Malta Convoys
Encyclopedia
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
supply convoy
Convoy
A convoy is a group of vehicles, typically motor vehicles or ships, traveling together for mutual support and protection. Often, a convoy is organized with armed defensive support, though it may also be used in a non-military sense, for example when driving through remote areas.-Age of Sail:Naval...
s that sustained the besieged island of Malta during the Mediterranean Theatre of the Second World War
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. The convoys were strongly opposed by Italian and German
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
naval and air forces during the Battle of the Mediterranean
Battle of the Mediterranean
The Battle of the Mediterranean was the name given to the naval campaign fought in the Mediterranean Sea during World War II, from 10 June 1940-2 May 1945....
.
Malta's significance was its position as a strategic base from which British sea and air forces could interrupt the flow of men and materiel
Materiel
Materiel is a term used in English to refer to the equipment and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management....
to the Axis
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
armies in north Africa, which in turn threatened Egypt, the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
and, potentially, British controlled oilfields in the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. Its strategic importance was such that Britain took great risks and suffered severe naval lossesBritish and allied losses included one battleship , two aircraft carriers ( and ), cruisers, destroyers and smaller craft. in order to keep possession. Italy's failure to subdue Malta and military disasters in Libya and Greece led to German intervention in the Mediterranean. German bombers and submarines tightened the sea blockade and Malta's situation worsened. As well as set piece, heavily defended convoys, small quantities of important supplies and personnel were sent by fast warships (usually s) and by submarine. Fighter aircraft were critical to the island's defence and quantities of Hawker Hurricane
Hawker Hurricane
The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd for the Royal Air Force...
s and Supermarine Spitfire
Supermarine Spitfire
The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries throughout the Second World War. The Spitfire continued to be used as a front line fighter and in secondary roles into the 1950s...
s were transported to within flying distance, known as "Club Run
Club Run
"Club Run" was an informal name for aircraft supply operations to the besieged island of Malta during the Second World War. Malta was the object of determined Axis attempts in 1941-1942 to either force the British military authorities to surrender or to destroy its effectiveness as a military base...
s".
The critical period was during mid 1942, when the island desperately needed supplies such as fuel and food and it had temporarily ceased to be an effective offensive base. The situation eased later in 1942, particularly as Allied armies advanced from Egypt after El Alamein
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
and from north west Africa after Operation Torch
Operation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
, allowing greater air protection to supply convoys.
Background
MaltaMalta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
's geographical position, halfway between the strategic British bases at Gibraltar
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
and Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, close to the Sicilian Channel
Strait of Sicily
The Strait of Sicily is the strait between Sicily and Tunisia. It is about wide and divides the Tyrrhenian Sea and the western Mediterranean Sea from the eastern Mediterranean. Its maximum depth is ....
between Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
and Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
and on the sea route between Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and its possessions in Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
, made it a vital base for control of the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
routes. For Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, this was the short route, via the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
, to its colonies in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, East Africa and the Far East and also to the major oil producers, Iraq
Kingdom of Iraq
The Kingdom of Iraq was the sovereign state of Iraq during and after the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. The League of Nations mandate started in 1920. The kingdom began in August 1921 with the coronation of Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi as King Faisal I...
and Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
.Iran would be occupied in 1941
Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran was the Allied invasion of the Imperial State of Iran during World War II, by British, Commonwealth, and Soviet armed forces. The invasion from August 25 to September 17, 1941, was codenamed Operation Countenance...
to secure oilfields and obtain a supply route to the Soviet Union.
During the first year of the war, however, this region was a military backwater. Much of the coast was under Allied control — either French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
or British: the rest was neutral
Neutrality (international relations)
A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
. Moreover, the British and French fleets dominated; the only other effective regional naval power was Italy, but at this time she was neutral. As a result, British defences on Malta were neglected.
Italy declares war
Italy at first held back from supporting GermanyGermany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
; the outcome in northern Europe was uncertain and no decision was required. When the German blitzkrieg
Blitzkrieg
For other uses of the word, see: Blitzkrieg Blitzkrieg is an anglicized word describing all-motorised force concentration of tanks, infantry, artillery, combat engineers and air power, concentrating overwhelming force at high speed to break through enemy lines, and, once the lines are broken,...
had crushed the French army
French Army
The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre , is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces.As of 2010, the army employs 123,100 regulars, 18,350 part-time reservists and 7,700 Legionnaires. All soldiers are professionals, following the suspension of conscription, voted in...
and Britain had been weakened and isolated, Italy took its opportunity
Italian invasion of France
The Italian invasion of France in June 1940 was a small-scale invasion that started near the end of the Battle of France during World War II. The goal of the Italian offensive was to take control of the Alps mountain range and the region around Nice, and to win the colonies in North Africa...
and declared war on the Allies
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
on 10 June 1940, expecting an easy and quick victory. Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
believed the British would accept peace agreements with the Axis, after France's surrender, and did not anticipate a long lasting war. Consequently, Italy entered the war inadequately prepared.
The opportunity was missed by the Italians to occupy poorly defended Malta in June 1940: Admiral Carlo Bergamini
Carlo Bergamini (admiral)
Carlo Bergamini was an Italian admiral.-Early life:Born in San Felice sul Panaro, Bergamini became a Guardiamarina in 1908. He participated in the Italian-Turkish war as an officer on the armoured cruiser Vettor Pisani. During World War I, he was the chief of artillery on the cruiser Pisa...
later claimed that he had proposed to send the "Taranto Naval Squadron" to occupy the island, but had been told to postpone the attack. He later regretted (in 1943) the lost opportunity to control the central Mediterranean and thus reduce the heavy losses suffered when supplying Italian forces in Libya.
Italy's entry into the war, and the defeat of France, radically altered the balance of power in the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
. Britain controlled only Gibraltar in the west; Malta at the centre; and Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
, Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
, and Palestine in the east. Vichy France
Vichy France
Vichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
was susceptible to Axis pressure. So the coast of North Africa from Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
to Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
, the island of Corsica
Corsica
Corsica is an island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is located west of Italy, southeast of the French mainland, and north of the island of Sardinia....
, the coast of Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
and Lebanon
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
, and the Mediterranean coast of France itself were closed to the British and possibly hostile. The French fleet itself also became a potential threat and had to be neutralised leading to Operation Catapult. The destruction of the French fleet further hardened French antipathy
Antipathy
Antipathy is dislike for something or somebody, the opposite of sympathy. While antipathy may be induced by previous experience, it sometimes exists without a rational cause-and-effect explanation being present to the individuals involved....
towards Britain.
Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
was also a potential Axis partner. The Fascist and Nazi governments in Italy and Germany had enthusiastically supported General Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco y Bahamonde was a Spanish general, dictator and head of state of Spain from October 1936 , and de facto regent of the nominally restored Kingdom of Spain from 1947 until his death in November, 1975...
in the Spanish Civil War
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil WarAlso known as The Crusade among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War among Carlists, and The Rebellion or Uprising among Republicans. was a major conflict fought in Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939...
and might expect support in return
Spain in World War II
The Spanish State under General Franco was officially non-belligerent during World War II. This status, although not recognised by international law, was intended to express the regime's sympathy and material support for the Axis Powers, to which Spain offered considerable material, economic, and...
.
Italy and its possessions dominated the central Mediterranean and Mussolini wanted some victories in North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
against the British forces in Egypt. There was also the potential of linking with Italian possessions in East Africa
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
: Abyssinia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
, Italian Somaliland
Italian Somaliland
Italian Somaliland , also known as Italian Somalia, was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy from the 1880s until 1936 in the region of modern-day Somalia. Ruled in the 19th century by the Somali Sultanate of Hobyo and the Majeerteen Sultanate, the territory was later acquired by Italy through various...
, and Eritrea
Eritrea
Eritrea , officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea derives it's name from the Greek word Erethria, meaning 'red land'. The capital is Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast...
. But this did not occur. The Italian Army
Italian Army
The Italian Army is the ground defence force of the Italian Armed Forces. It is all-volunteer force of active-duty personnel, numbering 108,355 in 2010. Its best-known combat vehicles are the Dardo infantry fighting vehicle, the Centauro tank destroyer and the Ariete tank, and among its aircraft...
in North Africa was poorly equipped and poorly commanded. In September 1940, the Italians invaded Egypt
Italian invasion of Egypt
The Italian Invasion of Egypt was an Italian offensive action against British, Commonwealth and Free French forces during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. Initially, the goal of the offensive was to seize the Suez Canal. To accomplish this, Italian forces from Libya would have...
but did not advance far beyond the border. In December, during Operation Compass
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
, the Italian forces in Egypt and Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica is the eastern coastal region of Libya.Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca...
were captured, routed, or destroyed.
Control of the sea routes remained vital. British naval and air forces based on Malta threatened and destroyed supplies for Italy's African army. Malta acted as a forward defence for the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
. The Italians still thought the Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
(Italian Royal Air Force) and the Regia Marina
Regia Marina
The Regia Marina dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 after Italian unification...
(Italian Royal Navy) would quickly isolate the island and neutralise it.
Malta's supply line was crucial. Malta needed reinforcements. The garrison had to be sustained; and the air and naval forces needed fuel. The civilian population also had to be provided for. Everything had to come by sea, exposed to air and naval attack for long stretches. The Italians attempted to starve Malta and destroy its defences.
They failed. During 1940, without air cover from French territories, several supply convoys arrived safely at Malta, and other convoys passed directly between Gibraltar and Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
. The attacks the Italian Navy attempted were repulsed without serious loss. Even worse for the Italians, Fleet Air Arm
Fleet Air Arm
The Fleet Air Arm is the branch of the British Royal Navy responsible for the operation of naval aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm currently operates the AgustaWestland Merlin, Westland Sea King and Westland Lynx helicopters...
aircraft sank three Italian battleships in the harbour at Taranto
Battle of Taranto
The naval Battle of Taranto took place on the night of 11–12 November 1940 during the Second World War. The Royal Navy launched the first all-aircraft ship-to-ship naval attack in history, flying a small number of obsolescent biplane torpedo bombers from an aircraft carrier in the Mediterranean Sea...
, negating one of the Italians' advantages.
German involvement
In January 1941, responding to the serious situation of Italian forces after the loss of CyrenaicaCyrenaica
Cyrenaica is the eastern coastal region of Libya.Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca...
(Operation Compass
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
), the Germans sent help. The Afrika Korps
Afrika Korps
The German Africa Corps , or the Afrika Korps as it was popularly called, was the German expeditionary force in Libya and Tunisia during the North African Campaign of World War II...
was formed and sent to Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
in Operation Sonnenblume
Operation Sonnenblume
Operation Sonnenblume was the deployment of German troops to North Africa in February 1941, during the Second World War...
(Operation Sunflower), and X. Fliegerkorps
10th Air Corps (Germany)
X. FliegerkorpsFor more details see Luftwaffe Organization was a formation of the German Luftwaffe in World War II, which specialised in coastal operations. It was formed 2 October 1939, in Hamburg from the 10...
of the German Air Force (Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
) was moved to Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
in Operation Mittelmeer (Operation Mediterranean) to protect the Axis shipping lanes and to defeat the British forces in Malta.
German involvement was not only more vigorous than the Italian, but because of the occupation of Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
and Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
, it had a greater reach into the eastern Mediterranean. British forces came under increased threat. The pressure built and, in early 1942, Malta ceased to be an effective anti-convoy base. Several warships were sunk in harbour and others were withdrawn. Supplies dwindled with the loss of convoys.
In August 1942, when Malta was near capitulation, the Italians and Germans planned the invasion of Malta (Operation C3 and Operation Herkules
Operation Herkules
Operation Herkules was the German code-name given to a planned but never-executed Italo-German invasion of Malta during World War II...
). It was not done because Rommel
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel , popularly known as the Desert Fox , was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought....
(after the conquest of Tobruk
Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
) preferred to attack Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
in Egypt.
July 1940
The inconclusive Battle of CalabriaBattle of Calabria
The Battle of Calabria, was a naval battle during the Battle of the Mediterranean in World War II. It was fought between the Italian Royal Navy and the British Royal Navy and the Royal Australian Navy. The battle occurred 30 miles to the east of Punta Stilo, the "toe" of Italy , on 9 July 1940...
took place between the Royal Navy (the battleships , and and the aircraft carrier with cruisers and destroyers) covering convoys from Malta to Alexandria and the Regia Marina
Regia Marina
The Regia Marina dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 after Italian unification...
escorts (two battleships, 14 cruisers and 32 destroyers) of an Italian convoy.
August 1940 – Operation Hurry
Twelve Hurricanes were flown off the carrier to Malta. This was the first so-called "Club RunClub Run
"Club Run" was an informal name for aircraft supply operations to the besieged island of Malta during the Second World War. Malta was the object of determined Axis attempts in 1941-1942 to either force the British military authorities to surrender or to destroy its effectiveness as a military base...
" to reinforce the air defences.
September 1940 – Operation Hats
The Mediterranean Fleet escorted a fast convoy of three transports (carrying 40000 ST (36,287.4 t) of supplies including reinforcements and ammunition for the island's anti-aircraft defences) from Alexandria and collected another convoy from Gibraltar. En route, Italian airbases were raided. The Regia Marina had superior forces at sea, but missed the opportunity to exploit their advantage.October 1940
The heavily-escorted Convoy MB6 from Alexandria reached Malta safely. The escort included four battleships and two aircraft carriers. An Italian attempt against the returning escort employing destroyers and torpedo boats ended in the Battle of Cape PasseroBattle of Cape Passero (1940)
The Battle of Cape Passero , was a Second World War naval engagement between the British light cruiser and seven torpedo boats and destroyers of the Regia Marina, southeast of Sicily, in the early hours of 12 October 1940...
, favourable to the British.
November 1940 – Operations Judgement, White and Collar
A supply convoy from Alexandria arrived safely, coinciding with a troop convoy from Gibraltar and the air attack on the Italian battlefleet at Taranto (Operation Judgement).Twelve Hurricanes were flown off Argus to reinforce Malta (Operation White
Operation White
Operation White was a British attempt to deliver 14 aircraft—12 Hawker Hurricane fighters and two Blackburn Skua dive bombers—to Malta from the aircraft carrier , on 17 November 1940. The operation was thwarted by the presence of the Italian Fleet at sea, which prompted a premature take-off of the...
), but the threat of the Italian fleet lurking south of Sardinia
Sardinia
Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is an autonomous region of Italy, and the nearest land masses are the French island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia and the Spanish Balearic Islands.The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *sard[],...
prompted a premature fly-off from Argus and its return to Gibraltar. Eight of the planes ran out of fuel and ditched at sea. Seven pilots were lost.
A fast convoy sailed from Gibraltar to Malta and Alexandria (Operation Collar). It was attacked by the Italian fleet at Cape Spartivento
Battle of Cape Spartivento
The Battle of Cape Spartivento, known as the Battle of Cape Teulada in Italy, was a naval battle during the Battle of the Mediterranean in the Second World War...
. All transports arrived safely.
January 1941 - Operation Excess
Operation ExcessOperation Excess
Operation Excess was a series of supply convoys to Malta, Alexandria and Greece in January 1941.On 6 January, convoy Excess left Gibraltar for Malta and Greece, covered by the Gibraltar based Force H. Simultaneously, the Mediterranean Fleet from Alexandria covered more supply ships from...
took place — a sequence of simultaneous supply and empty return convoys between Malta and Gibraltar and Alexandria. The transports arrived safely with 10000 ST (9,071.8 t) of supplies, but the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
lost a cruiser , with another cruiser and an aircraft carrier badly damaged and a destroyer damaged beyond repair.The damage to Illustrious was severe, but after repairs at Alexandria and in the U.S., she returned to active service in May 1943. was mined off Pantellaria and towed to Malta where she was later sunk as a blockship. This was the first action to involve the Luftwaffe. The Italian torpedo boat Vega was sunk in the course of the operations.
April 1941
In two separate operations, the British reinforced Malta's air defences. Twenty-four Hurricanes were flown off , sailing from Gibraltar, coded Operation Dunlop. Bristol BlenheimBristol Blenheim
The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...
s and Beaufighter
Bristol Beaufighter
The Bristol Type 156 Beaufighter, often referred to as simply the Beau, was a British long-range heavy fighter modification of the Bristol Aeroplane Company's earlier Beaufort torpedo bomber design...
s were also flown in. Three battleships and an aircraft carrier covered the fast transport from Alexandria to Malta.
Malta's importance as a base was emphasized by the complete destruction of an Afrika Korps convoy and its Italian escort
Battle of the Tarigo Convoy
The Battle of the Tarigo Convoy was fought on 16 April 1941 between four British and three Italian destroyers during the Mediterranean Campaign, in World War II...
near the Kerkennah Islands
Kerkennah Islands
Kerkennah Islands are a group of islands lying off the east coast of Tunisia in the Gulf of Gabes, at . The Islands are low-lying being no more than 13 metres above sea level. The main islands are Chergui and Gharbi. The archipelago has an area of 160 km2 and a population of 14,400...
off Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
.
May 1941 – Operations Tiger and Splice
An urgent supply convoy from Gibraltar to Alexandria (Operation Tiger) coincided with reinforcements for the Mediterranean Fleet, two small convoys from Egypt to Malta, and 48 more Hurricanes flown off HMS Ark Royal and (Operation Splice). The only loss was the 9200 LT (9,347.7 t) cargo ship , which hit a mine and sank with a cargo of 57 tanks, 10 aircraft and several trucks.Tiger was transporting tanks (Matildas and the new Crusader tank
Crusader tank
The Tank, Cruiser, Mk VI or A15 Crusader was one of the primary British cruiser tanks of the early part Second World War and perhaps the most important British tank of the North African Campaign...
s) needed for the operations in North Africa, these had been intended to be sent via the Cape but were diverted via the Mediterranean. Over 200 tanks reached Alexandria on 12 May.
The Luftwaffe transferred much of its strength from Sicily to prepare for the invasion of the USSR
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that began on 22 June 1941. Over 4.5 million troops of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a front., the largest invasion in the history of warfare...
, relieving some of the pressure on Malta.
The Malta-based submarine attacked and sank the large Italian troop transport .
June 1941 – Operation Tracer
Supply convoys became very difficult, with convoys from Alexandria under attack from Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica bases in Crete and Libya, while convoys from Gibraltar were attacked from SardiniaSardinia
Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is an autonomous region of Italy, and the nearest land masses are the French island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia and the Spanish Balearic Islands.The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *sard[],...
and Sicily. Submarines were used to bring in urgent supplies.
On 14 June, HMS Ark Royal and the new carrier , coming east from Gibraltar, flew off 46 Hurricanes to Malta, 42 of which arrived safely.
July 1941 – Operation Substance
Six transports ran from Gibraltar to Malta, escorted by six destroyers and covered by Ark Royal, , , cruisers, and destroyers (Operation SubstanceOperation Substance
Operation Substance was a British naval operation in July 1941 during the Second World War to escort a convoy from Gibraltar to Malta.The convoy was escorted by six destroyers and covered by aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, the battlecruiser HMS Renown and the battleship HMS Nelson along with...
). On 23 July, south of Sardinia, there were sustained Italian air attacks. One cruiser was hit and a destroyer sunk. The 12000 LT (12,192.6 t) steamer was torpedoed by an Italian MAS boat
MAS (boat)
Motoscafo Armato Silurante , commonly abbreviated as MAS was a class of fast torpedo armed vessel used by the Regia Marina during World War I and World War II...
and crippled, but the destroyer assisted her safe arrival to harbour. She was seaworthy again by September. All the transports eventually reached Malta. An Italian raid to sink the transports in Grand Harbour
Grand Harbour
Grand Harbour is a natural harbour on the island of Malta. It has been used as a harbour since at least Phoenician times...
failed and 65000 ST (58,967 t) of supplies were landed.
September 1941 - Operations Status I and Status II
Ark Royal and Furious flew off over 50 Hurricanes to Malta in two separate operations.Two 19000 LT (19,305 t) Italian transports — the and — were sunk by the submarine Upholder.
September 1941 – Operation Halberd
Nine transports ran from Gibraltar to Malta, escorted by , , and (Operation HalberdOperation Halberd
-Summary:During World War II, Operation Halberd was a British naval operation in September 1941 to escort a convoy from Gibraltar to Malta....
). The Italians sailed to intercept but aborted and returned home. The British capital ships returned to Gibraltar, with Nelson damaged by a torpedo. The 10000 LT (10,160.5 t) transport was sunk by an aerial torpedo
Aerial torpedo
The aerial torpedo, airborne torpedo or air-dropped torpedo is a naval weapon, the torpedo, designed to be dropped into water from an aircraft after which it propels itself to the target. First used in World War I, air-dropped torpedoes were used extensively in World War II, and remain in limited...
, but the rest of the convoy reached Malta and landed 85000 ST (77,110.7 t) of supplies.
October 1941
Force K was formed at Malta to strike at Axis shipping. It consisted of the cruisers and , and the destroyers and .November 1941
Force K intercepted an Italian convoy off Cape Spartivento and sank all seven transports. Two Italian destroyers were also sunk.More Hurricanes were flown off from Ark Royal and Argus, sailing from Gibraltar (Operation Perpetual, 10–12 November 1941). On the return leg, Ark Royal was torpedoed by and sank the next day.
An attempt to resupply Malta (Operation Astrologer, 14–15 November 1941) by two unescorted freighters, and Empire Pelican, ended in the sinking of both ships by Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
The Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 Sparviero was a three-engined Italian medium bomber with a wood and metal structure. Originally designed as a fast passenger aircraft, this low-wing monoplane, in the years 1937–39, set 26 world records that qualified it for some time as the fastest medium bomber in the...
torpedo-bombers south of Galite Islands
Galite Islands
The Galite Islands are a rocky group of islands of volcanic origin that belong to Bizerte Governorate, northern Tunisia...
.
December 1941 – First Battle of Sirte
An Italian battlefleet covered a convoy bound for BenghaziBenghazi
Benghazi is the second largest city in Libya, the main city of the Cyrenaica region , and the former provisional capital of the National Transitional Council. The wider metropolitan area is also a district of Libya...
. A flotilla from Alexandria planned to link with Force K from Malta, but the submarine torpedoed and damaged the and the Italians retired.
was escorted from Malta by Force B to rendezvous with Force K near the Gulf of Sirte
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Sidra is a body of water in the Mediterranean Sea on the northern coast of Libya; it is also known as Gulf of Sirte or the Great Sirte or Greater Syrtis .- Geography :The Gulf of Sidra has been a major centre for tuna fishing in the Mediterranean for centuries...
. Soon after, the British came across Italian battleships escorting a convoy to Tripoli
Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Western Tripoli , to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean , describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli is a Greek name that means "Three...
. The ensuing engagement is known as the First Battle of Sirte
First Battle of Sirte
The First Battle of Sirte was fought between the British Royal Navy and the Regia Marina during the Mediterranean campaign of the Second World War. The engagement took place on 17 December 1941, southeast of Malta, in the Gulf of Sirte...
.
After seeing Breconshire safely into Malta, Force K sailed again to search for the Tripoli convoy. While off Tripoli, they ran into a minefield. and were sunk, and and were damaged.
January 1942
Three small convoys arrived at Malta from Alexandria. One escorting destroyer, was torpedoed by German submarine and sank.Two large Italian convoys got through to North Africa.
February 1942
During the continuing heavy German air raids, was sunk in Malta's Grand HarbourGrand Harbour
Grand Harbour is a natural harbour on the island of Malta. It has been used as a harbour since at least Phoenician times...
.
Three transports from Alexandria (Operation MF5) failed to reach Malta. was sunk by Axis aircraft, was bombed and forced to seek shelter in Tobruk
Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....
, and was disabled. Rowallan Castle was scuttled by after the escort was warned that the had sailed from Taranto to intercept the convoy.
March 1942 – Operation Spotter
Carriers Eagle and Argus successfully flew off the first Spitfire reinforcements for Malta. An earlier attempt had been abandoned due to technical problems.March 1942 – Operation MG 1 and the Second Battle of Sirte
The convoy was intercepted and effectively scattered by the Italian fleet, despite a spirited and successful defence against the battleship . Two transports were sunk at sea by the Luftwaffe, while the British MS Pampas and the Norwegian MS Talabot reached Malta. Both of them, however, were sunk at anchor in Valetta harbour by Axis aircraft before unloading was completed. Only 5000 ST (4,535.9 t) of supplies were landed safely. A number of British destroyers were seriously damaged during the engagement.
April 1942 – Operation Calendar
The island had ceased to be an effective offensive base, and Axis convoys were mostly untroubled. Several submarines and destroyers were bombed and sunk in harbour, and naval units were ordered to leave for Gibraltar or Alexandria. Not all arrived safely.Forty-seven Spitfires were flown off to Malta from the American
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
carrier (Operation Calendar
Operation Calendar
Operation Calendar in 1942 was an Anglo-American operation in World War II to deliver Spitfire fighter aircraft to Malta. The aircraft were desperately needed to bolster the island's defence against strong Axis air raids.-Background:...
), escorted by the battlecruiser , cruisers and , and six British and U.S. destroyers. Most of these aircraft were destroyed on the ground by bombing.
May 1942 – Operations Bowery and LB
The submarine struck a mine and sank while leaving Malta with the survivors of submarines , and on board.Sixty-four Spitfires were flown off to Malta from Wasp and Eagle (Operation Bowery
Operation Bowery
Operation Bowery was an Anglo-American operation in World War II to deliver Spitfire fighter aircraft to Malta . The aircraft were desperately needed to bolster the island's defence against strong Axis air raids.-Background:...
). A second batch of 16 were flown in from Eagle (Operation LB).
June 1942 – Operation Style
On 20 May, departed from Milford HavenMilford Haven
Milford Haven is a town and community in Pembrokeshire, Wales. It is situated on the north side of the Milford Haven Waterway, a natural harbour used as a port since the Middle Ages. The town was founded in 1790 on the north side of the Waterway, from which it takes its name...
, Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
with a cargo of 32 Spitfires in cases. The aircraft were all Spitfire Mk VcT. Also on board were the ground crew who were to assemble them, a total of over 110 men. Empire Conrad was escorted by the 29th ML Flotilla and the corvette
Corvette
A corvette is a small, maneuverable, lightly armed warship, originally smaller than a frigate and larger than a coastal patrol craft or fast attack craft , although many recent designs resemble frigates in size and role...
. The convoy was later joined by the Minesweeper
Minesweeper (ship)
A minesweeper is a small naval warship designed to counter the threat posed by naval mines. Minesweepers generally detect then neutralize mines in advance of other naval operations.-History:...
s and . Empire Conrad arrived at Gibraltar
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
on 27 May. The aircraft were transferred to the aircraft carrier where they were assembled. On 2 June, Eagle departed from Gibraltar escorted by the cruiser and destroyers , , , and . On 3 June, the aircraft were flown off Eagle bound for Malta. Twenty-eight of them arrived safely, with the other four being shot down en route.
June 1942 – Operations Harpoon and Vigorous
The arrival of more Spitfires from Eagle and the transfer of German aircraft to the Russian FrontEastern Front (World War II)
The Eastern Front of World War II was a theatre of World War II between the European Axis powers and co-belligerent Finland against the Soviet Union, Poland, and some other Allies which encompassed Northern, Southern and Eastern Europe from 22 June 1941 to 9 May 1945...
eased the pressure on Malta, but supplies were needed.
Two convoys sailed simultaneously: one of 11 transports from Haifa
Haifa
Haifa is the largest city in northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country, with a population of over 268,000. Another 300,000 people live in towns directly adjacent to the city including the cities of the Krayot, as well as, Tirat Carmel, Daliyat al-Karmel and Nesher...
, Palestine
Mandate Palestine
Mandate Palestine existed while the British Mandate for Palestine, which formally began in September 1923 and terminated in May 1948, was in effect...
and Port Said
Port Said
Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787...
, Egypt (Operation Vigorous
Operation Vigorous
Operation Vigorous was a World War II Allied operation to deliver a supply convoy that sailed from Haifa and Port Said on 12 June 1942 to Malta. The convoy encountered heavy Axis air and sea opposition and returned to Alexandria on 16 June....
), and one of six transports from Gibraltar (Operation Harpoon
Operation Harpoon (1942)
Not to be confused with Operation Harpoon Operation Harpoon was one of two simultaneous Allied convoys sent to supply Malta in the Axis-dominated Mediterranean Sea in mid-June 1942, during the Second World War. One convoy, Operation Vigorous, left Alexandria. The other, Operation Harpoon, travelled...
). Both had strong naval escorts. Strong Axis naval and air forces attacked both convoys. Two of Harpoons transports (with a critical 15000 ST (13,607.8 t) of supplies)Another source (Merlins over Malta) states that 25,000 tons were landed, enough to sustain the population for two to three months. reached Malta for the loss of four transports and two destroyers ( and the Polish
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
).
Vigorous was heavily attacked by aircraft, torpedo boats and submarines over four days, threatened by a strong Italian battlefleet, and eventually returned to Alexandria. No transports reached Malta, and a cruiser , three destroyers ' onMouseout='HidePop("8504")' href="/topics/Australia">Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
n ), and two transports were sunk. The battleship and cruiser Trento were damaged by air attacks, and Trento was later sunk by submarine .
July 1942
More Spitfires were flown off to Malta from Eagle. made an independent supply run.August 1942 – Operation Pedestal
The supply situation had become critical, particularly aviation fuel. The largest convoy to date was assembled at Gibraltar (Operation PedestalOperation Pedestal
Operation Pedestal was a British operation to get desperately needed supplies to the island of Malta in August 1942, during the Second World War. Malta was the base from which surface ships, submarines and aircraft attacked Axis convoys carrying essential supplies to the Italian and German armies...
). It consisted of 14 transports, including the large oil tanker . These were protected by powerful escort and covering forces: 44 warships, including three aircraft carriers (Eagle, Indomitable, and Victorious) and two battleships (Nelson and Rodney). A diversionary operation was staged from Alexandria.
The convoy was attacked fiercely. Three transports reached Malta on 13 August and another on 14 August. Ohio arrived on 15 August, heavily damaged by air attacks, and under tow by destroyers and . The rest were sunk. Ohio later broke in two in Valetta Harbour, but not before much of her cargo had been unloaded. The aircraft carrier Eagle, cruisers and and the destroyer were sunk, and there was serious damage to other warships. The Italian losses were two submarines and damage to two cruisers.
This convoy, especially the arrival of Ohio, was seen as Divine intervention by the people of Malta. August 15 is celebrated as the feast of St. Mary's Assumption
Assumption of Mary
According to the belief of Christians of the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and parts of the Anglican Communion and Continuing Anglicanism, the Assumption of Mary was the bodily taking up of the Virgin Mary into Heaven at the end of her life...
and many Maltese attributed the arrival of Ohio into Grand Harbour as the answer to their prayers.
It had been agreed by military commanders at the time that if supplies became any lower, they would surrender the islands (the actual date, deferred as supplies were received, was referred to as the "target date"). At that time, to stretch the supply of flour, the Maltese mixed flour with potato
Potato
The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae family . The word potato may refer to the plant itself as well as the edible tuber. In the region of the Andes, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species...
peelings, making a sort of brown bread. The situation became so dire that bread once again became white when there were no more potato peelings to add to flour. Many sources say that the remaining supplies were sufficient for only 10 days. The supplies brought by Pedestal (53000 ST (48,080.8 t) landed of 121000 ST (109,769.4 t) (including 11000 ST (9,979 t) of oil on Ohio) embarked) eased the situation, but did not solve it, and more supplies were brought in by submarines. More Spitfires were flown off from Furious.
September 1942
The submarine was lost on a supply run from Gibraltar, either stranded in a minefield or depth-charged by Italian torpedo boats northwest of Malta on 17 September.October 1942
Furious flew off more Spitfires for Malta (Operation Train). Essential supplies were still needed. Deliveries were made by submarines or fast Abdiel-class minelayerAbdiel class minelayer
The Abdiel class were a class of six fast minelayers commissioned into the Royal Navy and active during the Second World War. They were also known as the Manxman class and as "mine-laying cruisers".-Design:...
s.
The Second Battle of El Alamein
Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War. The battle took place over 20 days from 23 October – 11 November 1942. The First Battle of El Alamein had stalled the Axis advance. Thereafter, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery...
began, and the Malta-based air and sea forces significantly reduced critical supplies reaching Axis forces in North Africa.
November 1942 – Operation Stoneage
Minelayers and made successful supply runs. Later that month, a convoy of four transports, carrying 35000 ST (31,751.5 t) of supplies, escorted by three cruisers and ten destroyers reached Malta from Alexandria (Operation Stoneage). The cruiser was seriously damaged and returned to Alexandria. This successful operation is seen as the "Relief of Malta".December 1942 – Operation Portcullis
In Operation PortcullisOperation Portcullis
Operation Portcullis was a British naval operation to deliver a convoy of four merchant ships to the Mediterranean island of Malta. It occurred during November and December 1942, at a time when the strategic situation in the region had radically changed in the Allies' favour and convoys were under...
, four transports arrived from Port Said
Port Said
Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787...
with 55000 ST (49,895.2 t) of supplies; the first to arrive without loss since 1941. More convoys took place during this month and, by the end of December, substantial amounts of supplies had been safely discharged and stored; 18200 ST (16,510.8 t) of fuel and another 58500 ST (53,070.3 t) of general supplies and military materiel
Materiel
Materiel is a term used in English to refer to the equipment and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management....
. The resultant increase in civilian rations helped to stave off the general decline in health of the population, which had been a cause of an outbreak of poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis, often called polio or infantile paralysis, is an acute viral infectious disease spread from person to person, primarily via the fecal-oral route...
.
Aftermath
There were 35 major supply operations to Malta from 1940-1942. Axis forces frustrated the ressuply missions or inflicted losses on eight of these: Operations White, Tiger, Halberd, MF5, MG1, Harpoon, Vigorous, and Pedestal. There were long periods when no convoy runs were even attempted, and only a trickle of supplies reached Malta by submarine, or by a fast warship running the gauntlet. The worst period for Malta was from December 1941-October 1942, when Axis forces had the upper hand, achieving complete air and naval supremacy in the central Mediterranean (called the Italian Mare NostrumMare Nostrum
Mare Nostrum may refer to:*Mare Nostrum, the Roman term for the Mediterranean Sea, adopted by Italian nationalists and fascists.*Mare Nostrum , a Spanish-language novel by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez...
by Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
).
At the end of 1942, the relative success of Operation Pedestal enabled allied ships and aircraft based on the island to become more aggressive and to deny Rommel much-needed supplies. This restricted the Axis' north African armies' ability to fight and Allied land operations in North Africa changed the balance decisively in favour of the Allies. Axis forces in North Africa were being squeezed between the British Eighth Army, advancing from Egypt, and the Anglo-American First Army advancing from Algeria. Convoys henceforth had protection from North Africa airstrips. The later invasions of Sicily and Italy were supported from Malta.
External links
- Mediterranean naval campaign
- Operation Harpoon
- Photos of Operation Pedestal
- Documentary film: Convoy to Malta
- MEDITERRANEAN CONVOY OPERATIONS (London GazetteLondon GazetteThe London Gazette is one of the official journals of record of the British government, and the most important among such official journals in the United Kingdom, in which certain statutory notices are required to be published...
) - NZETC SPITFIRES OVER MALTA