had in the air (he advocated 16 at most), the smaller target the numerical superior enemy would have. Over Malta he reversed these tactics owing to changed circumstances. With plenty of Spitfires to operate, Park sought to intercept the enemy and break up his formations before the bombers reached the island. Up until this point, the Spitfires had fought defensively. They scrambled and headed south to gain height, then turned around to engage the enemy over the island. Now, with improved radar and quicker take off times (two to three minutes) and improved air-sea rescue, this became possible. Using three squadrons, Park asked the first to engage the escorting fighters by 'bouncing them' out of the sun. The second would strike at the close escort, or, if unescorted, the bombers themselves. The third was to attack the bombers head-on.
The impact of Park's methods was instant. His Forward Interception Plan, issued officially on 25 July 1942, forced the Axis to abandon daylight raids within six days. The Ju 87 Stukas were withdrawn from operations over Malta altogether. Kesselring responded by sending in fighter sweeps at even higher altitudes to gain the tactical advantage. Park retaliated by ordering his fighters to climb no higher than 20,000 feet. While this did give away a considerable height advantage, it forced the Bf 109s to descend to altitudes more suitable for the Spitfire than the German fighter. The methods would have great effect in October when Kesselring returned.
While the RAF and Royal Navy defensive operations dominated for the most part, offensive strikes were still being carried out. The year 1942 was particularly impressive for offensive operations as well. Two-thirds of the Italian merchant fleet was sunk; 25 per cent by British submarines, 37 per cent by Allied aircraft. Axis forces in North Africa were denied around half of their supplies and two-thirds of their oil.
The submarines of FOS Simpson's 10th Flotilla were on patrol constantly, except for the period May-July 1942, when Kesselring made a considerable effort against their bases. Their success was not easy to achieve, given most of them were the slow U Class types. Supported by S and T Class vessels, they dropped mines. Sea Mines are lighter than water. If they were not kept below the surface by the use of heavy sinkers, they would float, be detected, and destroyed. One of the most successful minelayers was HMS Rorqual, which lay over 1,000 mines and accounted for more than 40,000 tons of Axis shipping. She survived attacks from both an Italian submarine and a U-Boat. Other British submarine commanders became aces while operating from Malta. Commanders Ian McGeoch
(commanding HMS Splendid
), Hugh "Rufus" Mackenzie and David Wanklyn had particular success. Lieutenant Commander Lennox Napier sank the German tanker Wilhelmsburg (7,020 tons). It was one of the few German tankers exporting oil from Romania. The loss of the ship led Hitler to complain directly to Karl Dönitz
, while comparing the Kriegsmarine unfavourably with the Royal Navy. Dönitz argued that he did not have the resources to protect the convoy, though the escort of the ship exceeded that which the Allies could have afforded to give a large convoy in the Atlantic at that point in the war. It was fortunate for Dönitz that Hitler did not probe the defence of the ship further.
The submarine proved to be one of the most potent weapons in the British armoury when combating Axis convoys. FOC Simpson, and Captain George Phillips
, who replaced him on 23 January 1943, had much success. The estimated tonnage sunk by British U Class submarines alone was 650,000 tons, with another 400,000 tons damaged. The island base, HMS Talbot, supplied 1,790 torpedoes at that time. The number fired by the 10th Flotilla was 1,289, with a hit rate of 30 per cent.
The Chief of Staff of the DAK, Fritz Bayerlein
once claimed:
The offensive was also by air. Wing Commander Patrick Gibbs
and his unit, No. 39 Squadron
flew their Beauforts against shipping and increased the pressure on Rommel by attacking his supply lines in September. Rommel's position was now critical. He was starved of his supplies while the British reinforced their lines in Egypt, prior to the Second Battle of El Alamein
. He complained to the OKW that he was severely short of ammunition and fuel for offensive action. The Axis organised a convoy to relieve the difficulties. Ultra intercepted the Axis communications and Wellingtons of 69 Squadron confirmed the Axis operation was real. Gibbs' Beauforts sank two ships and one of FOS Simpson's submarines sank a third. Rommel still hoped another tanker, the San Andreas, would deliver the 3,198 tons of fuel needed for the Battle of Alam el Halfa. Rommel did not wait for it to dock, and launched the offensive before its arrival. The ship was sunk by an attack led by Gibbs. Of the nine ships sent, five were sunk by Malta's forces. The Beauforts were having a devastating impact on Axis fuel supplies which were now nearly used up. On 1 September, Rommel was forced to retreat. Kesselring handed over Luftwaffe fuel to Rommel, but this merely denied the German air units the means to protect the ground forces, thereby increasing the effectiveness of British air superiority over the frontline.
In August, Malta's strike forces had contributed to Rommel's difficulties in trying to force an advance into Egypt. In that month, one-third of his supplies and 41 per cent of his fuel was lost. In September 1942, Rommel received only 24 per cent of the 50,000 tons of supplies he needed monthly to continue offensive operations. During September, the Allies sank 33,939 tons of shipping at sea. Many of these supplies had to be brought in via Tripoli, many miles behind the battle front. The lack of food and water caused a sickness rate of 10 per cent among Axis soldiers. The British air-submarine offensive ensured no fuel reached Africa in the first week of October 1942. Two fuel-carrying ships were sunk, and another lost its cargo despite the crew managing to salvage the ship. As the British offensive at El Alamein began on 23 October 1942
, ULTRA was gaining a clear picture of the desperate Axis fuel situation. On 25 October three tankers and one cargo ship carrying fuel and ammunition were sent under heavy air and sea escort, and were likely to be the last ships to reach Rommel while he was at El Alamein
. ULTRA intercepted the planned convoy route, and alerted Malta's air units. The three fuel-carrying vessels were sunk by 28 October. It cost the British one Bristol Beaufighter
, two Beauforts, three (out of six) Blenheim's and one Vickers Wellington
. Rommel lost 44 per cent of his supplies on October, a jump from the 20 per cent lost in September.
to Saint Petersburg
. This was achieved using 170-gallon ferry tank. This combined with a 29-gallon tank in the rear fuselage which brought up the total tank capacity to 284 gallons.
Despite the success of Allied convoys in getting through, the month was as bad as any other, combining bombing with food shortages. In response to the threat Malta was now posing to Axis supply lines, the Luftwaffe renewed attacks on Malta in October 1942. Recognising the critical battle was approaching in North Africa (Second Battle of El Alamein
), Kesselring organised Fliegerkorps II in Sicily to neutralise the threat once and for all. On 11 October, the defenders were mass equipped with Spitfire Mk VB/Cs. Over 17 days, the Luftwaffe suffered 34 Ju 88s and 12 Bf 109s destroyed and 18 damaged. RAF losses amounted to 23 Spitfires shot down and 20 crash-landed. The British lost 12 pilots killed. On 16 October, it was clear to Kesselring that the defenders were too strong. He called off the offensive. The situation in Africa required German air support, so the October offensive marked the last major effort by the Luftwaffe against Malta.
The losses left the Axis air forces in a depleted state. They could not offer the air support Rommel needed at the frontline. The situation on the island was still stringent going in to November, but Park's victory in the air battle was soon followed by news of a major success at the front. At El Alamein the British had broken through and by the 5 November were advancing rapidly westward. News soon reached Malta of Operation Torch
, the Allied landing in Vichy French Morocco
and Algeria
on 8 November. Some 11 days later, the Soviet victory in the Battle of Stalingrad
increased morale even more. The extent to which the success in North Africa benefited Malta was apparent when a convoy (Operation Stoneage) passed through into Malta from Alexandria on 20 November virtually unscathed. This convoy is seen as the end of the two-year siege of Malta. On 6 December, another supply convoy under the codename Operation Portcullis
reached Malta without suffering any losses. After that, ships sailed to Malta without joining convoys. The capture of North African airfields and the bonus of having air protection all the way to the island enabled the ships to deliver 35,000 tons. In early December, another 55,000 tons arrived. The last air raid over Malta occurred on 20 July 1943. It was the 3,340th alert since 11 June 1940.
Allied casualties in warships:
,
, , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , , Kujawiak
(Polish Navy
), , , , , (Royal Australian Navy
), and .
, , , , , , , , , , , P222, P311, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . The Free French submarine
Narwhal and Greek Navy vessel Glaukos, were also lost.
s, institutions or college
s, 36 theatre
s, clubs, government offices, bank
s, factories, flour mills and other commercial buildings suffered destruction or damage — a total of 30,000 building in all.
Below is a table charting Axis losses in shipping to Libya
, June 1940–January 1943:
Military campaign
In the military sciences, the term military campaign applies to large scale, long duration, significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of inter-related military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war...
in the Mediterranean Theatre
Mediterranean Theatre of World War II
The African, Mediterranean and Middle East theatres encompassed the naval, land, and air campaigns fought between the Allied and Axis forces in the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and Africa...
of the Second World War
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. From 1940-1942, the fight for the control of the strategically important island of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
pitted the air forces and navies of Fascist Italy
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
and Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
against the Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
and the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
.
The opening of a new front in North Africa
North African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
in mid-1940 increased Malta's already considerable value. British air and sea forces based on the island could attack Axis
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
ships transporting vital supplies and reinforcements from Europe. Field Marshal Erwin Rommel
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
, in command of Axis forces in North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
, recognised its importance quickly. In May 1941, he warned that "Without Malta the Axis will end by losing control of North Africa".
The Axis resolved to bomb
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
, or starve Malta into submission by attacking its ports, towns, cities and Allied shipping supplying the island. Malta was one of the most intensively bombed areas during the war. The Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
(German Air Force) and the Italian Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
(Italian Royal Air Force) flew a total of 3,000 bombing raids over a period of two years in an effort to destroy RAF defences and the ports. Success would have made possible a combined German—Italian amphibious landing
Amphibious warfare
Amphibious warfare is the use of naval firepower, logistics and strategy to project military power ashore. In previous eras it stood as the primary method of delivering troops to non-contiguous enemy-held terrain...
(Operation Herkules
Operation Herkules
Operation Herkules was the German code-name given to a planned but never-executed Italo-German invasion of Malta during World War II...
) supported by German airborne forces
Airborne forces
Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry, set up to be moved by aircraft and 'dropped' into battle. Thus they can be placed behind enemy lines, and have an ability to deploy almost anywhere with little warning...
(Fallschirmjäger
Fallschirmjäger
are German paratroopers. Together with the Gebirgsjäger they are perceived as the elite infantry units of the German Army....
). It was never carried out. In the end, Allied convoys
Malta Convoys
The Malta Convoys were a series of Allied supply convoys that sustained the besieged island of Malta during the Mediterranean Theatre of the Second World War...
were able to supply and reinforce Malta, while the RAF defended its airspace, though at great cost in material and lives.
By November 1942, the Axis had lost the Second Battle of El Alamein
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
and the Allies landed forces in Vichy French Morocco
French Morocco
French Protectorate of Morocco was a French protectorate in Morocco, established by the Treaty of Fez. French Morocco did not include the north of the country, which was a Spanish protectorate...
and Algeria
Algeria
Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
under Operation Torch
Operation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
. The Axis diverted their forces to the Battle of Tunisia, and attacks on Malta were rapidly reduced. The siege effectively ended in November 1942.
In December 1942, air and sea forces operating from Malta went over to the offensive. By May 1943, they had sunk 230 Axis ships in 164 days, the highest Allied sinking rate of the war. The Allied victory played a major role in the eventual Allied success in North Africa.
Background
Malta was a significant military and naval fortress, being the only Allied base between GibraltarGibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
and Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. It became a linchpin in the British Empire overseas—a vital way station along Britain's lifeline, through Egypt and the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
to India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
and the Far East
Far East
The Far East is an English term mostly describing East Asia and Southeast Asia, with South Asia sometimes also included for economic and cultural reasons.The term came into use in European geopolitical discourse in the 19th century,...
. It offered a haven for British shipping to and from those places, but also it gave the British an excellent staging platform of offensive thrusts against naval, land, air and shipping targets in the central Mediterranean. Owing to its exposed position, close to a potentially hostile Italy, the British had moved the headquarters of the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
Mediterranean Fleet from Valletta
Valletta
Valletta is the capital of Malta, colloquially known as Il-Belt in Maltese. It is located in the central-eastern portion of the island of Malta, and the historical city has a population of 6,098. The name "Valletta" is traditionally reserved for the historic walled citadel that serves as Malta's...
, Malta in the mid-1930s to Alexandria in October 1939.
The island itself had an area of just under 100 square miles (259 km²) and a population of around 250,000, all but three or four per cent native Maltese. According to the 1937 census, most of the inhabitants lived within 4 miles (6.4 km) of the Grand Harbour, where the population density was more than six times that of the island as a whole. Amongst the most congested spots was Valletta
Valletta
Valletta is the capital of Malta, colloquially known as Il-Belt in Maltese. It is located in the central-eastern portion of the island of Malta, and the historical city has a population of 6,098. The name "Valletta" is traditionally reserved for the historic walled citadel that serves as Malta's...
, the capital and political, military and commercial centre. In this city, 23,000 people lived in an area of around 0.25 square mile (0.6474970275 km²). Across the Grand Harbour, in the so-called Three Cities, where the dockyards were located and the Admiralty
Admiralty
The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the Kingdom of England, and later in the United Kingdom, responsible for the command of the Royal Navy...
had its headquarters, 28,000 more were packed into 0.5 square miles (1.3 km²). It was these small areas that absorbed the heaviest, most sustained and concentrated of aerial bombing in history.
Submarine
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability...
s and aircraft. The British, in particular the Admiralty, suffered from having to cover the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
, with the Mediterranean Fleet
Mediterranean Fleet
Several countries have or have had a Mediterranean Fleet in their navy. See:* Mediterranean Fleet * French Mediterranean Fleet* Mediterranean Squadron * United States Sixth Fleet...
under Admiral
Admiral
Admiral is the rank, or part of the name of the ranks, of the highest naval officers. It is usually considered a full admiral and above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet . It is usually abbreviated to "Adm" or "ADM"...
Andrew Cunningham
Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope
Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope KT, GCB, OM, DSO and two Bars , was a British admiral of the Second World War. Cunningham was widely known by his nickname, "ABC"....
and Gibraltar with Force H
Force H
Force H was a British naval formation during the Second World War. It was formed in 1940 to replace French naval power in the western Mediterranean that had been removed by the French armistice with Nazi Germany....
under Vice-Admiral James Somerville
James Somerville
Admiral of the Fleet Sir James Fownes Somerville GCB, GBE, DSO was one of the most famous British Admirals of World War II.-Early career:...
. In October 1939, the Mediterranean Fleet was moved east to Egypt, practically stripping the island of its naval protection. Just the monitor Terror and a few British submarines were left to defend the island from the sea. When the Maltese government questioned the British rationale, they were told that the island could be defended just as adequately from Alexandria as from Malta's Grand Harbour. This was not true, and the Maltese suspected Britain's commitment to defending the island was not as strong as it could have been.
While there were concerns that the island, far from Britain and near Italy, could not be defended, the British decided in July 1939 to increase the number of anti-aircraft guns
Anti-aircraft warfare
NATO defines air defence as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground and air based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures. It may be to protect naval, ground and air forces...
and fighter
Fighter aircraft
A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with other aircraft, as opposed to a bomber, which is designed primarily to attack ground targets...
s on Malta. The British leadership had further doubts about whether to hold the island in May 1940 when French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud
Paul Reynaud
Paul Reynaud was a French politician and lawyer prominent in the interwar period, noted for his stances on economic liberalism and militant opposition to Germany. He was the penultimate Prime Minister of the Third Republic and vice-president of the Democratic Republican Alliance center-right...
reported that the situation in France was dire, but that Italian dictator Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
might be appeased by concessions, including Malta. After some discussion, Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
convinced the British War Cabinet
War Cabinet
A War Cabinet is a committee formed by a government in a time of war. It is usually a subset of the full executive cabinet of ministers. It is also quite common for a War Cabinet to have senior military officers and opposition politicians as members....
that no concessions should be made. With Britain itself at risk, Malta was not the highest priority, so it was lightly protected. Only six Gloster Sea Gladiator
Gloster Gladiator
The Gloster Gladiator was a British-built biplane fighter. It was used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy and was exported to a number of other air forces during the late 1930s. It was the RAF's last biplane fighter aircraft and was rendered obsolete by newer monoplane designs even as it...
biplane
Biplane
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two superimposed main wings. The Wright brothers' Wright Flyer used a biplane design, as did most aircraft in the early years of aviation. While a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage, it produces more drag than a similar monoplane wing...
s were stationed on the island, with another six in crates, when on 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
.
In the 1930s, Italy had looked for expansion in the Mediterranean and Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
; regions dominated by the British and French. The defeat of France in May–June 1940 removed the French Navy
French Navy
The French Navy, officially the Marine nationale and often called La Royale is the maritime arm of the French military. It includes a full range of fighting vessels, from patrol boats to a nuclear powered aircraft carrier and 10 nuclear-powered submarines, four of which are capable of launching...
from the Allied order of battle
Order of battle
In modern use, the order of battle is the identification, command structure, strength, and disposition of personnel, equipment, and units of an armed force participating in field operations. Various abbreviations are in use, including OOB, O/B, or OB, while ORBAT remains the most common in the...
and changed the balance of naval and air power in the Italians' favour.
Upon declaring war, Mussolini called for an offensive throughout the Mediterranean. Within hours, the first bombs had dropped on Malta. After the French surrender on 25 June, Mussolini tried to take advantage of a Britain heavily engaged in the Battle of Britain
Battle of Britain
The Battle of Britain is the name given to the World War II air campaign waged by the German Air Force against the United Kingdom during the summer and autumn of 1940...
by attacking Egypt
Italian invasion of Egypt
The Italian Invasion of Egypt was an Italian offensive action against British, Commonwealth and Free French forces during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. Initially, the goal of the offensive was to seize the Suez Canal. To accomplish this, Italian forces from Libya would have...
in September, but was heavily defeated in a counter-offensive
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
. Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
was forced to rescue his ally. In February 1941, the Deutsches Afrikakorps (German Africa Corps, or DAK) commanded by Generalfeldmarschall
Generalfeldmarschall
Field Marshal or Generalfeldmarschall in German, was a rank in the armies of several German states and the Holy Roman Empire; in the Austrian Empire, the rank Feldmarschall was used...
(Field Marshal
Field Marshal
Field Marshal is a military rank. Traditionally, it is the highest military rank in an army.-Etymology:The origin of the rank of field marshal dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses , from the time of the early Frankish kings.-Usage and hierarchical...
) Erwin Rommel
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
was sent to North Africa to prevent an Axis rout. RAF and Royal Navy anti-shipping squadrons and submarines posed a significant threat to Axis supply and communications between Europe and North Africa, and both sides soon recognised the importance of the island in controlling the Mediterranean.
The timidity of the Italian Navy helped the Allied cause — they would only attack under favourable conditions. In 1940, conditions were more than favourable for an assault on Malta. Such a move stood a reasonable chance of gaining control of the island, which would have given the Italians naval and air supremacy
Air supremacy
Air supremacy is the complete dominance of the air power of one side's air forces over the other side's, during a military campaign. It is the most favorable state of control of the air...
in the central Mediterranean. Such a turn of events would have split the area in two and the British could not have transported supplies between their strongholds in the east and west without severe danger. The reluctance of the Italians to act throughout 1940 was strengthened by the Battle of Taranto
Battle of Taranto
The naval Battle of Taranto took place on the night of 11–12 November 1940 during the Second World War. The Royal Navy launched the first all-aircraft ship-to-ship naval attack in history, flying a small number of obsolescent biplane torpedo bombers from an aircraft carrier in the Mediterranean Sea...
, in which the Italian surface fleet was severely damaged by the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
Fleet Air Arm
The Fleet Air Arm is the branch of the British Royal Navy responsible for the operation of naval aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm currently operates the AgustaWestland Merlin, Westland Sea King and Westland Lynx helicopters...
. To the Italians (and later the Germans), air power was the key weapon against Malta. The only immediate action the Italian navy would take was the interdiction of submarine phone cables
Submarine communications cable
A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean....
linking Malta to Gibraltar and Algeria. Several thousands of meters were removed by Italian small vessels from 11 June to 16 August, effectively isolating Malta from the outside world.
Italian air actions
Air power was the method chosen to attack Malta. The Regia Aeronautica began the aerial bombardmentStrategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
of the island. On the first day, 55 Italian bombers and 21 fighters flew over Malta and dropped 142 bombs on the three airfields at Luqa, Hal Far and Ta Qali. Later, 10 Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
The Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 Sparviero was a three-engined Italian medium bomber with a wood and metal structure. Originally designed as a fast passenger aircraft, this low-wing monoplane, in the years 1937–39, set 26 world records that qualified it for some time as the fastest medium bomber in the...
s and 20 Macchi C.200
Macchi C.200
The Macchi C.200 Saetta was a World War II fighter aircraft built by Aeronautica Macchi in Italy, and used in various forms throughout the Regia Aeronautica . The MC.200 had excellent manoeuvrability and general flying characteristics left little to be desired...
s flew over the island, with no air opposition. At the time of these first air raids
Strategic bombing
Strategic bombing is a military strategy used in a total war with the goal of defeating an enemy nation-state by destroying its economic ability and public will to wage war rather than destroying its land or naval forces...
, the defending fighters on Malta consisted of obsolete Gloster Sea Gladiators, in the Hal Far Fighter Flight
Hal Far Fighter Flight
The Hal Far Fighter Flight was a British fighter unit formed during the siege of Malta in 1940. For several weeks, the island of Malta was protected by a small force of Gloster Sea Gladiator biplane fighters, based at the Royal Air Force's Hal Far airfield, which was also known as the Fleet Air Arm...
. Legend has it that there were just three aircraft, nicknamed 'Faith', 'Hope' and 'Charity' but, in reality, at least six Gladiators were deployed. There were also Hurricanes based there from the start, and it was this fighter which did most of the damage.
The Italians flew at around 20,000 feet. The monitor ship Terror
HMS Terror (I03)
HMS Terror was an Erebus-class monitor built for the Royal Navy in 1915-16 at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Govan, Scotland.The Erebus-class monitors were of displacement, long, with a maximum speed of produced by reciprocating engines with two shafts, and a crew of 223. The ship's main...
and gunboats Aphis and Ladybird
HMS Ladybird (1916)
HMS Ladybird was an Insect-class gunboat of the Royal Navy, launched in 1916. This class are also referred to as "Large China Gunboats"....
opened fire. In the afternoon, another 38 bombers escorted by 12 fighters raided the capital. The effect of the raids were designed to impact the morale of the population rather than inflict damage to dockyards and installations. A total of eight raids were flown on that first day. The bombing did not cause much damage and most of the casualties suffered were civilian. No interception of the raiders was made because there was no RAF force ready to meet them. No RAF airfield on Malta was operational at that time. One at Luqa, was near to completion.
Despite the absence of any operational airfields, at least one RAF Gladiator flew against a raid of 55 Savoia Marchetti SM 78a and their 20 escorting fighters on 11 June. It surprised the Italians, but the defences, almost non-existent on the ground and in the air, failed to impede the Italian force. On 12 June, an Italian aircraft on a reconnaissance flight over Malta was shot down.
An odd development took place on 19 June. Fairey Swordfish
Fairey Swordfish
The Fairey Swordfish was a torpedo bomber built by the Fairey Aviation Company and used by the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy during the Second World War...
, 12 in total, flew into the Fleet Air Arm
Fleet Air Arm
The Fleet Air Arm is the branch of the British Royal Navy responsible for the operation of naval aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm currently operates the AgustaWestland Merlin, Westland Sea King and Westland Lynx helicopters...
(FAA) base at Hal Far; the 767 Training Squadron, who had escaped southern France following the French capitulation. They flew to the French colony of Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
, but insecurity compelled them to seek friendly surroundings. The FAA aircraft were to form the nucleus of what was to become the No. 830 Squadron FAA, providing Malta with its first offensive strike aircraft. Before June was out, they raided Sicily and sank one Italian destroyer, damaged a cruiser and knocked out oil storage tanks in the port of Augusta.
By the start of July, the Gladiators had been reinforced by Hawker Hurricane
Hawker Hurricane
The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd for the Royal Air Force...
s and the defences organised into No. 261 Squadron RAF
No. 261 Squadron RAF
No. 261 Squadron RAF was a squadron of the Royal Air Force notably involved in the defence of Malta from August 1940 till May 1941 and the campaign in Burma.-Formation and World War I:...
in August. Twelve were delivered by in August, the first of several batches ferried to the island by the carrier. A further attempt to fly 12 Hurricanes into Malta on 17 November, led by a FAA Blackburn Skua
Blackburn Skua
The Blackburn B-24 Skua was a carrier-based low-wing, two-seater, single-radial engine aircraft operated by the British Fleet Air Arm which combined the functions of a dive bomber and fighter. It was designed in the mid-1930s, and saw service in the early part of the Second World War...
, (Operation White
Operation White
Operation White was a British attempt to deliver 14 aircraft—12 Hawker Hurricane fighters and two Blackburn Skua dive bombers—to Malta from the aircraft carrier , on 17 November 1940. The operation was thwarted by the presence of the Italian Fleet at sea, which prompted a premature take-off of the...
) ended in disaster with the loss of eight Hurricanes. They took off too far west of the island and ran out of fuel. Several pilots were lost. A further two Hurricanes crashed, with one of the pilots rescued by a Short Sunderland
Short Sunderland
The Short S.25 Sunderland was a British flying boat patrol bomber developed for the Royal Air Force by Short Brothers. It took its service name from the town and port of Sunderland in northeast England....
flying boat
Flying boat
A flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on water. It differs from a float plane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can float, granting the aircraft buoyancy. Flying boats may be stabilized by under-wing floats or by wing-like projections from the fuselage...
. The arrival of more fighters was welcome. After just eight weeks, the original force of Hurricane units were grounded owing to a lack of spare parts.
The year ended with little impression made by the Regia Aeronautica. The RAF claimed 45 Italian aircraft shot down for minimal losses. The Italians admitted the loss of 23 bombers and 12 fighters with a further 187 bombers and seven fighters having suffered damage, mainly to anti-aircraft artillery.
Italian invasion plans
Victoria Line
The Victoria line is a deep-level London Underground line running from the south to the north-east of London. It is coloured light blue on the Tube map...
which lay across the centre of the island. Secondary landings would go ahead at Gozo
Gozo
Gozo is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago...
, an island adjacent and north of Malta as well as the tiny island of Comino
Comino
Comino is an island of the Maltese archipelago between the islands of Malta and Gozo in the Mediterranean Sea, measuring in area. Named after the cumin seed that once flourished in the Maltese islands, Comino is noted for its tranquility and isolation. It has a permanent population of only four...
, which lay between the two. The entire navy would be involved as well as 500 aircraft. However, the lack of the means (logistical among other things), meant the planners did not believe the operation could be carried out. With Germany's success in May 1940, the plan was reduced to 20,000 men and included tanks. The elimination of the French and withdrawal of the British would give the Italians a prime opportunity to seize Malta. But Italian intelligence had overestimated the defences, and Mussolini's belief that Britain would sue for peace with Germany meant Malta would fall and be annexed without the need for military action on a large scale. Mussolini also thought that Franco's Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
would soon be in the war. If they captured Gibraltar, then the Mediterranean would be barred from Britain to the west. The failure to force the issue when the balance of power was in their favour was to have serious consequences for the Axis. It would not take long for the Royal Navy to realise the islands potential as a base for offensive operations, and thus conclude it was worth defending.
War at sea
The reluctance of the Italian Admiralty to act was also down to other considerations. It had a complete lack of battle experience. This meant a lack of training, skill and practice in the essential art of night-fighting. These were the major factors why the Italians believed they could not best the Royal Navy's fleet of aging battleships or keep them bottled up in Alexandria, despite having, on the surface, a formidable navy themselves. Other matters, such as the lack of crude oil (the Italians did not discover the large reserves in LibyaLibya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
during their occupation of the country), were small. The Germans took most of the oil from Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
and left scarce resources for Italy to pursue large-scale operations on the Mediterranean. Not only did this negate any large-scale naval operations, it also left the Italians without adequate fuel for sharpening their combat skills at sea. By the start of 1941, total stocks meant only seven months of fuel could be guaranteed. Offensive naval sweeps by the British Mediterranean Fleet confirmed to Admiral Cunningham that the Italians had an inferiority complex. The British confidence was eroded when aircraft began to dominate the actions at sea later on in 1941 and
1942.
Cunningham revealed the reluctance of the Italian Navy to engage by probing their defences. On 9 July 1940, the Battle of Calabria
Battle of Calabria
The Battle of Calabria, was a naval battle during the Battle of the Mediterranean in World War II. It was fought between the Italian Royal Navy and the British Royal Navy and the Royal Australian Navy. The battle occurred 30 miles to the east of Punta Stilo, the "toe" of Italy , on 9 July 1940...
was the only time the main Italian and British (with supporting Royal Australian Navy
Royal Australian Navy
The Royal Australian Navy is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. Following the Federation of Australia in 1901, the ships and resources of the separate colonial navies were integrated into a national force: the Commonwealth Naval Forces...
vessels) fleets engaged each other. It confirmed to the Maltese people that the British still controlled the seas, if not from the Grand Harbour. This was confirmed again in March 1941, when Royal Navy forces decisively defeated Italian naval forces in the Battle of Cape Matapan
Battle of Cape Matapan
The Battle of Cape Matapan was a Second World War naval battle fought from 27–29 March 1941. The cape is on the southwest coast of Greece's Peloponnesian peninsula...
. The Italians had been heading to intercept the British convoys sending reinforcements to aid Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
in the Greco-Italian War
Greco-Italian War
The Greco-Italian War was a conflict between Italy and Greece which lasted from 28 October 1940 to 23 April 1941. It marked the beginning of the Balkans Campaign of World War II...
.
British counter-attacks
Whitehall
Whitehall is a road in Westminster, in London, England. It is the main artery running north from Parliament Square, towards Charing Cross at the southern end of Trafalgar Square...
ordered further aircraft into the island; including Hurricane fighters, Martin Marylands, Sunderlands, Vickers Wellington
Vickers Wellington
The Vickers Wellington was a British twin-engine, long range medium bomber designed in the mid-1930s at Brooklands in Weybridge, Surrey, by Vickers-Armstrongs' Chief Designer, R. K. Pierson. It was widely used as a night bomber in the early years of the Second World War, before being displaced as a...
s, more Swordfish and submarines. It provided an increasingly potent offensive arm. The Wellingtons arrived in October, from No. 148 Squadron RAF
No. 148 Squadron RAF
No. 148 Squadron of the Royal Air Force has been part of the RAF since World War I.-History:As No. 148 Squadron it was reformed as a special duties squadron and part of the Balkan Air Force in World War II. It dropped men and materiel behind enemy lines in the occupied countries such as...
.
Meanwhile the Italian invasion of Egypt
Italian invasion of Egypt
The Italian Invasion of Egypt was an Italian offensive action against British, Commonwealth and Free French forces during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. Initially, the goal of the offensive was to seize the Suez Canal. To accomplish this, Italian forces from Libya would have...
had failed to achieve its goals and the British counter-offensive, Operation Compass
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
, drove the Italians back into Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
. The diversion of the North African Campaign
North African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
drew away significant Italian air units which were rushed from Italy and Sicily to deal with the disasters. The relief on Malta was significant as the British could concentrate their forces for offensive, rather than defensive operations. In November 1940, after months of poorly coordinated Italian air strikes, the FAA and Royal Navy struck at Italian naval forces in Taranto
Taranto
Taranto is a coastal city in Apulia, Southern Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Taranto and is an important commercial port as well as the main Italian naval base....
. The following Battle of Taranto
Battle of Taranto
The naval Battle of Taranto took place on the night of 11–12 November 1940 during the Second World War. The Royal Navy launched the first all-aircraft ship-to-ship naval attack in history, flying a small number of obsolescent biplane torpedo bombers from an aircraft carrier in the Mediterranean Sea...
was a victory for sea-air power. Fairey Swordfish torpedo bomber
Torpedo bomber
A torpedo bomber is a bomber aircraft designed primarily to attack ships with aerial torpedoes which could also carry out conventional bombings. Torpedo bombers existed almost exclusively prior to and during World War II when they were an important element in many famous battles, notably the...
s disabled a number of Italian heavy units. The withdrawal of the Italian fleet to Naples
Naples
Naples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
, out of reach of British aircraft was a strategic victory which handed naval supremacy to the British for the time being.
The Royal Navy's submarines also began a period of offensive operations. British U class submarine
British U class submarine
The British U class submarines were a class of 49 small submarines built just before and during the Second World War...
began operations as early as June. Larger submarines also began operations, but after 50 per cent losses per mission, they were withdrawn. U Class submarines operated from the Manoel Island Base known as HMS Talbot. Unfortunately no bomb-proof pens were available as the building project had been scrapped before the war owing to cost cutting policies. The new force was named the Tenth Submarine Flotilla and was placed under Flag Officer Submarines (FOS) Admiral Max Horton who appointed Commander G.W.G Simpson to command the unit. Administratively, the Tenth Flotilla operated under the First Submarine Flotilla at Alexandria, itself under Cunningham. In reality, Cunningham gave Simpson and his unit a free hand. Until U Class vessels could be made available in numbers, British T class submarine
British T class submarine
The Royal Navy's T class of diesel-electric submarines was designed in the 1930s to replace the O, P and R classes. Fifty-three members of the class were built just before and during the Second World War, where they played a major role in the Royal Navy's submarine operations...
s were used. They had successes, but suffered heavy losses when they began operations on 20 September 1940. Owing to the shortage of torpedo weapons, enemy ships could not be attacked unless the target in question was a warship, tanker or other "significant vessel".
The performance of the fleet was mixed at first. They sank 37,000 tons of Italian shipping, half by one vessel, the submarine HMS Truant. It amounted to one Italian submarine, nine merchant vessels and one Motor Torpedo Boat
Motor Torpedo Boat
Motor Torpedo Boat was the name given to fast torpedo boats by the Royal Navy, and the Royal Canadian Navy.The capitalised term is generally used for the Royal Navy boats and abbreviated to "MTB"...
(MTB). The loss of nine submarines and their trained crews and commanders was serious. Most of the losses were to mines. On 14 January 1941, U Class submarines arrived, and the submarine offensive began in earnest.
German intervention
German intervention over Malta was largely a result of the Italian defeats in North Africa than Italian failures to deal with Malta. Hitler had little choice other than to rescue his Italian ally or lose the chance of taking the Middle Eastern oilfields in Arabia. The Deutsche Afrika Korps (DAK or Africa Corps) under Erwin RommelErwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
was dispatched to secure the Axis front in Africa in February 1941. Operation Colossus
Operation Colossus
Operation Colossus was the codename given to the first airborne operation undertaken by the British military, which occurred on 10 February 1941 during World War II...
signalled a dramatic turn around. The Germans launched Operation Sonnenblume
Operation Sonnenblume
Operation Sonnenblume was the deployment of German troops to North Africa in February 1941, during the Second World War...
, which reinforced the Italians in North Africa. They then began a counter-offensive and drove the British back into Egypt. But operating overseas in Africa meant most of the supplies to Axis forces would come via the sea. This made Malta a dangerous threat to Axis logistical concerns. In response, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe
Oberkommando der Luftwaffe
The Oberkommando der Luftwaffe was the air force High Command of the Third Reich.Air Force Commanders-in-Chief* Reich Marshal Hermann Göring * Field Marshal Robert Ritter von Greim -History:...
(OLK or Air Force High Command) sent Fliegerkorps X
10th Air Corps (Germany)
X. FliegerkorpsFor more details see Luftwaffe Organization was a formation of the German Luftwaffe in World War II, which specialised in coastal operations. It was formed 2 October 1939, in Hamburg from the 10...
(Flying Corps Ten) to Sicily, which arrived in January 1941, to strike at naval forces in and around Malta, as well as RAF positions on the island to ease the passage of supplies.
In the interim period the best protection for German ships transporting the German forces to Libya proved to be the Royal Navy itself. The British submarines failed to interdict them successfully. The damaging of the 7,889-ton German ship Duisberg was the only noteworthy attack. On 9 February 1941 three submarines missed the same convoy bringing supplies to Tripoli
Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Western Tripoli , to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean , describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli is a Greek name that means "Three...
. It was this city which was the principal Italian port. It could receive six ships being unloaded at a time making the port the best facility west of Alexandria, 1,000 miles to the east. A large part of the Axis defensive success was naval mines. The Italians deployed 54,000 mines around Malta to prevent it being supplied. These mines were the bane of the Royal Navy's submarines. Around 3,000 mines were laid off Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
's coast by Italian naval forces as well.
The failure to intercept Axis shipping was evident in the figures which extended far beyond February 1941. In January–April 1941 the Axis sent 321,259 tons to Libya and all but 18,777 tons reached port. This amounted to a 94 per cent success rate. Of the 73,991 men sent by sea, 71,881 (97 per cent) arrived in Africa.
On 10 December 1940 Fliegerkorps X
10th Air Corps (Germany)
X. FliegerkorpsFor more details see Luftwaffe Organization was a formation of the German Luftwaffe in World War II, which specialised in coastal operations. It was formed 2 October 1939, in Hamburg from the 10...
under the command of Hans Ferdinand Geisler
Hans Ferdinand Geisler
Hans-Ferdinand Geisler was a Luftwaffe commander during World War II. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross . The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross was awarded to recognise extreme battlefield bravery or successful military leadership.Born in Hanovre in April 1891, Geisler...
, and with support of his chief of staff
Chief of Staff
The title, chief of staff, identifies the leader of a complex organization, institution, or body of persons and it also may identify a Principal Staff Officer , who is the coordinator of the supporting staff or a primary aide to an important individual, such as a president.In general, a chief of...
Major Martin Harlinghausen
Martin Harlinghausen
Martin Harlinghausen was a Luftwaffe Commander during World War II. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves...
, was ordered to Sicily in order to attack Allied shipping in the Mediterranean. By the start of the first German operation, Geisler had 95 aircraft and 14,389 men in Sicily. Geisler persuaded the OKL to give him four more dive-bomber gruppen (Groups). On 10 January he could muster 255 (179 serviceable) aircraft including 209 dive and medium bombers.
By 2 January 1941, the first German units reached Trapani
Trapani
Trapani is a city and comune on the west coast of Sicily in Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Trapani. Founded by Elymians, the city is still an important fishing port and the main gateway to the nearby Egadi Islands.-History:...
on Sicily's southern coast. The Luftwaffes two units were both Junkers Ju 87
Junkers Ju 87
The Junkers Ju 87 or Stuka was a two-man German ground-attack aircraft...
Stuka Gruppen (Groups). The first was I./Sturzkampfgeschwader 1
Sturzkampfgeschwader 1
Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 was a Luftwaffe Dive bomber-wing of World War II. It was formed in November 1939-History:StG 1 was formed in November 1939 and remained active until October 1943, when all Sturzkampfgeschwader were renamed Schlachtgeschwader 1 .-Norwegian campaign:Fliegerkorps X was the only...
and II./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2
Sturzkampfgeschwader 2
Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 Immelmann was a Luftwaffe Dive bomber-wing of World War II. It was named after Max Immelmann in 1939.The unit was originally formed as Fliegergruppe Schwerin in 1934; the first Stuka wing of its type, attaining the sobriquet 'Immelmann' in 1935...
(I and II Group Dive Bomber Wings 1 and 2). The units numbered some 80 Ju 87s. This led to a notable increase in the bombing of Malta. A Stabsstaffel of Sturzkampfgeschwader 3
Sturzkampfgeschwader 3
Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 was a Luftwaffe Dive bomber-wing of World War II. It was formed on 9 July 1940 in Dinard from the Stab/Kampfgeschwader 28 and redesignated to Schlachtgeschwader 3 on 18 October 1943.-Kommodore:...
(StG 3) arrived. Oberstleutnant
Oberstleutnant
Oberstleutnant is a German Army and Air Force rank equal to Lieutenant Colonel, above Major, and below Oberst.There are two paygrade associated to the rank of Oberstleutnant...
Karl Christ
Karl Christ
Leutnant Karl Christ was a World War I flying ace credited with five aerial victories.-Awards:*Iron Cross 2nd and 1st Class*Hessische Tapferkeits-Medaille...
, Geschwaderkommodore
Geschwaderkommodore
Geschwaderkommodore is a Luftwaffe position , originating during World War II, that is the equivalent of a RAF Group Commander or USAF Wing Commander. A Geschwaderkommodore is usually of Oberstleutnant or Oberst rank...
of StG 3 gave orders to intercept heavy units. One particular target was aircraft carrier
Aircraft carrier
An aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power worldwide without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations...
s. Days later he ordered the Ju 87 gruppen to sink the carrier . The new 23,000-ton carrier was the British' newest aircraft carrying vessel. It had taken part in the Battle of Taranto
Battle of Taranto
The naval Battle of Taranto took place on the night of 11–12 November 1940 during the Second World War. The Royal Navy launched the first all-aircraft ship-to-ship naval attack in history, flying a small number of obsolescent biplane torpedo bombers from an aircraft carrier in the Mediterranean Sea...
which handed naval supremacy to the British. The success of the vessel, however, put it at the top of the Axis' target list. The Italians had failed to sink her, now the Ju 87s would try.
Excess and Illustrious 'Blitz'
The Luftwaffe crews believed four direct hits would sink the ship and began practice operations on floating mock-ups off the Sicilian coast. The vast flight deck offered a target of 6,500 square metres. An opportunity to attack the vessel came on the 6 January. Operation ExcessOperation Excess
Operation Excess was a series of supply convoys to Malta, Alexandria and Greece in January 1941.On 6 January, convoy Excess left Gibraltar for Malta and Greece, covered by the Gibraltar based Force H. Simultaneously, the Mediterranean Fleet from Alexandria covered more supply ships from...
was launched which included a series of convoy operations by the British across the Mediterranean Sea. On 10 January they were within range of the Ju 87 bases. II./StG 2 sent 43 Ju 87s with support from I./StG 1. Ten Italian SM 79s had drawn off the carrier's Fairey Fulmar
Fairey Fulmar
The Fairey Fulmar was a British carrier-borne fighter aircraft that served with the Fleet Air Arm during the Second World War. A total of 600 were built by Fairey Aviation at its Stockport factory between January 1940 and December 1942...
fighters while the escorting cruiser HMS Bonaventure
HMS Bonaventure (31)
HMS Bonaventure was a Dido-class light cruiser of the Royal Navy.-References:**...
sank the Italian torpedo boat Vega. Some 10 Ju 87s attacked the carrier unopposed. Witnessed, by Andrew Cunningham
Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope
Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope KT, GCB, OM, DSO and two Bars , was a British admiral of the Second World War. Cunningham was widely known by his nickname, "ABC"....
, C-in-C of the Fleet from HMS Warspite, the Ju 87s scored six hits. One destroyed a gun, another near her bow, a third demolished another gun, while two hit the descending lift wrecking the aircraft below deck causing explosions of fuel and ammunition below deck. Another went through the armoured deck and exploded deep inside the ship. Two further attacks were made without result. Heavily damaged, her main engines were intact and she steered for the now dubious haven of Malta. The attack lasted six minutes and killed 126 crew members and wounded 91. Within sight of Malta, Italian torpedo bombers attacked the carrier, but were driven off by intense anti-aircraft fire.
The operation should not have been launched. Ultra had informed the Air Ministry
Air Ministry
The Air Ministry was a department of the British Government with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the Royal Air Force, that existed from 1918 to 1964...
of Fliegerkorps Xs presence on Sicily as early as the 4 January. They did not pass on the intelligence to the Admiralty
Admiralty
The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the Kingdom of England, and later in the United Kingdom, responsible for the command of the Royal Navy...
, who likely would not have sailed within range of the Ju 87s.
The RAF was in no condition to prevent a major German air attack, with only 16 Hurricanes and a couple of Gladiator aircraft serviceable. On 11 January 1941 10 more Ju 87s were sent to sink her. They chanced upon HMS Southampton and HMS Gloucester. Hits were scored on both. Southampton was so badly damaged her navy escorts scuttled her. Over the next 12 days the workers at the shipyard in the Grand Harbour repaired the carrier under determined air attack so that she might make Alexandria. On 13 January the Ju 87s, now equipped with SC 1000 bombs failed to achieve a hit. On 14 January 44 Ju 87s scored a near hit on the ill-fated aft after lift. On 18 January, the Germans switched to attacking the airfields at Hal Far and Luqa in an attempt to win air superiority before returning to the Illustrious. On 20 January two close hit alongside her breached the hull below the water line and hurled her hull against the Wharf. Still, the engineers won the battle. On 23 January she slipped out of the Grand Harbour and arrived in Alexandria two days later. The carrier later sailed to America
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
where she was out of action for a year.
The Luftwaffe had failed to sink the carrier. However, their losses were few—three losses on 10 January and four Ju 87s over several following weeks—and the Germans had impressed the British with the effectiveness of land-based air power. They withdrew their fleet's heavy units from the central Mediterranean and risked no more than trying to send cruisers through the Sicilian Narrows. Both the British and Italian navies digested their experiences over Taranto and Malta.
German air superiority
Messerschmitt Bf 109
The Messerschmitt Bf 109, often called Me 109, was a German World War II fighter aircraft designed by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser during the early to mid 1930s...
E-7 fighters of 7. Staffel Jagdgeschwader 26
Jagdgeschwader 26
Jagdgeschwader 26 Schlageter was a Luftwaffe fighter-wing of World War II. It operated mainly in Western Europe against Great Britain, France the United States but also saw service against Russia. It was named after Albert Leo Schlageter, a World War I veteran and Freikorps member arrested and...
(Fighter Wing 26 or JG 26), led by Oberleutnant
Oberleutnant
Oberleutnant is a junior officer rank in the militaries of Germany, Switzerland and Austria. In the German Army, it dates from the early 19th century. Translated as "Senior Lieutenant", the rank is typically bestowed upon commissioned officers after five to six years of active duty...
Joachim Müncheberg
Joachim Müncheberg
Joachim Müncheberg was a German Luftwaffe fighter ace during World War II. A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. He is credited with 135 enemy aircraft shot down claimed in over 500 combat missions...
, quickly led to a sudden and marked rise in RAF losses, as the experienced, confident, tactically astute, better equipped and trained German fighter units made their presence felt. The Allied pilots on Malta had little combat experience and their Hawker Hurricanes were well worn. Over the next four months, few of JG 26's Bf 109s were damaged, let alone shot down. In exchange they claimed 42 air victories, twenty of them (including one over Yugoslavia) were credited to Müncheberg.
In contrast, the Hurricanes were patched up, and cannibalised well past the usual shelf-life. Their performance, already inferior to the Bf 109E-7, was greatly reduced as a result of being patched up. Small numbers of reinforcements arrived; five at the beginning of March, another six on the 18 March. However five were lost in between costing the RAF five pilots. The odds of surviving combat for RAF pilots was poor.
On 1 March, the Luftwaffe mounted very effective raids. Attacks on the airfields destroyed all the Wellingtons brought in October. Royal Navy warships and Sunderland flying boats could not use the island for offensive operations. The two main fighter squadrons, No. 261 and 274 Squadrons, were put under severe pressure.
German air superiority was taking its toll on the island. There were several raids per day. Over 107 Axis attacks took place in February and 105 in March with Bf 109 fighters contribution by strafing any signs of movement on the ground. Rationing also started, reducing morale further. All males between the age of 16 and 56 were conscripted into Maltese service. Large numbers of Maltese had already volunteered. By February around 14,600 men, one-sixth of the island's work force had answered the call to arms. By this time Royal Malta Artillery now guarded the Grand Harbour. By this time the Axis bombing had already done severe damage to the Three Cities.
Battle of the Tarigo Convoy
The Battle of the Tarigo Convoy was fought on 16 April 1941 between four British and three Italian destroyers during the Mediterranean Campaign, in World War II...
. Allied surface forces would managed to sink only one small Axis convoy in daylight hours during the whole North African Campaign
North African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
, but at night the British proved that they could destroy Axis shipping. On the night of the 15/16 April 1941 Axis ships were intercepted by Commander P.J Mack's 14th Destroyer Flotilla, containing the destroyers, HMS Janus
HMS Janus (F53)
HMS Janus , named after the Roman god, was a J-class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson Limited at Wallsend-on-Tyne on 29 September 1937, launched on 10 November 1938 and commissioned on 5 August 1939. Janus participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940...
, Jervis
HMS Jervis (F00)
HMS Jervis was a J-class destroyer of the Royal Navy named after Admiral John Jervis . Jervis was laid down by R. and W. Hawthorn, Leslie and Company, Limited, at Hebburn-on-Tyne on 26 August 1937...
, Mohawk, Juno and Nubian. They sank five ships (mainly German); Sabaudia (1,500 tons), the Aegina (2,447 tons), Adana (4,205 tons), Isetlhon (3,704 tons) and Arta. Three Italian destroyers, the Tarigo, Lampo and Baleno were sunk for the loss of Mohawk. The mounting, albeit small, losses were starting to concern Rommel.
The flotilla had been officially formed on 8 April 1941, in response to the need for Malta Strike Force. This strike force was to interdict Axis convoys. Later, Commander Lord Louis Mountbatten's 5th Destroyer Flotilla was ordered to merge with Mack's fleet to increase its striking power. The destroyers HMS Jackal
HMS Jackal (F22)
HMS Jackal was a J-class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by John Brown and Company, Limited, at Clydebank in Scotland on 24 September 1937, launched on 25 October 1938 and commissioned on 31 March 1939...
, Kashmir
HMS Kashmir (F12)
HMS Kashmir was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by Thornycroft in Southampton in October 1937, launched on 4 April 1939 and commissioned on 26 October 1939....
, Kipling
HMS Kipling (F91)
HMS Kipling was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by Yarrow, Scotstoun on 20 October 1937, launched on 19 January 1939, by the daughter of the poet Rudyard Kipling, and commissioned on 12 December 1939. On 28 December 1941 Kipling sank the German submarine U-75...
, Kelly
HMS Kelly (F01)
HMS Kelly was a K-class destroyer of the British Royal Navy, and flotilla leader of her class. She served through the early years of the Second World War; in Home Waters, off Norway and in the Mediterranean. Throughout her service, Kelly was commanded by Lord Louis Mountbatten. She was lost in...
, Kelvin
HMS Kelvin (F37)
HMS Kelvin was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, Limited, at Govan in Scotland on 5 October 1937, launched on 19 January 1939 and commissioned on 27 November 1939....
and Jersey
HMS Jersey (F72)
HMS Jersey was a J-class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by J. Samuel White and Company at Cowes on the Isle of Wight on 20 September 1937, launched on 26 September 1938 and commissioned on 28 April 1939...
were a part of Mountbatten’s fleet. The cruisers HMS Dido
HMS Dido (37)
HMS Dido was the name ship of her class of light cruisers for the Royal Navy. She was built by Cammell Laird Shipyard , with the keel being laid down on 26 October 1937. She was launched on 18 July 1939 and commissioned on 30 September 1940.-Mediterranean:On 18 August 1942 Captain H. W. U...
and Gloucester accompanied the ships as part of the force. The strike force had considerable success, which justified basing it at Malta despite the threat from air attack. On 21 May, the force was sent to join the Battle of Crete
Battle of Crete
The Battle of Crete was a battle during World War II on the Greek island of Crete. It began on the morning of 20 May 1941, when Nazi Germany launched an airborne invasion of Crete under the code-name Unternehmen Merkur...
. It was several months before a strike force would return.
Further success was had by the Malta Convoys
Malta Convoys
The Malta Convoys were a series of Allied supply convoys that sustained the besieged island of Malta during the Mediterranean Theatre of the Second World War...
. An urgent supply convoy from Gibraltar to Alexandria (Operation Tiger) coincided with reinforcements for the Mediterranean Fleet, two small convoys from Egypt to Malta, and 48 more Hurricanes flown off HMS Ark Royal and (Operation Splice). The only loss was one transport , which hit a mine and sank. The ship took 10 Hurricane fighters and 57 tanks with it. Tiger was transporting 295 tanks (Matildas and the new Crusader tank
Crusader tank
The Tank, Cruiser, Mk VI or A15 Crusader was one of the primary British cruiser tanks of the early part Second World War and perhaps the most important British tank of the North African Campaign...
s) and 24,000 tons of oil needed for the operations in North Africa. The operation was completed on 12 May. I., II., and III., StG 1 made a determined effort against Tiger and Malta without result.
Nevertheless, the Germans held air superiority. Hitler ordered Fliegerkorps X to protect Axis shipping, prevent Allied shipping passing through the central Mediterranean, and neutralise Malta altogether as an Allied base. Around 180 German and 300 Italian aircraft would carry out the directive. The Luftwaffe in particular swarmed over the island almost at will. The RAF was barely able to put more than six to eight fighters in the air at one time. Occasionally a dozen would be flown in off British carriers, but being heavily outnumbered, the replacements were soon used up. The Axis were successful in implementing Hitler's directive. By mid-May, the central Mediterranean had been sealed off to Allied shipping, and the DAK was able to send reinforcements to Rommel in North Africa with the loss of only three per cent of its supplies, personnel and equipment. From 11 April to 10 May, just 111 Axis raids were carried out. All targeted military installations. Most heavy equipment in the Grand Harbour was destroyed; the dry-docks could only be operated by hand. Workshop efficiency was down to 50 per cent, some down to 25 per cent.
During the first four months of German operations, the Luftwaffe had dropped 2,500 tons of high explosives on Malta. It was many more times the tonnage dropped by the Italians but would fall far short of the amount dropped in the coming year. According to official figures, more than 2,000 civilian buildings were destroyed as opposed to only 300 during the Italian siege. Human casualties remained light. After the bombing of HMS Illustrious, most of the civilians moved out to safer surroundings. By May 1941, nearly 60,000 people had left the cities. In the capital Valletta, some 11,000 people (two-thirds) left the area. One of the main reasons for this was a lack of shelter—the British focused on protecting military targets. Eventually 2,000 miners and stonemasons were recruited to build public shelters. The pay was poor and the miners threatened strike action, only to be threatened in turn with a draft into the army. They backed down, but worked as little as possible. Had they been motivated, the shelters could have built twice as cheaply and at one-third the cost.
German withdrawal
In April, Hitler was forced to intervene in the BalkansBalkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
which led to the Balkans Campaign (German invasion of Yugoslavia and the Battle of Greece
Battle of Greece
The Battle of Greece is the common name for the invasion and conquest of Greece by Nazi Germany in April 1941. Greece was supported by British Commonwealth forces, while the Germans' Axis allies Italy and Bulgaria played secondary roles...
) owing to the failed Italian invasion of Greece
Greco-Italian War
The Greco-Italian War was a conflict between Italy and Greece which lasted from 28 October 1940 to 23 April 1941. It marked the beginning of the Balkans Campaign of World War II...
. The subsequent campaign and the heavy German losses in the Battle of Crete
Battle of Crete
The Battle of Crete was a battle during World War II on the Greek island of Crete. It began on the morning of 20 May 1941, when Nazi Germany launched an airborne invasion of Crete under the code-name Unternehmen Merkur...
convinced Hitler that air drops behind enemy lines, using paratroopers, was no longer feasible unless surprise was achieved. He acknowledged the chances of surprise in an air operation of that kind were worn out. Hitler lived up to his word, and the German airborne forces did not undertake any operations again. This had important consequences for Malta, as it indicated the island would have to fall to an Axis siege. In June, Hitler attacked the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
under Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that began on 22 June 1941. Over 4.5 million troops of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a front., the largest invasion in the history of warfare...
. Fliegerkorps X departed for the Eastern Front, and the Regia Aeronautica was left to continue its ineffective hit and run tactics against Malta in the coming months. Geisler, commanding the remnants of Fliegerkorps X, could count upon mine laying aircraft from Kampfgeschwader 4
Kampfgeschwader 4
Kampfgeschwader 4 "General Wever" was a Luftwaffe bomber unit during World War II. The unit was formed in May 1939. The unit operated the Dornier Do 17, Junkers Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 medium bombers, with later service on the Heinkel He 177 heavy bomber...
(KG 4) and Ju 87s in night operations. Supply issues were bad, and the small German force left was forced to abandon operations on 22 April 1941. By early May 1941, the Luftwaffe had flown 1,465 strike, 1,144 fighter and 132 reconnaissance missions for just 44 losses. III./Kampfgeschwader 30
Kampfgeschwader 30
-Service history:Formed on 15 November 1939 in Greifswald. I Gruppe formed 1 September, II Gruppe on 23 September and III Gruppe on 1 January 1940, based in Greifswald then Barth...
(KG 30) and III./Lehrgeschwader 1
Lehrgeschwader 1
Lehrgeschwader 1 formerly Lehrgeschwader Greifswald was a Luftwaffe multi-purpose unit during World War II, operating fighter, bomber and dive-bomber Gruppen. The unit was formed in July 1936...
(KG 1) flew sporadic night attacks during April.
Hugh Pughe Lloyd
On 1 June, Air Vice Marshal Forster Maynard, Malta's Air Officer Commanding, was replaced by Air Commodore Hugh Pughe Lloyd. When he arrived on the island Lloyd found little to work with. Still, he had every intention of taking the offensive. Outside his office, in the underground headquarters at Lascaris, he hung a sign outside; "Less depends on the size of the dog in the fight than on the size of the fight in the dog".Within a few hours Lloyd had made an inspection tour of the airfields and the main workshops at Kalafrana. The state of the island was worse than he expected. The slackening of German air activity had allowed the number of aircraft to increase, but the RAF still had fewer than 60 of all types. Maintenance was difficult. Hardly any spare or replacement parts were available. Spares had to be obtained by sifting through the debris of wrecks or by cannibalising undamaged aircraft. Furthermore; the airfields were too small; there was no heavy equipment to work with; and even the commonest sorts of tools, such as hammers and wrenches, were all but impossible to find. All refuelling had to be done by hand from individual drums. The shelter was also inadequate, so there was little protection for what equipment they did have. Most aircraft were clustered together on open runways, presenting tempting targets. At Kalafrana, all the buildings were close together and above ground. The single engine-repair facility on Malta was located right next to the only test benches. Lloyd himself said, "a few bombs on Kalafrana in the summer of 1941 would have ruined any hope of Malta ever operating an air force".
Usually the protection of air defences and naval assets on the island would have had priority. Certainly bringing in more supplies would have made greater strategic sense, before risking going on to the offensive and thus in turn risking the wrath of the enemy. But the time period was an eventful one. In North Africa, the DAK was on the move and Rommel was pressing his army towards the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
and Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
in Egypt. RAF forces on Malta could not afford to sit idle. They could prevent Rommel's advance, or slow it, by striking at his supply lines. Malta was the only place where British strike aircraft could launch their attacks from. Lloyd's bombers and a small Flotilla
Flotilla
A flotilla , or naval flotilla, is a formation of small warships that may be part of a larger fleet. A flotilla is usually composed of a homogeneous group of the same class of warship, such as frigates, destroyers, torpedo boats, submarines, gunboats, or minesweepers...
of submarines were the only forces to harass Rommel's supply lines into the autumn. Only then did the surface fleets return to Malta to support the offensive.
Allied reinforcement
The absence of the Luftwaffe enabled the British to bring in much needed reinforcements. The Italians were failing to prevent it.While the Regia Aeronautica was ineffective, so was the Italian Navy. The defeat in the Battle of Cape Matapan
Battle of Cape Matapan
The Battle of Cape Matapan was a Second World War naval battle fought from 27–29 March 1941. The cape is on the southwest coast of Greece's Peloponnesian peninsula...
encouraged the Italians to be even more half-hearted in their operations against Malta. A lack of oil also crippled their ability to attack the British sea-lanes. The defeat stunned Mussolini. He still maintained a healthy numerical superiority over the enemy, but he was convinced of Italian inferiority. Much to the anger of the Germans, he refused to seek out and engage the British thereafter. British naval forces passed through to Malta, almost unchallenged. Several hundred tons of supplies, 2,000 soldiers and 200 tons of medical stores made it to Malta untouched, which undid all of the work of the Luftwaffe in the first four months of 1941. The supply situation was described as excellent by the autumn, 1941. With the exception of coal, fodder, kerosene and essential civilian supplies were such that an eight to fifteen month reserve was built up. Operation Substance
Operation Substance
Operation Substance was a British naval operation in July 1941 during the Second World War to escort a convoy from Gibraltar to Malta.The convoy was escorted by six destroyers and covered by aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, the battlecruiser HMS Renown and the battleship HMS Nelson along with...
was particularly successful in July 1941. The supplies included spares and aircraft. Around 60 bombers and 120 Hurricanes were now available. Around 65,000 tons made it into Malta altogether in July. No supplies were sent in August, but Operation Halberd
Operation Halberd
-Summary:During World War II, Operation Halberd was a British naval operation in September 1941 to escort a convoy from Gibraltar to Malta....
in September 1941 brought in a large 85,000 tons of supplies, shipped by nine merchant vessels escorted by one aircraft carrier, five cruisers and 17 destroyers. One cargo ship, the Imperial Star was sunk, and the battleship HMS Nelson was damaged by a torpedo. This convoy proved critical to saving Malta, as it supplies proved essential when the Germans returned in December.
In mid-1941, new squadrons — No. 185 and No. 126 — were formed and the defenders received the first cannon-armed Hurricane Mk IIAs. Naval carriers flew in a total of 81 more fighters in April–May. By the 12 May, there were 50 Hurricanes on the island. On 21 May No. 249 Squadron RAF
No. 249 Squadron RAF
No. 249 Squadron RAF was a Royal Air Force squadron, active in the sea-patrol, fighter and bomber roles during its existence.-First formation:...
arrived, taking over from No. 261. No. 46 Squadron RAF
No. 46 Squadron RAF
No. 46 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Air Force, formed in 1916, was disbanded and re-formed three times before its last disbandment in 1975. It served in both World War I and World War II.- World War I :...
arrived in June, to be renumbered No. 126 Squadron RAF
No. 126 Squadron RAF
No. 126 Squadron RAF was a Royal Air Force Squadron formed to be a day bomber unit in World War I and reformed as a fighter unit in World War II.-Formation and World War I:No...
. In May 1941, 47 Hurricanes were flown into the island. From May to December 1941 also saw the arrival of the first Bristol Blenheim
Bristol Blenheim
The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...
units (No. 113 Squadron RAF
No. 113 Squadron RAF
No. 113 Squadron was a unit of the Royal Air Force that served as a reconnaissance, army cooperation, bomber, fighter, transport and missile operation squadron during its existence.-Formation in World War I as reconnaissance unit:...
and No. 105 Squadron RAF
No. 105 Squadron RAF
No. 105 Squadron was a flying squadron of the Royal Air Force, active for three periods between 1917 and 1969. It was originally established during the First World War as a squadron of the Royal Flying Corps and disbanded after the war. Reactivated shortly before the Second World War, it was...
) and Bristol Beaufighter
Bristol Beaufighter
The Bristol Type 156 Beaufighter, often referred to as simply the Beau, was a British long-range heavy fighter modification of the Bristol Aeroplane Company's earlier Beaufort torpedo bomber design...
units, 252
No. 252 Squadron RAF
No. 252 Squadron RAF was a Royal Air Force Squadron that formed as bomber unit in World War I and a RAF Coastal Command bomber unit World War II.-Formation and World War I:...
and 272 Squadrons
No. 272 Squadron RAF
No. 272 Squadron RAF was a Royal Air Force Squadron formed as an anti–submarine unit in World War I and a coastal fighter unit in World War II.-Formation and World War I:No...
. Malta was now being used as a base for supplying Egypt. Between July and December 1941, 717 RAF fighters passed through Malta and 514 left for North Africa. By early August 1941, Malta now had 75 fighters and 230 anti-aircraft guns. Bristol Blenheim
Bristol Blenheim
The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...
bombers also joined the defenders and began offensive operations.
Besides preparing for offensive operations and reinforcing the RAF on the island, Lloyd also rectified many of the deficiencies. Thousands of Maltese and 3,000 British Army
British Army
The British Army is the land warfare branch of Her Majesty's Armed Forces in the United Kingdom. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdom of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England...
soldiers were drafted by him to prepare better protection for the airfields. Even technical staff, clerks and flight crews helped when required. Dispersal strips were built, repair shops were moved underground from dockyards and airfields. Underground shelters were also created in the belief that the Luftwaffe would soon return.
Allied offensive
Operation Crusader
Operation Crusader was a military operation by the British Eighth Army between 18 November–30 December 1941. The operation successfully relieved the 1941 Siege of Tobruk....
.
For example, in July 62,276 tons of supplies was landed by the Axis in July, half of the figure in June. In September 1941, the No. 830 Naval Air Squadron sank or damaged the ships Andrea Gritti (6,338 tons) and the Pietro Barbaro (6,330 tons). Ultra intercepts confirmed that 3,500 tons of air bombs, 4,000 tons of ammunition, 5,000 tons of food, one entire tank workshop, 25 Bf 109 engines and 25 cases of glycol coolant for their engines were lost. Further success was had later in the month, though the losses against anti-aircraft fire from Italian ships was sometimes heavy.
One reason for accepting heavy losses was the difficulty in bombing inaccurately. Lloyd asked his bombers to attack at mast-height, making them easier targets for anti-aircraft defences. Losses averaged 12 percent during this time. No. 38
No. 38 Squadron RAF
No. 38 Squadron of the Royal Air Force was a bomber squadron formed in 1916 and was disbanded for the last time in 1967.-World War I :...
, 40
No. 40 Squadron RAF
No. 40 Squadron of the Royal Air Force was formed in 1916 at Gosport as No 40 Squadron RFC and was disbanded for the last time in 1957.Edward Mannock gained 16 of his 73 victories while with 40 Squadron, 15 of which he shot down while flying a Nieuport Scout...
and 104 Squadrons
No. 104 Squadron RAF
No. 104 Squadron RAF was formed at Wyton on 4 September 1917 and was equipped with the DH 9. It then moved to Andover, prior to being posted to France in May 1918. The squadron later began re-equipping with the DH 10, however the armistice arrived before this was completed and the squadron returned...
equipped with Wellington bombers hit Axis convoys in Tripoli
Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Western Tripoli , to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean , describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli is a Greek name that means "Three...
doing some damage to shipping.
In concert with Royal Navy submarines, the RAF and FAA sank 108 Axis ships (300,000 grt) between June and September. In September one-third of the 96,000 tons of supplies dispatched was lost to British submarine and air attack. In October 18,800 tons of Axis shipping was sunk. During November, submarines cut Axis supplies to Africa by 62 per cent of the total sent that month. In June, the Italians unloaded 125,000 tons (37,000 for the Germans). But that figure fell to 83,000 tons (27,300 for the Germans) and by November it was just 29,843 tons (5,100 tons for the Germans), from 79,208 sent out.
Part of the reason for the success in November 1941, was the arrival of the Royal Navy's Force K
Force K
Force K was the designation for three British Royal Navy task forces during World War II. The first Force K operated from West Africa in 1939. The second and third Force Ks operated from Malta in 1941-1943.-First Force K:...
. It's forces successfully destroyed an entire Axis convoy during the Battle of the Duisburg Convoy
Battle of the Duisburg Convoy
The Battle of the Duisburg Convoy was fought on the night of 8–9 November 1941 between an Italian convoy sailing to Libya with supplies for the Italian Army, civilian authorities in Libya, and the Afrika Corps and a British Naval squadron which intercepted it...
, which practically blockaded Libyan ports. Soon after, Force K was reinforced by the arrival in Malta of Force B with two light cruisers, Ajax
HMS Ajax (22)
HMS Ajax was a Leander class light cruiser which served with the British Royal Navy during World War II. She became famous for her part in the Battle of the River Plate, the Battle of Crete, the Battle of Malta and as a supply escort in the Siege of Tobruk. This ship was the eighth in the Royal...
and Neptune
HMS Neptune (20)
HMS Neptune was a Leander class light cruiser which served with the Royal Navy during World War II.Neptune was the fourth ship of its class and was the ninth Royal Navy vessel to carry the name...
, and two K-class destroyers
J, K and N class destroyer
The J, K and N class was a class of 24 destroyers of the Royal Navy launched in 1938. They were a return to a smaller vessel, with a heavier torpedo armament, after the Tribal class that emphasised guns over torpedoes. The ships were built in three flotillas or groups, eight each of ships with...
, Kimberley and Kingston, on 27 November 1941. Joint operations with the RAF were so effective that during November 1941 the Axis supply line suffered significant losses. Among the lost Axis cargo was precious fuel stores. The total loss of fuel amounted to 49,365 tons out of 79,208 tons. Among the contributors to the sinking of Axis shipping was No. 828 Naval Air Squadron, No. 830 Naval Air Squadron, the British 10th Naval Flotilla, and No. 69 Squadron RAF
No. 69 Squadron RAF
The name No. 69 Squadron has been used by the Royal Air Force for two quite different units.No. 3 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps was formed at Point Cook, Victoria, Australia on 19 September 1916. To avoid confusion with No. 3 Squadron, RAF, it was known to the British military as "No...
which shadowed convoys with their Maryland aircraft. In particular, special flights of RAF Wellingtons, which were fitted with air to surface vessel radar, were critical to Force K operations. ULTRA intelligence would reach Malta on Axis Convoy movements. The RAF Malta Command would then dispatch the ASV-Wellingtons to sweep the seas and direct the British naval forces to the targeted convoy.
However the success did not come without cost. On 13 November 1941 the carrier HMS Ark Royal
HMS Ark Royal (91)
HMS Ark Royal was an aircraft carrier of the Royal Navy that served during the Second World War.Designed in 1934 to fit the restrictions of the Washington Naval Treaty, Ark Royal was built by Cammell Laird and Company, Ltd. at Birkenhead, England, and completed in November 1938. Her design...
, whilst transporting aircraft to Malta, was sunk by a U-Boat. Just 12 days later, HMS Barham was sunk by a U-Boat. This was followed by HMS Galatea
HMS Galatea (71)
HMS Galatea was an Arethusa-class light cruiser of the Royal Navy. She was built by Scotts Shipbuilding & Engineering Co. , with the keel being laid down on the 2 June 1933...
on 15 December. On 19 December 1941 ships from both Forces ran into a minefield
Naval mine
A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, an enemy vessel...
while pursuing an Italian convoy. Damage from the mines sank one cruiser (Neptune) and damaged another (Aurora). A destroyer (Kandahar)
HMS Kandahar (F28)
HMS Kandahar was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy, named after the Afghan city of Kandahar.-History:Kandahar was launched on 21 March 1939. On 21 February 1941, in company with and , she captured the German blockade runner off Iceland...
was also mined while attempting to assist the stricken Neptune. The damaged Kandahar was scuttled the next day by destroyer Jaguar
HMS Jaguar (F34)
HMS Jaguar was a J class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by William Denny, Brothers and Company, Limited, of Dumbarton in Scotland on 25 November 1937, launched on 22 November 1938 and commissioned on 12 September 1939...
. Following this, and with a resurgence of the aerial bombardment of Malta, surface ships were withdrawn from the central Mediterranean in January 1942.
In response to the reverses, the Luftwaffe returned in force in December 1941 to renew intensive bombing. The response was also naval. The Kriegsmarine
Kriegsmarine
The Kriegsmarine was the name of the German Navy during the Nazi regime . It superseded the Kaiserliche Marine of World War I and the post-war Reichsmarine. The Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches of the Wehrmacht, the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany.The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly...
sent nearly half of all the German U-Boat
U-boat
U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word U-Boot , itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot , and refers to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in World War I and World War II...
s on operations in the Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...
to the Mediterranean Sea to support the effort against Malta. By 15 December, half of these vessels were either in the Mediterranean, or on their way to the Theatre. The RAF was, however, making life difficult for the German submarines, which had to pass by the British naval and air base at Gibraltar
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
to reach the contested waters.
Up until the return of the Luftwaffe over Malta, the RAF defenders had claimed 199 aircraft shot down from June 1940—December 1941, while losses were at least 90 Hurricanes, three Fairey Fulmar
Fairey Fulmar
The Fairey Fulmar was a British carrier-borne fighter aircraft that served with the Fleet Air Arm during the Second World War. A total of 600 were built by Fairey Aviation at its Stockport factory between January 1940 and December 1942...
, one Gladiators in air combat; ten more Hurricanes and one Gladiator destroyed in accidents and many more knocked out on the ground. Eight Marylands, two other aircraft, three Beaufighters, one fighter variant of the Blenheim, and a very large number of bombers lost in action. No. 185 Squadron claimed 18 destroyed, seven probable victories and 21 damaged for 11 killed or missing. Among those losses was Squadron Leader
Squadron Leader
Squadron Leader is a commissioned rank in the Royal Air Force and the air forces of many countries which have historical British influence. It is also sometimes used as the English translation of an equivalent rank in countries which have a non-English air force-specific rank structure. In these...
Peter "Boy" Mould. Actual Axis losses amounted to 135 bombers (80 German) and 56 fighters plus a number of other aircraft.
Kesselring arrives in Sicily
By June 1941, Geisler had been moved to Libya to support the DAK in the North African CampaignNorth African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
. In the Mediterranean and on Malta, the Allies recovered and began offensive operations against Axis shipping bringing supplies to the DAK in North Africa. The mounting shipping supply losses affected Geisler's ability to support Erwin Rommel and his forces, which caused tension between the Heer
Heer
Heer is German for "army". Generally, its use as "army" is not restricted to any particular country, so "das britische Heer" would mean "the British army".However, more specifically it can refer to:*An army of Germany:...
and the Luftwaffe. Geisler was to be returned to Sicily with his remaining air strength to solve the issue. However, the Germans backed down over Italian protests. On 6 October Geisler did extend his air sector responsibilities to cover the Tripoli-Naples sea route in order to curtail losses. On 2 October, Hermann Göring
Hermann Göring
Hermann Wilhelm Göring, was a German politician, military leader, and a leading member of the Nazi Party. He was a veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, and a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as "The Blue Max"...
, commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe met with his Regia Aeronautica counterpart Francesco Pricolo
Francesco Pricolo
Francesco Pricolo was an Italian aviator.He was undersecretary of Italian Minister of Air Force and the Chief of staff of the Italian Regia Aeronautica during the World War II ....
to discuss reinforcements. Göring displayed surprising sensitivity to Italian failings while discussing sending German reinforcements. Hans Jeschonnek
Hans Jeschonnek
Hans Jeschonnek was a German Generaloberst and a Chief of the General Staff of Nazi Germany′s Luftwaffe during World War II. He committed suicide in August 1943.-Biography:...
, Goring's chief of staff, suggested sending Luftflotte 2
Luftflotte 2
Luftflotte 2 was one of the primary divisions of the German Luftwaffe in World War II. It was formed February 1, 1939 in Braunschweig and transferred to Italy on November 15, 1941...
and its commander Albert Kesselring
Albert Kesselring
Albert Kesselring was a German Luftwaffe Generalfeldmarschall during World War II. In a military career that spanned both World Wars, Kesselring became one of Nazi Germany's most skilful commanders, being one of 27 soldiers awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords...
to Sicily from the Eastern Front. Göring agreed, and was willing to send 16 Gruppen to Sicily, anticipating a Soviet collapse in the east. This level of support did not arrive. However, Bruno Loerzer
Bruno Loerzer
Bruno Loerzer was an officer in the German Luftstreitkräfte during World War I and Luftwaffe during World War II....
and his command, Fliegerkorps II
10th Air Corps (Germany)
X. FliegerkorpsFor more details see Luftwaffe Organization was a formation of the German Luftwaffe in World War II, which specialised in coastal operations. It was formed 2 October 1939, in Hamburg from the 10...
, did arrive in January 1942, with Kesselring as the Southern Commander in Chief, a post which had nominally been Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
's responsibility. Kesselring was given this role officially on 1 December 1941.
German pressure, Spitfire arrival
Messerschmitt Bf 110
The Messerschmitt Bf 110, often called Me 110, was a twin-engine heavy fighter in the service of the Luftwaffe during World War II. Hermann Göring was a proponent of the Bf 110, and nicknamed it his Eisenseiten...
s and Ju 88 night fighter
Night fighter
A night fighter is a fighter aircraft adapted for use at night or in other times of bad visibility...
s were flown into to Sicily to support Fliegerkorps II from Zerstörergeschwader 26
Zerstörergeschwader 26
Zerstörergeschwader 26 "Horst Wessel" was a Luftwaffe heavy/destroyer Fighter Aircraft-wing of World War II.-History:Zerstörergeschwader 26 was formed in early 1936 from the Jagdgeschwader 134 "Horst Wessel". The Geschwaderstab and I. Gruppe was located in Dortmund, II. Gruppe in Werl and III....
(ZG 26, or Destroyer Wing 26) and Nachtjagdgeschwader 1
Nachtjagdgeschwader 1
Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 was a German Luftwaffe night fighter-wing of World War II. NJG 1 was formed on 22 June 1940 in Mönchengladbach.By the end of the war it was the most successful night fighter unit and had claimed some 2,311 victories by day and night, for some 676 aircrew killed in...
(NJG 1 or Night Fighter Wing 1). They quickly eliminated Malta's striking force, which was beyond the range of fighter escort while over the Mediterranean. In the first two months, around 20 RAF bombers and reconnaissance aircraft were shot down. The success against Axis shipping soon dried up. The only notable triumph was the sinking of the 13,089-ton Victoria merchant ship. It was one of the fastest supply ships then afloat. It was sunk by an Albacore of 826 Squadron, flown by Lieutenant Baxter Ellis, on 23 January.
Over the island the defensive arm of the RAF was also put under pressure. Kesselring began 1942 with a raid on New Year's Day
New Year's Day
New Year's Day is observed on January 1, the first day of the year on the modern Gregorian calendar as well as the Julian calendar used in ancient Rome...
. It was the 1,175th raid since the war began. The pressure increased and in January the RAF lost 50 Hurricanes on the ground and another eight shot down in combat. Of the 340 fighters that had passed through or stayed on the island since the war began, only 28 remained. AOC Lloyd was starting to wonder if his fighter forces could hold out. The Axis conducted 263 raids in that month, a significant jump from 169 in December 1941. Loerzer's Fliegerkorps II was still recovering from its losses in the Soviet Union, and could only contributed 118 aircraft in January, growing to 390 in March. More machines were collected, and the Korps reached a peak strength of 425.
One-third of all raids were directed against airfields. One of the bases, at Takali 841 tons of bombs were dropped. The effort was made because the Germans believed the British were operating an underground hangar. They used rocket-assisted PC 18000RS Panther Bombs. The usual tactic would involve a sweep ahead of the bombers by German fighters to clear the skies. This worked, and air superiority was maintained. Only light losses were suffered by the bombers. One notable loss being the Geschwaderkommodore
Geschwaderkommodore
Geschwaderkommodore is a Luftwaffe position , originating during World War II, that is the equivalent of a RAF Group Commander or USAF Wing Commander. A Geschwaderkommodore is usually of Oberstleutnant or Oberst rank...
of KG 77, Arved Cruger
Arved Crüger
Arved Crüger was a Luftwaffe wing commander during World War II and Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross recipient. He married the German movie actress Carola Höhn in 1941. He was appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Kampfgeschwader 77 in 1942...
. Around 94 per cent of the strikes were made in daylight and the Italians supported the Luftwaffe by flying 2,455 sorties in February and March.
Both the Navy and Air Commanders, as well as Governor Dobbie, argued for modern aircraft, particularly the Spitfire, to be sent to Malta. AOC Middle East, Arthur Tedder, sent Group Captain
Group Captain
Group captain is a senior commissioned rank in the Royal Air Force and the air forces of many other Commonwealth countries. It ranks above wing commander and immediately below air commodore...
Basil Embry to Malta to assess the situation. The pilots told Embry that the Hurricanes were useless and that the Spitfire was their only hope. They claimed that the Germans purposely flew in front of the Hurricanes in their Bf 109Fs to show off the performance superiority of the Bf 109. The Squadron Leaders argued the inferiority of their aircraft was affecting morale. Embry agreed, and recommended the Spitfire be sent in sufficient numbers. The type began arriving in March 1942.
Axis invasion plan
On 29–30 April 1942, a plan for the invasion of the island was approved by Adolf HitlerAdolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
and Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
during a meeting at Berchtesgaden
Berchtesgaden
Berchtesgaden is a municipality in the German Bavarian Alps. It is located in the south district of Berchtesgadener Land in Bavaria, near the border with Austria, some 30 km south of Salzburg and 180 km southeast of Munich...
. It envisioned an airborne assault with one German and one Italian airborne division, under the command of German General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Kurt Student
Kurt Student
Kurt Student was a German Luftwaffe general who fought as a fighter pilot during the First World War and as the commander of German Fallschirmjäger during the Second World War.-Biography:...
. This would have been followed by a seaborne landing of two or three divisions protected by the Regia Marina. The Italians, in agreement with Kesselring, put invading Malta at the top of Axis priorities in the region. However, two major factors stopped Hitler from giving the operation the green light. The first was Erwin Rommel
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
. Thanks to Kesselring's pounding of the island Rommel had his supply lines secured. He was able to gain the ascendancy in North Africa once again. Although Rommel believed Malta should be invaded, he insisted the conquest of Egypt and the Suez Canal, not Malta, was the priority. The second was Hitler himself. After the Battle of Crete
Battle of Crete
The Battle of Crete was a battle during World War II on the Greek island of Crete. It began on the morning of 20 May 1941, when Nazi Germany launched an airborne invasion of Crete under the code-name Unternehmen Merkur...
in May and June 1941, Hitler was nervous about using paratroopers to invade the island since the Crete campaign had cost this arm heavy losses and he started to procrastinate in making a decision. Kesselring complained. Hitler proposed a compromise. He suggested that if Rommel reached the Egyptian border once again in the coming months (the fighting at the time was taking place in Libya), the Axis could invade in July or August 1942 when a full moon would provide ideal conditions for a landing. Although frustrated, Kesselring was relieved the operation had seemingly been postponed rather than shelved.
Struggle for air superiority
Douglas Bader
Group Captain Sir Douglas Robert Steuart Bader CBE, DSO & Bar, DFC & Bar, FRAeS, DL was a Royal Air Force fighter ace during the Second World War. He was credited with 20 aerial victories, four shared victories, six probables, one shared probable and 11 enemy aircraft damaged.Bader joined the...
over Europe soon meant he was qualified to lead the unit. He began the adoption of the loose finger-four
Finger-four
The "Finger-four" formation , is a flight formation used by fighter aircraft. It consists of four aircraft, and four of these formations can be combined into a squadron formation.- Description :...
formation in an attempt to cut RAF losses by introducing more flexible tactics to compensate for technical inferiority. The outmoded Hurricanes still struggled against the very latest Bf 109Fs of Jagdgeschwader 53
Jagdgeschwader 53
Jagdgeschwader 53 Pik-As was a Luftwaffe fighter-wing of World War II. It operated in Western Europe and in the Mediterranean.Jagdgeschwader 53 - or as it was better known, the "Pik As" Geschwader - was one of the oldest German fighter units of World War II with its origins going back to 1937...
(JG 53) and the Italian Macchi C.202s now operating over the island. The Junkers Ju 88
Junkers Ju 88
The Junkers Ju 88 was a World War II German Luftwaffe twin-engine, multi-role aircraft. Designed by Hugo Junkers' company through the services of two American aviation engineers in the mid-1930s, it suffered from a number of technical problems during the later stages of its development and early...
bomber version also proved a difficult enemy.
To restore qualitive parity, on 7 March 1942, a contingent of 16 Supermarine Spitfire
Supermarine Spitfire
The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries throughout the Second World War. The Spitfire continued to be used as a front line fighter and in secondary roles into the 1950s...
Mk Vs flew to Malta from the aircraft carrier as part of Operation Spotter. A further run by Eagle delivered nine Spitfires. The reinforcement of Malta by carrier
Club Run
"Club Run" was an informal name for aircraft supply operations to the besieged island of Malta during the Second World War. Malta was the object of determined Axis attempts in 1941-1942 to either force the British military authorities to surrender or to destroy its effectiveness as a military base...
("Club Runs") became more frequent through 1942. Then, and HMS Eagle despatched 47 more (Operation Calendar
Operation Calendar
Operation Calendar in 1942 was an Anglo-American operation in World War II to deliver Spitfire fighter aircraft to Malta. The aircraft were desperately needed to bolster the island's defence against strong Axis air raids.-Background:...
) on 13 April 1942. All but one reached the island. While the Spitfires were a match for the Axis aircraft, many of the ones delivered in March and April were destroyed on the ground and in the air—where they were outnumbered. For instance, for five days in April there was just one Spitfire available to defend the island; for two days there were none. The Germans had watched their delivery, and pressed home heavy attacks. By the 21 April 1942, just 27 Spitfires were still airworthy. By that evening, that had fallen to 17.
The overwhelming Axis bombardments had also substantially eroded Malta's offensive naval and air capabilities. By March–April 1942 it was clear the Luftwaffe had achieved a measure of air superiority. The Regia Aeronautica also pressed home attacks with determination. Often, three to five Italian bombers would fly very low over their targets and drop their bombs with precision, regardless of the RAF attacks and heavy ground fire.
Along with the advantage in the air, the Germans soon discovered that the British submarines were operating from Manoel Island, not Grand Harbour, and exploited their air superiority to eliminate the threat. The base soon came under attack. The vessels had to spend most of their time submerged, and the surrounding flats and residences where crews had enjoyed brief rest periods had to be abandoned. Minelaying by Axis aircraft also caused a steady rise in submarnine losses. By the end of March 1942, 19 submarines had been lost. The effectiveness of the air attacks against Allied naval assets was apparent in the Italian naval records. In April, 150,389 tons of supplies that were sent to North Africa from Italy reached their destination out of a total of 150,578. Hitler's strategy of neutralising Malta by siege was working. Kesselring reported to the German High Command that "There is nothing left to bomb." The determination of the Axis effort against Malta is indicated in the sorties flown. Between 20 March and 28 April 1942, the Germans flew 11,819 sorties against the island and dropped 6,557 tons of bombs (3,150 tons on Valletta). The Germans lost 173 aircraft in the operations.
The Allies moved to increase the number of Spitfires on the island. On 9 May 1942, Wasp and Eagle delivered 64 more Spitfires (Operation Bowery
Operation Bowery
Operation Bowery was an Anglo-American operation in World War II to deliver Spitfire fighter aircraft to Malta . The aircraft were desperately needed to bolster the island's defence against strong Axis air raids.-Background:...
). Malta now had five full Sptifire squadrons; No. 126, 185, 249, 601
No. 601 Squadron RAF
No. 601 Squadron was a squadron of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force, based in London. The squadron battle honours most notably include the Battle of Britain and the first Americans to fly in World War II were members of this squadron.-History:...
and 603 Squadrons
No. 603 Squadron RAF
No. 603 Squadron is a squadron of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force, based in Edinburgh, Scotland. The primary role of 603 Squadron, since reforming on 1 October 1999, has been as a Survive to Operate squadron, as well as providing Force Protection.-Formation and early years:No...
. The impact of the Spitfires was apparent. On 9 May the Italians announced 37 Axis losses. On 10 May 1942, the Axis lost 65 aircraft destroyed or damaged in large air battles over the island. The Hurricanes were able to focus on the Axis bombers and dive-bombers at lower heights, while the Spitfires, with their superior rate of climb, engaged enemy aircraft at higher levels. Between 18 May and 9 June 1942, Eagle made three runs carrying another 76 Spitfires to Malta. With such a force established, the RAF had the firepower to deal harshly with any Axis attacks.
By the spring, 1942, the Axis air forces ranged against the island were at their maximum strength. The main adversaries for the defenders were the 137 Bf 109Fs of JG 53 and II./JG 3 'Udet' and the 80 Macchi C.202s of the 4th and 51st Stormo. Bomber units included 199 Junkers Ju 88
Junkers Ju 88
The Junkers Ju 88 was a World War II German Luftwaffe twin-engine, multi-role aircraft. Designed by Hugo Junkers' company through the services of two American aviation engineers in the mid-1930s, it suffered from a number of technical problems during the later stages of its development and early...
s of II./Lehrgeschwader 1
Lehrgeschwader 1
Lehrgeschwader 1 formerly Lehrgeschwader Greifswald was a Luftwaffe multi-purpose unit during World War II, operating fighter, bomber and dive-bomber Gruppen. The unit was formed in July 1936...
, II and III./Kampfgeschwader 77
Kampfgeschwader 77
Kampfgeschwader 77 was a Luftwaffe bomber wing during World War II.Its units participated on all of the major fronts in the European Theatre until its dissolution in 1944...
, I./Kampfgeschwader 54
Kampfgeschwader 54
Kampfgeschwader 54 "Totenkopf" was a Luftwaffe bomber wing during World War II .Its units participated on all of the fronts in the European Theatre until it was disbanded in May 1945. It operated two of the major German bomber types; the Heinkel He 111 and the Junkers Ju 88...
, and 32 to 40 Ju 87s. However, in May the numerical and technical improvements in the RAF defences wrestled air superiority from the Luftwaffe. By the end of May 1942, Kesselring's forces had been reduced to just 13 serviceable reconnaissance aircraft, six Bf 110s, 30 Bf 109s and 34 bombers (mostly Ju 88s): a total of 83 compared with several hundred aircraft of two months prior.
Axis target convoys
After the battles of May and June, the air attacks were much reduced in August and September. While air superiority had been won back by the RAF, the German pressure had allowed Axis convoys to re-supply Rommel. The island appeared to the Axis forces to be neutralised as a threat to their convoys. Rommel could now look forward to offensive operations with the support of the Luftwaffe in North Africa. At the Battle of GazalaBattle of Gazala
The Battle of Gazala was an important battle of the Second World War Western Desert Campaign, fought around the port of Tobruk in Libya from 26 May-21 June 1942...
he would win a major victory while the Battle of Bir Hakeim
Battle of Bir Hakeim
Bir Hakeim is a remote oasis in the Libyan desert, and the former site of a Turkish fort. During the Battle of Gazala, the 1st Free French Division of General Marie Pierre Kœnig defended the site from 26 May-11 June 1942 against attacking German and Italian forces directed by Lieutenant-General ...
was less successful. Still, he would soon be back in Egypt fighting the First Battle of El Alamein
First Battle of El Alamein
The First Battle of El Alamein was a battle of the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War, fought between Axis forces of the Panzer Army Africa commanded by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, and Allied forces The First Battle of El Alamein (1–27 July 1942) was a battle of the Western Desert...
. Despite the reduction in direct air pressure over Malta itself, the situation on the island was serious. It was running out of all essential commodities, particularly food and water supplies, as the bombing damage had crippled pumps and distribution pipes. Clothing was also hard to come by. All live stock had been slaughtered and the lack of leather meant people were forced to use curtains and used tyres to replace clothing and shoe soles. Though the civilian population was enduring, the threat of starvation was very real. Poor nutrition and sanitation led to the spread of disease. Soldiers’ rations were also reduced, from four to two thousand calories a day. Malta was starting to starve. The British prepared to supply the island with two major convoy operations.
In June, the Royal Navy undertook Operation Harpoon
Operation Harpoon (1942)
Not to be confused with Operation Harpoon Operation Harpoon was one of two simultaneous Allied convoys sent to supply Malta in the Axis-dominated Mediterranean Sea in mid-June 1942, during the Second World War. One convoy, Operation Vigorous, left Alexandria. The other, Operation Harpoon, travelled...
and Operation Vigorous
Operation Vigorous
Operation Vigorous was a World War II Allied operation to deliver a supply convoy that sailed from Haifa and Port Said on 12 June 1942 to Malta. The convoy encountered heavy Axis air and sea opposition and returned to Alexandria on 16 June....
. The two convoys departed for Malta, the former from Gibraltar
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
and the latter from Haifa
Haifa
Haifa is the largest city in northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country, with a population of over 268,000. Another 300,000 people live in towns directly adjacent to the city including the cities of the Krayot, as well as, Tirat Carmel, Daliyat al-Karmel and Nesher...
and Port Said
Port Said
Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787...
. The move was designed to split Axis naval forces attempting to intercept. If one was caught, the other, it was hoped, would get through. AOC Lloyd wanted to give No. 601 Squadron over to convoy escort duty. Although he could afford this diversion, he could only cover the convoy with four Spitfires at one time if he wanted to provide constant cover, as the others would need to be returning and taking off after refuelling. If Axis aircraft attacked as they were withdrawing, they had to stay and fight. Bailing out if the pilots ran low on fuel was the only alternative to landing on Malta. The pilots had to hope that they would be picked up by the ships.
The eastern convoy was forced to turn back after a series of naval and air engagements, despite the British ships still having 20 percent of their ammunition left. It was considered insufficient to see them into Malta. The losses of the convoy were heavy. Among the British losses was HMS Hermione
HMS Hermione (74)
HMS Hermione was a Dido class light cruiser of the Royal Navy, She was built by Alexander Stephen and Sons, , with the keel being laid down on 6 October 1937. She was launched on 18 May 1939, and commissioned 25 March 1941....
. Three other destroyers and two of the 11 merchant vessels were also sunk. Malta did send Bristol Beaufort
Bristol Beaufort
The Bristol Beaufort was a British twin-engined torpedo bomber designed by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, and developed from experience gained designing and building the earlier Blenheim light bomber....
s to engage the Italian fleet and German U-Boats attacking the convoy and they torpedoed and sank a heavy cruiser and damaged a battleship. Two freighters of the western convoy made it to Malta and delivered supplies, making them the only ships out of a total of 17 to deliver their loads – a mere 25,000 tons of supplies. A further 16 Malta-based pilots were lost in the operations.
In August, Operation Pedestal
Operation Pedestal
Operation Pedestal was a British operation to get desperately needed supplies to the island of Malta in August 1942, during the Second World War. Malta was the base from which surface ships, submarines and aircraft attacked Axis convoys carrying essential supplies to the Italian and German armies...
brought vital relief to the besieged island, but at heavy cost. It was attacked by sea, but also air. Some 146 Ju 88s, 72 Bf 109s, 16 Ju 87s, 232 Italian fighters, and 139 Italian bombers (a large number being the highly effective torpedo bomber the Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
The Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 Sparviero was a three-engined Italian medium bomber with a wood and metal structure. Originally designed as a fast passenger aircraft, this low-wing monoplane, in the years 1937–39, set 26 world records that qualified it for some time as the fastest medium bomber in the...
) took part in the action against the convoy. Out of the 14 merchant ships sent, nine were sunk. Moreover, the aircraft carrier
Aircraft carrier
An aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power worldwide without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations...
HMS Eagle, one cruiser and three destroyers were sunk by a combined effort from the Italian Navy, Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe. Nevertheless, the operation was vital in bringing in much-needed war materials and supplies. British destroyers saved 950 of Eagles crew. The Luftwaffe had played the central role against the convoys. at a cost of 16 aircraft.
The surface fleets were not the only supply line to Malta. British submarines also made a substantial effort. One submarine, HMS Clyde
HMS Clyde (N12)
HMS Clyde was an ocean-going submarine of the River Class. She was built by Vickers Armstrong, Barrow and launched on 15 March 1934. Building was completed on 12 April 1935.-Service history:...
, was converted into an underwater supply ship. It weighed 2,000 tons and could reach 18 knots on the surface. She could not go as deep or dive as quickly as the T and U Class types, but it still made nine supply missions to Malta, which was more than any other submarine. The ability of the submarine to carry large loads enabled it to be of great value in the campaign to lift the siege.
Arrival of Keith Park
In July Hugh Pughe Lloyd was relieved of RAF command on Malta. It was felt that a man with past experience of fighter defence operations was needed. For some reason, the Air Staff did not choose to do this earlier, when the bombing ceased in 1941, and the RAF forces on Malta became primarily fighter-armed while the principal aim changed to one of air defence. Air Vice Marshal Keith ParkKeith Park
Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Rodney Park GCB, KBE, MC & Bar, DFC, RAF was a New Zealand soldier, First World War flying ace and Second World War Royal Air Force commander...
replaced Lloyd as AOC. Park arrived on 14 July 1942 by flying boat. He landed in the midst of a raid despite the fact Lloyd had specifically requested he circle the Harbour until it had passed. Lloyd met Park and admonished him for taking an unnecessary risk.
Park had faced Kesselring before during the Battle of Britain
Battle of Britain
The Battle of Britain is the name given to the World War II air campaign waged by the German Air Force against the United Kingdom during the summer and autumn of 1940...
. During that battle, Park had advocated sending small numbers of fighters into battle to meet the enemy. There were three fundamental reasons for this. First, there would always by fighters in the air covering those on the ground if one did not send their entire force to engage at once. Secondly, small numbers were quicker to position and easier to move around. Thirdly, the preservation of his force was critical. The fewer fighters he had in the air (he advocated 16 at most), the smaller target the numerical superior enemy would have. Over Malta he reversed these tactics owing to changed circumstances. With plenty of Spitfires to operate, Park sought to intercept the enemy and break up his formations before the bombers reached the island. Up until this point, the Spitfires had fought defensively. They scrambled and headed south to gain height, then turned around to engage the enemy over the island. Now, with improved radar and quicker take off times (two to three minutes) and improved air-sea rescue, this became possible. Using three squadrons, Park asked the first to engage the escorting fighters by 'bouncing them' out of the sun. The second would strike at the close escort, or, if unescorted, the bombers themselves. The third was to attack the bombers head-on.
The impact of Park's methods was instant. His Forward Interception Plan, issued officially on 25 July 1942, forced the Axis to abandon daylight raids within six days. The Ju 87 Stukas were withdrawn from operations over Malta altogether. Kesselring responded by sending in fighter sweeps at even higher altitudes to gain the tactical advantage. Park retaliated by ordering his fighters to climb no higher than 20,000 feet. While this did give away a considerable height advantage, it forced the Bf 109s to descend to altitudes more suitable for the Spitfire than the German fighter. The methods would have great effect in October when Kesselring returned.
British offensive operations
The submarines of FOS Simpson's 10th Flotilla were on patrol constantly, except for the period May-July 1942, when Kesselring made a considerable effort against their bases. Their success was not easy to achieve, given most of them were the slow U Class types. Supported by S and T Class vessels, they dropped mines. Sea Mines are lighter than water. If they were not kept below the surface by the use of heavy sinkers, they would float, be detected, and destroyed. One of the most successful minelayers was HMS Rorqual, which lay over 1,000 mines and accounted for more than 40,000 tons of Axis shipping. She survived attacks from both an Italian submarine and a U-Boat. Other British submarine commanders became aces while operating from Malta. Commanders Ian McGeoch
Ian McGeoch
Vice-Admiral Sir Ian Lachlan Mackay McGeoch KCB DSO DSC was a commissioned officer in the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom...
(commanding HMS Splendid
HMS Splendid (P228)
HMS Splendid was an S class submarine of the Royal Navy, and part of the Third Group built of that class. She was built at Chatham Dockyard and launched on January 13 1942.-Career:...
), Hugh "Rufus" Mackenzie and David Wanklyn had particular success. Lieutenant Commander Lennox Napier sank the German tanker Wilhelmsburg (7,020 tons). It was one of the few German tankers exporting oil from Romania. The loss of the ship led Hitler to complain directly to Karl Dönitz
Karl Dönitz
Karl Dönitz was a German naval commander during World War II. He started his career in the German Navy during World War I. In 1918, while he was in command of , the submarine was sunk by British forces and Dönitz was taken prisoner...
, while comparing the Kriegsmarine unfavourably with the Royal Navy. Dönitz argued that he did not have the resources to protect the convoy, though the escort of the ship exceeded that which the Allies could have afforded to give a large convoy in the Atlantic at that point in the war. It was fortunate for Dönitz that Hitler did not probe the defence of the ship further.
The submarine proved to be one of the most potent weapons in the British armoury when combating Axis convoys. FOC Simpson, and Captain George Phillips
George Phillips
Private George Phillips was a United States Marine who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for sacrificing his own life to save the lives of fellow Marines on Iwo Jima by throwing himself over an activated hand grenade.-Biography:George Phillips was born in Bates County, Missouri on July...
, who replaced him on 23 January 1943, had much success. The estimated tonnage sunk by British U Class submarines alone was 650,000 tons, with another 400,000 tons damaged. The island base, HMS Talbot, supplied 1,790 torpedoes at that time. The number fired by the 10th Flotilla was 1,289, with a hit rate of 30 per cent.
The Chief of Staff of the DAK, Fritz Bayerlein
Fritz Bayerlein
Fritz Bayerlein was a German panzer general during the Second World War.Fritz Bayerlein was born in Würzburg, Franconia, Germany. During the First World War, Bayerlein was drafted into the 9th Bavarian Infantry in 1917 and fought on the Western front. He was wounded and received an Iron Cross when...
once claimed:
We should have taken Alexandria and reached the Suez Canal had it not been for the work of your submarines.
Patrick Gibbs
Wing Commander Reginald Patrick Mahoney Gibbs DSO DFC & Bar was a Welsh military pilot and journalist. Gibbs fought in World War II and was noted for his specialised torpedo attacks against shipping.-Early history:...
and his unit, No. 39 Squadron
No. 39 Squadron RAF
No. 39 Squadron of the Royal Air Force operates the MQ-9 Reaper since 2007, operating from Creech AFB, Nevada, USA.-World War I:39 Squadron was founded at Hounslow Heath Aerodrome in April 1916 with B.E.2s and Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.12s in an attempt to defend against German Zeppelin raids on...
flew their Beauforts against shipping and increased the pressure on Rommel by attacking his supply lines in September. Rommel's position was now critical. He was starved of his supplies while the British reinforced their lines in Egypt, prior to the Second Battle of El Alamein
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
. He complained to the OKW that he was severely short of ammunition and fuel for offensive action. The Axis organised a convoy to relieve the difficulties. Ultra intercepted the Axis communications and Wellingtons of 69 Squadron confirmed the Axis operation was real. Gibbs' Beauforts sank two ships and one of FOS Simpson's submarines sank a third. Rommel still hoped another tanker, the San Andreas, would deliver the 3,198 tons of fuel needed for the Battle of Alam el Halfa. Rommel did not wait for it to dock, and launched the offensive before its arrival. The ship was sunk by an attack led by Gibbs. Of the nine ships sent, five were sunk by Malta's forces. The Beauforts were having a devastating impact on Axis fuel supplies which were now nearly used up. On 1 September, Rommel was forced to retreat. Kesselring handed over Luftwaffe fuel to Rommel, but this merely denied the German air units the means to protect the ground forces, thereby increasing the effectiveness of British air superiority over the frontline.
In August, Malta's strike forces had contributed to Rommel's difficulties in trying to force an advance into Egypt. In that month, one-third of his supplies and 41 per cent of his fuel was lost. In September 1942, Rommel received only 24 per cent of the 50,000 tons of supplies he needed monthly to continue offensive operations. During September, the Allies sank 33,939 tons of shipping at sea. Many of these supplies had to be brought in via Tripoli, many miles behind the battle front. The lack of food and water caused a sickness rate of 10 per cent among Axis soldiers. The British air-submarine offensive ensured no fuel reached Africa in the first week of October 1942. Two fuel-carrying ships were sunk, and another lost its cargo despite the crew managing to salvage the ship. As the British offensive at El Alamein began on 23 October 1942
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
, ULTRA was gaining a clear picture of the desperate Axis fuel situation. On 25 October three tankers and one cargo ship carrying fuel and ammunition were sent under heavy air and sea escort, and were likely to be the last ships to reach Rommel while he was at El Alamein
El Alamein
El Alamein is a town in the northern Matrouh Governorate of Egypt. Located on the Mediterranean Sea, it lies west of Alexandria and northwest of Cairo. As of 2007, it has a local population of 7,397 inhabitants.- Climate :...
. ULTRA intercepted the planned convoy route, and alerted Malta's air units. The three fuel-carrying vessels were sunk by 28 October. It cost the British one Bristol Beaufighter
Bristol Beaufighter
The Bristol Type 156 Beaufighter, often referred to as simply the Beau, was a British long-range heavy fighter modification of the Bristol Aeroplane Company's earlier Beaufort torpedo bomber design...
, two Beauforts, three (out of six) Blenheim's and one Vickers Wellington
Vickers Wellington
The Vickers Wellington was a British twin-engine, long range medium bomber designed in the mid-1930s at Brooklands in Weybridge, Surrey, by Vickers-Armstrongs' Chief Designer, R. K. Pierson. It was widely used as a night bomber in the early years of the Second World War, before being displaced as a...
. Rommel lost 44 per cent of his supplies on October, a jump from the 20 per cent lost in September.
Siege lifted
By August 1942, 163 Spitfires were on hand to defend Malta, 120 were serviceable. HMS Furious also delivered many Spitfires. On the 11 August, 17 August and 24 October 1942, under the respective actions, Operation Bellows, Operation Baritone and Operation Train, it brought another 85 Spitfires to Malta. Often, the Spitfires were asked to undertake flights of five and a half hours, travelling the same distance of from LondonLondon
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
to Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
. This was achieved using 170-gallon ferry tank. This combined with a 29-gallon tank in the rear fuselage which brought up the total tank capacity to 284 gallons.
Despite the success of Allied convoys in getting through, the month was as bad as any other, combining bombing with food shortages. In response to the threat Malta was now posing to Axis supply lines, the Luftwaffe renewed attacks on Malta in October 1942. Recognising the critical battle was approaching in North Africa (Second Battle of El Alamein
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
), Kesselring organised Fliegerkorps II in Sicily to neutralise the threat once and for all. On 11 October, the defenders were mass equipped with Spitfire Mk VB/Cs. Over 17 days, the Luftwaffe suffered 34 Ju 88s and 12 Bf 109s destroyed and 18 damaged. RAF losses amounted to 23 Spitfires shot down and 20 crash-landed. The British lost 12 pilots killed. On 16 October, it was clear to Kesselring that the defenders were too strong. He called off the offensive. The situation in Africa required German air support, so the October offensive marked the last major effort by the Luftwaffe against Malta.
The losses left the Axis air forces in a depleted state. They could not offer the air support Rommel needed at the frontline. The situation on the island was still stringent going in to November, but Park's victory in the air battle was soon followed by news of a major success at the front. At El Alamein the British had broken through and by the 5 November were advancing rapidly westward. News soon reached Malta of Operation Torch
Operation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
, the Allied landing in Vichy French Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
and Algeria
Algeria
Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
on 8 November. Some 11 days later, the Soviet victory in the Battle of Stalingrad
Battle of Stalingrad
The Battle of Stalingrad was a major battle of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad in southwestern Russia. The battle took place between 23 August 1942 and 2 February 1943...
increased morale even more. The extent to which the success in North Africa benefited Malta was apparent when a convoy (Operation Stoneage) passed through into Malta from Alexandria on 20 November virtually unscathed. This convoy is seen as the end of the two-year siege of Malta. On 6 December, another supply convoy under the codename Operation Portcullis
Operation Portcullis
Operation Portcullis was a British naval operation to deliver a convoy of four merchant ships to the Mediterranean island of Malta. It occurred during November and December 1942, at a time when the strategic situation in the region had radically changed in the Allies' favour and convoys were under...
reached Malta without suffering any losses. After that, ships sailed to Malta without joining convoys. The capture of North African airfields and the bonus of having air protection all the way to the island enabled the ships to deliver 35,000 tons. In early December, another 55,000 tons arrived. The last air raid over Malta occurred on 20 July 1943. It was the 3,340th alert since 11 June 1940.
Allied warship losses
- One battleshipBattleshipA battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of heavy caliber guns. Battleships were larger, better armed and armored than cruisers and destroyers. As the largest armed ships in a fleet, battleships were used to attain command of the sea and represented the apex of a...
- Two aircraft carrierAircraft carrierAn aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power worldwide without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations...
s:
,
- Five cruisers:
, , , ,
- 19 destroyers:
, , , , , , , , , , , Kujawiak
Kujawiak
The Kujawiak is a Polish folk dance from the region of Kujawy in central Poland . It is one of the five national dances of Poland, the others being the krakowiak, mazur, oberek, and polonaise.The music is in triple meter and fairly slow...
(Polish Navy
Polish Navy
The Marynarka Wojenna Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej - MW RP Polish Navy, is the branch of Republic of Poland Armed Forces responsible for naval operations...
), , , , , (Royal Australian Navy
Royal Australian Navy
The Royal Australian Navy is the naval branch of the Australian Defence Force. Following the Federation of Australia in 1901, the ships and resources of the separate colonial navies were integrated into a national force: the Commonwealth Naval Forces...
), and .
- British submarine losses amounted to 38:
, , , , , , , , , , , P222, P311, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . The Free French submarine
Submarine
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability...
Narwhal and Greek Navy vessel Glaukos, were also lost.
Infrastructure damage
In the tiny but densely populated island, 5,524 private dwellings were destroyed, 9,925 damaged but reparable, and 14,225 damaged by bomb blast. In addition 111 Churches, 50 HospitalHospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment. Hospitals often, but not always, provide for inpatient care or longer-term patient stays....
s, institutions or college
College
A college is an educational institution or a constituent part of an educational institution. Usage varies in English-speaking nations...
s, 36 theatre
Theatre
Theatre is a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music or dance...
s, clubs, government offices, bank
Bank
A bank is a financial institution that serves as a financial intermediary. The term "bank" may refer to one of several related types of entities:...
s, factories, flour mills and other commercial buildings suffered destruction or damage — a total of 30,000 building in all.
Axis shipping losses
Total Axis losses in the Mediterranean were heavy. Human casualties amounted to 17,240 personnel at sea. In supplies, the Axis lost 315090 ST (285,844.8 t). This was more than reached Malta. The Allied Navies sank 773 Axis ships, totalling 1342789 LT (1,364,340.8 t). Mines sank another 179 ships of 214109 LT (217,545.4 t) in total. The Navies and Air Forces shared in the destruction of 25 ships for 106050 LT (107,752.1 t), and Air Forces sank 1,326 ships, for a total of 1466208 LT (1,489,740.6 t). Mines and Naval craft shared a further ship destroyed between them, accounting for 1778 LT (1,806.5 t). In all, 2,304 Axis ships were sunk, with a combined displacement of 3130969 LT (3,181,221.1 t).Below is a table charting Axis losses in shipping to Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
, June 1940–January 1943:
| Month | Personnel Shipped | Personnel Reached | Supplies shipped | Supplies reached |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| June | 1,358 | 1,308 | 3,618 | 3,608 |
| July | 6,407 | 6,407 | 40,875 | 40,875 |
| August | 1,221 | 1,221 | 50,669 | 50,669 |
| September | 4,602 | 4,602 | 53,669 | 53,669 |
| October | 2,823 | 2,823 | 29,306 | 29,306 |
| November | 3,157 | 3,157 | 60,778 | 60,778 |
| December | 9,731 | 9,731 | 65,556 | 58,574 |
| Month | Personnel Shipped | Personnel Reached | Supplies shipped | Supplies reached |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| January | 12,491 | 12,214 | 50,505 | 49,084 |
| February | 19,557 | 19,557 | 80,357 | 79,173 |
| March | 20,975 | 20,184 | 101,800 | 92,753 |
| April | 20,698 | 19,926 | 88,597 | 81,472 |
| May | 12,552 | 9,958 | 73,367 | 69,331 |
| June | 12,886 | 12,886 | 133,331 | 125,076 |
| July | 16,141 | 15,767 | 77,012 | 62,276 |
| August | 18,288 | 16,753 | 96,021 | 83,956 |
| September | 12,717 | 6,603 | 94,115 | 67,513 |
| October | 4,046 | 3,541 | 92,449 | 73,614 |
| November | 4,872 | 4,628 | 79,208 | 29,843 |
| December | 1,748 | 1,074 | 47,680 | 39,092 |
| Month | Personnel Shipped | Personnel Reached | Supplies shipped | Supplies reached |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| January | 2,840 | 1,355 | 66,214 | 66,170 |
| February | 531 | 531 | 59,468 | 58,965 |
| March | 391 | 284 | 57,541 | 47,588 |
| April | 1,349 | 1,349 | 151,578 | 150,389 |
| May | 4,396 | 4,241 | 93,188 | 86,439 |
| June | 1,474 | 1,249 | 41,519 | 32,327 |
| July | 4,566 | 4,435 | 97,794 | 91, 491 |
| August | 1,281 | 790 | 77,134 | 51,655 |
| September | 1,367 | 959 | 96,903 | 77,526 |
| October | 1,011 | 631 | 83,695 | 46,698 |
| November | 1,031 | 1,031 | 85,970 | 63,736 |
| December | 5 | 5 | 12,981 | 6,151 |
See also
- Malta ConvoysMalta ConvoysThe Malta Convoys were a series of Allied supply convoys that sustained the besieged island of Malta during the Mediterranean Theatre of the Second World War...
- Military history of Gibraltar during World War IIMilitary history of Gibraltar during World War IIThe military history of Gibraltar during World War II exemplifies Gibraltar's position as a British fortress since the early 18th century and as a vital factor in British military strategy, both as a foothold on the continent of Europe, and as a bastion of British sea power...
- Adrian WarburtonAdrian WarburtonWing Commander Adrian "Warby" Warburton DSO & Bar, DFC & Two Bars was a Royal Air Force pilot during World War II. He became legendary in the RAF for his role in the defence of Malta...
, RAF pilot who conducted reconnaissance missions from the island. - George BeurlingGeorge BeurlingGeorge Frederick "Buzz" Beurling DSO, DFC, DFM & Bar, RCAF , was the most successful Canadian fighter pilot of the Second World War....
, RAF fighter pilot who claimed 27 victories while defending Malta.