Italian invasion of Egypt - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Italian Invasion of Egypt was an Italian

Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)

The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...

offensive action against British

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

, Commonwealth

Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...

and Free French

Free French Forces

The Free French Forces were French partisans in World War II who decided to continue fighting against the forces of the Axis powers after the surrender of France and subsequent German occupation and, in the case of Vichy France, collaboration with the Germans.-Definition:In many sources, Free...

forces during the Western Desert Campaign

Western Desert Campaign

The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War, was the initial stage of the North African Campaign during the Second World War. The campaign was heavily influenced by the availability of supplies and transport. The ability of the Allied forces, operating from besieged Malta, to...

of the Second World War

World War II

World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

. Initially, the goal of the offensive was to seize the Suez Canal

Suez Canal

The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...

. To accomplish this, Italian forces from Libya

Italian Libya

Italian Libya was a unified colony of Italian North Africa established in 1934 in what represents present-day Libya...

would have to advance across northern Egypt

Egypt

Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...

to the canal. After numerous delays, the aim of the offensive was scaled back considerably. Ultimately, the goal was to advance into Egypt and attack any forces confronting the advance.

While the Italians forces were able to advance about 65 mi (104.6 km) into Egypt during the invasion, they only made contact with the British screening forces and did not engage the main formations. The screening force consisted of one reinforced brigade

7th Support Group (United Kingdom)

.The 7th Support Group was a brigade size formation within the British 7th Armoured Division.-History:The 7th Support Group provided whatever support the division's armoured brigades needed for the operation in hand...

of the 7th Armoured Division. The main British force was at Mersa Matruh

Marsa Matruh

Marsa Matrouh is a Mediterranean seaport and the capital of the Matrouh Governorate in Egypt. It is west of Alexandria and 222 km from Sallum, on the main highway from the Nile Delta to the Libyan border. Another highway leads south from the town, toward the Western Desert and the oases of...

, about 80 mi (128.7 km) from the farthest Italian penetration and was composed of the remainder of the 7th Armoured Division and the 4th Indian Infantry Division.

Background

On 10 June 1940, the Kingdom of Italy

Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)

The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...

declared war upon Britain

United Kingdom

and France

French Third Republic

The French Third Republic was the republican government of France from 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed due to the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, to 1940, when France was overrun by Nazi Germany during World War II, resulting in the German and Italian occupations of France...

and aligned itself with Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany

Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...

. In response, on 13 June, the Egyptian Parliament

Parliament of Egypt

The Parliament of Egypt is the currently dissolved bicameral legislature of Egypt. The Parliament is located in Cairo, Egypt's capital. As the legislative branch of the Egyptian government, the Parliament enacts laws, approves the general policy of the State, the general plan for economic and...

broke off diplomatic relations with Italy but also announced that they would not enter the war unless attacked. In September 1939, the Egyptian government had done the same with Germany

Nazi Germany

. However, while Egypt remained neutral

Neutrality (international relations)

A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...

, it had signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936

The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 was a treaty signed between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Egypt; it is officially known as The Treaty of Alliance Between His Majesty, in Respect of the United Kingdom, and His Majesty, the King of Egypt...

. This treaty allowed British military forces to occupy Egypt when and if the Suez Canal was threatened.

When Italy declared war, it had two armies stationed in Libya: the 5th and the 10th. The 5th Army was based in Tripolitania

Italian Tripolitania

Italian Tripolitania was an African colony, in present day western Libya, of the Kingdom of Italy from 1927 to 1934. It was part of the Italian North Africa territory conquered from the Ottoman empire in 1911...

and it faced the French forces in Tunisia

Tunisia

Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...

. The 10th Army was based in Cyrenaica

Italian Cyrenaica

Italian Cyrenaica was an African colony, in present day eastern Libya, of the Kingdom of Italy from 1927 to 1934. It was part of the Italian North Africa territory conquered from the Ottoman empire in 1911.-History:...

, it faced the British forces in Egypt. Of the two, the 5th Army was larger when war was declared it included nine divisions. The 10th Army included five divisions. When France was defeated, divisions and materials from the 5th Army could be dispersed to reinforce and strengthen the 10th Army. By the time of the invasion, the 10th Army included 10 divisions and the 5th Army included four. Even with a numerically larger force in Cyrenaica, the Italians were still hampered by a lack of transport, low level of training among officers, and weakened by the state of its supporting arms. The morale of the artillery and tank branches of the Italian Royal Army

Royal Italian Army (1940–1946)

This article is about the Italian Royal Army which participated in World War II.The Italian Royal Army was reformed in 1861 and lasted until 1946. The Royal Army started with the unification of Italy and the formation of the Kingdom of Italy . It ended with the dissolution of the monarchy...

(Regio Esercito) was the best of the entire force but the guns were old and generally of light calibre with ammunition of poor lethality. Italian armour in Libya was represented by hundreds of L3 light tanks

L3/35

The L3/35 or Carro Veloce CV-35 was an Italian tank used before and during World War II. Although designated a light tank by the Italian Army, its turretless configuration, weight and firepower make it closer to contemporary tankettes....

. These two-man, machine-gun carriers were really tankette

Tankette

A tankette is a tracked combat vehicle resembling a small tank roughly the size of a car, mainly intended for light infantry support or reconnaissance. Colloquially it may also simply mean a "small tank"....

s. Only recently had about seventy M11 medium tanks arrived.

Almost from the start, things did not go well for the Italian forces in North Africa

North Africa

North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...

. On 12 June, 63 Italians were taken prisoner.

On 17 June, using the headquarters of the 6th Infantry Division, the headquarters of Western Desert Force

Western Desert Force

The Western Desert Force, during World War II, was a British Commonwealth army formation stationed in Egypt.On 17 June 1940, the headquarters of the British 6th Infantry Division was designated as the Western Desert Force. The unit consisted of the 7th Armoured Division and the Indian 4th Infantry...

(WDF) was formed. Under the command of Richard O'Connor

Richard O'Connor

General Sir Richard Nugent O'Connor KT, GCB, DSO & Bar, MC, ADC was a British Army general who commanded the Western Desert Force in the early years of World War II...

, the WDF included all troops directly facing the Italians in Cyrenaica

Cyrenaica

Cyrenaica is the eastern coastal region of Libya.Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca...

. O'Connor—who was promoted to Lieutenant-General for this command—had some 10,000 men supported by aircraft, tanks, and guns. O'Connor's remit was to engage in aggressive patrolling along the frontier. He set out to dominate no-man's land by creating "jock column

Jock column

During World War II, "Jock columns" were small combined arms groups of armoured cars, artillery, and motorised infantry, generally drawn from the 7th Armoured Division...

s", mobile formations based on units of 7th Armoured Division, which combined tanks, infantry and artillery. It was these small, but well trained, regular forces that made the first attacks and raids on the Italian convoys and fortified positions across the border. Within a week of Italy's declaration of war, the British 11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own)

11th Hussars

The 11th Hussars was a cavalry regiment of the British Army.-History:The regiment was founded in 1715 as Colonel Philip Honeywood's Regiment of Dragoons and was known by the name of its Colonel until 1751 when it became the 11th Regiment of Dragoons...

had seized Fort Capuzzo

Fort Capuzzo

Fort Capuzzo was a fort in the Italiancolony of Libya, near the Libyan-Egyptian border. It is famous for its role during the World War II.Within a week of Italy's 10 June 1940 declaration of war upon Britain, the British Army's 11th Hussars captured Fort Capuzzo...

in Libya. In an ambush east of Bardia, the British captured the 10th Army's Engineer-in-Chief, General

General

A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....

Lastucci.

On 28 June, Marshal

Marshal of the Air Force

Marshal of the Air Force is the English term for the most senior rank in a number of air forces. The ranks described by this term can properly be considered marshal ranks....

Italo Balbo

Italo Balbo was an Italian Blackshirt leader who served as Italy's Marshal of the Air Force , Governor-General of Libya, Commander-in-Chief of Italian North Africa , and the "heir apparent" to Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.After serving in...

—the Commander-in-Chief

Commander-in-Chief

A commander-in-chief is the commander of a nation's military forces or significant element of those forces. In the latter case, the force element may be defined as those forces within a particular region or those forces which are associated by function. As a practical term it refers to the military...

of Italian North Africa

Italian North Africa

Italian North Africa was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by Italy in North Africa from 1911 until World War II...

and the Governor-General

Governor-General

A Governor-General, is a vice-regal person of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.- Current uses...

of Libya

Italian Libya

Italian Libya was a unified colony of Italian North Africa established in 1934 in what represents present-day Libya...

—was killed by "friendly fire

Friendly fire

Friendly fire is inadvertent firing towards one's own or otherwise friendly forces while attempting to engage enemy forces, particularly where this results in injury or death. A death resulting from a negligent discharge is not considered friendly fire...

" while landing in Tobruk

Tobruk

Tobruk or Tubruq is a city, seaport, and peninsula on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District and has a population of 120,000 ....

. Balbo had been seen as a man who appreciated better than his contemporaries the effect of modern technology on warfare. He also saw that Italy's one chance of success in North Africa was a quick offensive based on surprise. Yet, even before war was declared, Balbo expressed his doubts to Mussolini: "It is not the number of men which causes me anxiety but their weapons ... equipped with limited and very old pieces of artillery, almost lacking anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons ... it is useless to send more thousands of men if we cannot supply them with the indispensable requirements to move and fight." Balbo demanded all sorts of materials: one thousand trucks, one hundred water tankers, and more medium tanks and anti-tank guns. This was material that Italy could not spare or even produce. In response to Balbo's demands came airy promises from Marshal

Marshal of Italy

Marshal of Italy was a rank in the Italian Royal Army . Originally created in 1924 by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini for the purpose of honoring Generals Luigi Cadorna and Armando Diaz, the rank was granted to several other general officers from 1926 to 1943...

Pietro Badoglio

Pietro Badoglio, 1st Duke of Addis Abeba, 1st Marquess of Sabotino was an Italian soldier and politician...

, the Chief-of-Staff in Rome. According to Badoglio: "When you have the seventy medium tanks you will dominate the situation." Prior to his death, Balbo was making preparations for a strike into Egypt starting on 15 July.

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini

Benito Mussolini

Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....

replaced Balbo with Marshal Rodolfo Graziani

Rodolfo Graziani

Rodolfo Graziani, 1st Marquis of Neghelli , was an officer in the Italian Regio Esercito who led military expeditions in Africa before and during World War II.-Rise to prominence:...

as Commander-in-Chief and as Governor-General. Mussolini ordered Graziani to launch an attack into Egypt by 8 August. It was one of many deadlines Graziani was to miss. Graziani complained to Mussolini that the 10th Army was not properly equipped for such an operation. Graziani further complained that an attack into Egypt could not possibly succeed. Mussolini ordered Graziani to attack anyway.

The battlefield

In contemplating the Italian invasion of Egypt, the British had worked on the assumption that the Italians would advance promptly down the Mediterranean coastal road some 140 mi (225.3 km) to seize the rail head and base at Mersa Matruh

Marsa Matruh

. The desert was ideal for unhindered maneuver by mechanized forces in this area. The escarpment ran parallel to the coast some 10 mi (16.1 km) inland to the south. The area in between the escarpment and the coast gave wide scope for a diversified approach along numerous axes of advance.

However, the escarpment and the coast converged at one point near the small port of Sallum. Here, amid a profusion of rocks, natural obstacles proscribed mobility.

In the undeveloped and waterless land that the Italian invaders would cross, the radius of action of a force operating any distance from the coast depended on two factors. The first was how much mechanical transport the force had at its disposal. The second was the volume of supplies that the force could carry. Food, petrol, and spare parts were important, but water was primary among all supplies.

The opposing forces

At the time, British General Archibald Wavell

Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell

Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during the Second World War. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only to be defeated by the German army...

's Middle East Command

Middle East Command

The Middle East Command was a British Army Command established prior to the Second World War in Egypt. Its primary role was to command British land forces and co-ordinate with the relevant naval and air commands to defend British interests in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean region.The...

included some 36,000 troops (including support and administration units) based within Egypt. With these troops, he was to defend Egypt and the Suez Canal against an estimated 250,000 hostile Italian troops based in Libya and an estimated 250,000 troops based in Italian East Africa

Italian East Africa

Italian East Africa was an Italian colonial administrative subdivision established in 1936, resulting from the merger of the Ethiopian Empire with the old colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. In August 1940, British Somaliland was conquered and annexed to Italian East Africa...

Italian

The 10 divisions of the 10th Army under General Mario Berti

Mario Berti

Mario Berti was an Italian officer during World War I and General in the Spanish Civil War and World War II.-Personal life.:Mario Berti was born in La Spezia, which is located in modern day Liguria. He was born into an upper-middle class family...

were organized into five army corps: XX, XXI, XXII, XXIII and the newly-created "Group of Libyan Divisions" (Gruppo Divisioni Libiche) or, more simply, the "Libyan Corps". The divisions of the 10th Army were either standard Italian "binary" infantry divisions, Blackshirt (Camicie Nere, or CCNN) infantry divisions, or colonial Libyan infantry divisions

Italian Libyan Colonial Division

The Libyan Division was a formation of colonial troops raised by the Italians in their colony in Libya. It participated in the invasion of Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. The formation was reorganized into the 1 Libyan Infantry Division Sibelle by the beginning of Italy's entry into...

. The elements of the 10th Army that advanced into Egypt were the Libyan Corps, the XXIII and the XXI Corps.

The Libyan Corps consisted of two Libyan infantry divisions and the "Maletti Group

Maletti Group

The Maletti Group was an ad hoc "mechanized" unit formed by the Italian Royal Army in Italian North Africa during the initial stages of the Western Desert Campaign of World War II...

" (Raggruppamento Maletti). The latter was an ad hoc unit composed of six Libyan battalions transported in trucks and was commanded by General Pietro Maletti

Pietro Maletti

Pietro Maletti was an Italian military officer who participated in World War I, the subjugation of Italian North Africa, the Italo-Abyssinian War, and World War II...

. This "mechanised

Mechanized infantry

Mechanized infantry are infantry equipped with armored personnel carriers , or infantry fighting vehicles for transport and combat ....

" group included much of the armour available to the Italians and almost all of the M11/39 medium tanks. While Maletti advanced with his troops, Graziani commanded the overall Italian invasion with the rest of his staff located many miles away in Tobruk.

General Berti would liked to have played the standard desert gambit—an advance along the coast road using the predominantly infantry force of the XXI Corps. The metropolitan infantry divisions of XXI Corps had scant desert experience. They would be flanked to the south by the much more experienced Libyan divisions and the motorised Maletti Group. Berti's ground forces would be supported by the Libya Air Command of the Italian Royal Air Force

Regia Aeronautica

The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...

(Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...

) with 300 aircraft of various types. The command had four bomber wings, a fighter wing, three other fighter groups, two reconnaissance groups, and two squadrons of colonial reconnaissance aircraft. The Italian aircraft included Savoia-Marchetti SM.79

Savoia-Marchetti SM.79

The Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 Sparviero was a three-engined Italian medium bomber with a wood and metal structure. Originally designed as a fast passenger aircraft, this low-wing monoplane, in the years 1937–39, set 26 world records that qualified it for some time as the fastest medium bomber in the...

bombers, Breda Ba.65

Breda Ba.65

|-See also:-References:NotesBibliography* Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi. World Aircraft: World War II, Volume I . Maidenhead, UK: Sampson Low, 1978. ISBN 0-562-00096-8....

ground attack aircraft, Fiat CR.42

Fiat CR.42

The Fiat CR.42 Falco was a single-seat sesquiplane fighter which served primarily in Italy's Regia Aeronautica before and during World War II. The aircraft was produced by the Turin firm, and entered service, in smaller numbers, with the air forces of Belgium, Sweden and Hungary...

fighters, and IMAM Ro.37, Caproni Ca.309

Caproni Ca.309

-See also:...

and Caproni Ca.310

Caproni Ca.310

|-See also:-Bibliography:* Bishop, Chris. The Complete Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. London: Brown Books, 1998. ISBN 1-897884-36-2....

bis reconnaissance planes. The command was organised to follow and support the army in the field as a self-contained unit. Unlike the air force, Berti could expect little support from the Italian Royal Navy

Regia Marina

The Regia Marina dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 after Italian unification...

(Regia Marina
Regia Marina
The Regia Marina dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 after Italian unification...

). Ten submarines had already been lost since Italy declared war, the fleet was too important to risk at this juncture. In addition, the Italian navy was already suffering from a serious shortage of fuel.

British and commonwealth

Facing the Italian invasion was the Western Desert Force. By this time, the WDF comprised the under-strength 4th Indian Infantry Division commanded by Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse

Noel Beresford-Peirse

Lieutenant-General Sir Noel Monson de la Poer Beresford-Peirse KBE, CB, DSO was a British Army officer.-Family background:...

and the equally under-strength 7th Armoured Division (the "Desert Rats") commanded by Major-General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh

Michael O'Moore Creagh

Major-General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh KBE MC, was a British soldier who served in both the First and Second World Wars. He commanded the 7th Armoured Division, the Desert Rats, between 1939 and 1941.-Early life:...

. In anticipation of an Italian thrust toward Mersa Matruh

Marsa Matruh

, the British had by mid-August withdrawn the bulk of their armoured units to concentrate near Mersa Matruh, leaving the 7th Armoured Division's Support Group

7th Support Group (United Kingdom)

— under the command of Brigadier

Brigadier

Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....

William Gott

Lieutenant-General William Henry Ewart Gott CB, CBE, DSO and bar, MC , nicknamed "Strafer", was a British Army officer during both the First and Second World Wars, reaching the rank of lieutenant-general when serving in the British Eighth Army.-Military career:Educated at Harrow School he was...

—to take over the front. The Support Group—which had three motorised infantry battalions with supporting artillery and detachments of engineers and machine-gunners—was ordered to harass the enemy and if attacked, to impose delay without getting seriously involved. In this way, few losses would be incurred defending the ground between the border and Mersa Matruh and the capacity to defeat a determined thrust would be maintained at Matruh.

The British plan of defence was therefore simple: "light covering forces" comprising mostly the Support Group, but including the 11th Hussars (the division's reconnaissance regiment), while creating as much inconvenience to the enemy as possible, would fall back in successive stages before the Italian advance on Mersa Matruh. There, a strong infantry force would await the Italian attack, while from the escarpment on the desert flank, the bulk of the 7th Armoured Division would be ready to counterattack

Counterattack

A counterattack is a tactic used in response against an attack. The term originates in military strategy. The general objective is to negate or thwart the advantage gained by the enemy in attack and the specific objectives are usually to regain lost ground or to destroy attacking enemy units.It is...

. The object of the covering force was to seem larger than its actual size. Most of the Support Group would use its mobility to cover the desert flank, while closer to the coast would be a force comprising the 3rd battalion Coldstream Guards

Coldstream Guards

Her Majesty's Coldstream Regiment of Foot Guards, also known officially as the Coldstream Guards , is a regiment of the British Army, part of the Guards Division or Household Division....

reinforced by a company of the 1st Battalion King's Royal Rifle Corps and a company of Free French

Free French Forces

Motor Marines together with supporting artillery and machine-gunners.

At the end of May 1940, the British Royal Air Force

Royal Air Force

The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...

in the Middle East

Middle East

The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...

possessed a strength of 205 aircraft. This included 96 obsolete Bristol Bombay

Bristol Bombay

|-See also:...

and Blenheim

Bristol Blenheim

The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...

medium bombers. It also included 75 obsolete Gloster Gladiator

Gloster Gladiator

The Gloster Gladiator was a British-built biplane fighter. It was used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy and was exported to a number of other air forces during the late 1930s. It was the RAF's last biplane fighter aircraft and was rendered obsolete by newer monoplane designs even as it...

fighters and 34 other types. In July, four Hawker Hurricane

Hawker Hurricane

The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd for the Royal Air Force...

fighters arrived. Of these, only one could be spared for the Western Desert.

By the end of July, the British Royal Navy

Royal Navy

The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...

had won mastery over the Eastern Mediterranean

Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...

. So complete was British control, they were able to bombard Italian coastal positions and to transport an almost uninterrupted flow of supplies along the coast to Mersa Matruh and beyond.

The invasion

On 10 August 1940, an impatient Mussolini sent a strict instruction to Marshal Graziani:

The invasion of Great Britain has been decided, its preparation. Concerning the date, it could be within a week or a month, but the day on which the first German platoon touches British territory you will attack. Once again I repeat that there are no territorial objectives. It is not a question of aiming for Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...

nor even Sallum. I am only asking that you attack the British forces facing you.

In response to Mussolini, Graziani ordered General Berti—commander of the 10th Army—to be ready to move by 27 August. But neither Graziani, Berti, or any other general in North Africa believed an offensive was feasible. Marshal Badoglio—Mussolini's Chief-of-Staff in Rome

Rome

Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...

—had promised ample supplies and transport, but they had not been delivered.

On 8 September (after being threatened with dismissal), Graziani agreed to advance into Egypt the following day.

The advancing Italian force included five infantry divisions and the "Maletti Group

Maletti Group

The Maletti Group was an ad hoc "mechanized" unit formed by the Italian Royal Army in Italian North Africa during the initial stages of the Western Desert Campaign of World War II...

" (Raggruppamento Maletti). The advance included most of the available Libyan units. The regular Libyan cavalry (Savari
Savari
Savari was the designation given to the regular Libyan cavalry regiments of the Italian colonial army in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. The word "savari" was derived from a Persian term for "horsemen" .-Organisation:...

) formed part of the "Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops" (Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali della Libia) which was also known as the "Group of Libyan Divisions" (Gruppo Divisioni Libiche) or, more simply, the "Libyan Corps". This included desert and camel troops, infantry battalions, artillery and irregular cavalry ("Spahis

Italian Spahis

Italian Spahis were light cavalry colonial troops of the Kingdom of Italy, raised in Italian Libya between 1912 and 1942.-Characteristics:The Italian colonial administration of Libya raised squadrons of locally recruited Spahi cavalry after the conquest of Libya from the Ottoman empire.These...

").

The plan of advance was modified to work around the shortage of transport. A flank move through the desert was canceled and the 1st

Italian Libyan Colonial Division

and 2nd Libyan Division

2 Libyan Division Pescatori

The 2 Libyan Division Pescatori was a Infantry Division of the Italian Army during World War II. In December 1940, it was in Libya part of the Italian XXIII Corps a together with the 1 Blackshirt Division 23 Marzo and 2 Blackshirt Division 28 Ottobre, took part in the Italian invasion of Egypt and...

s were brought closer to the coast road to act as a spearhead for the infantry divisions of XXIII Corps. The "Maletti Group" would operate as a flank guard. In essence, Berti was to use his artillery and tanks as escorts to his infantry as his force advanced through hostile territory.

On 9 September 1940, aircraft of the Italian Royal Air Force

Regia Aeronautica

The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...

(Regia Aeronautica) started the air war against aircraft of the British Royal Air Force

Royal Air Force

The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...

. CR.42s fought Gladiators in the skies over eastern Libya and western Egypt. Bombers from both sides struck enemy positions. The British bombed Tobruk and other staging areas in the Italian rear. The Italians attempted to soften up the invasion route.

The advance of the Italian Royal Army

Royal Italian Army (1940–1946)

(Regio Esercito) on the ground proved to be a struggle. One division got lost and many engines over-heated. The British, being greatly outnumbered, left mines and retreated.

Unfortunately, the "Maletti Group" had become lost moving up to its pre-battle staging position at Sidi Omar inside Libya near the border with Egypt. As a result, the Italian invasion on the ground got off to a slow start. The Italians themselves—by intercepted radio broadcasts—provided this information to the rest of the world. It was not until 10 September that the armoured cars of the 11th Hussars spotted the "Maletti Group" making its way through the desert. A heavy mist shielded the British and allowed them to shadow the slow Italian build-up. As the mist cleared, the 11th Hussars became the target of Italian aircraft from above and sorties by tanks and guns on the ground.

By 13 September, the 1st "23 March" Blackshirt Division re-took Fort Capuzzo in Libya. The Italians then crossed the border between Libya and Egypt. Four days after it began, the "invasion of Egypt" reached Egypt.

On the same day, a single platoon of the 3rd Coldstream Guards at Sallum found themselves to be the solitary object of attention of the entire 1st Libyan Division. Before them in the open plain, the Libyans were drawn up in ranks of guns, tanks and transport vehicles. A bombardment of hurricane-like force was unleashed on the British outposts on the plateau. But, by the time the barrage commenced, the occupants of the outposts had already withdrawn down the Halfaya Pass

Halfaya Pass

Halfaya Pass is located in Egypt, near the border with Libya. A high escarpment extends south eastwards from the Egyptian-Libyan border at the coast at as-Salum , with the scarp slope facing into Egypt...

. The roar of the guns did, however, hearten the Italian soldiers who had already come under harrying fire from the light British force that seemed to be invisible and just over the horizon.

Slowly, the mass of four Italian divisions marched through the pass with little incident. The Italians suffered some losses from the mines left behind as the British withdrew. Rarely was an enemy soldier seen or taken. Broken and abandoned British vehicles bore silent witness to them having been there.

On 16 September, the 3rd Coldstream Guards were almost cut off when a large group of Italian tanks moved inland from the coastal road in the region of Alam el Dab. A timely radio call to the 11th Hussars summoned assistance and kept the trap from closing. By the end of the same day, most of the covering forces had successfully withdrawn to the vicinity of Mersa Matruh. By this time, the Italian advance had progressed about as far as it was going to go, the 1st Blackshirt Division had taken Sidi Barrani

Sidi Barrani

Sidi Barrani is a town in Egypt, near the Mediterranean Sea, about east of the border with Libya, and around from Tobruk, Libya.Probably named after Sidi Mohammed el Barrani, a Senussi fighter in the early 1900s, the village is mainly a Bedouin community...

.

The Italians advanced to Maktila, 10 mi (16.1 km) beyond Sidi Barrani; at that point, Graziani halted citing supply problems. He laid out his troubles to Mussolini and Badoglio as thick as he dared. In doing so, he declared that the approach march to Mersa Matruh would take six days since his forces would all be on foot. Among other things, the list of items he required now included something new: 600 mules. It seems he had given up hope of receiving more transport vehicles.

During the advance, the Italians captured a number of British airfields.

Despite Mussolini urging him to continue the advance, Graziani dug in at Sidi Barrani. In addition, he established nine fortified camps at Maktila, Tummar (2), Nibeiwa and on top of the escarpment at Sofafi (4). To his rear, he positioned Italian divisions at Buq Buq, Sidi Omar, and the Halfaya Pass. Graziani was now about 80 mi (128.7 km) west of the main British defensive positions at Mersa Matruh.

Aftermath

In the end, the Italian invasion of Egypt did not get to the main British defensive positions. There never was a follow-up advance to Mersa Matruh. This invasion fell very far short of its original goal, the Suez Canal.

Concerning the British forces, General Wavell wrote:
Concerning the Italian invasion of Egypt, Mussolini asked the following on 26 October:

Two days later, on 28 October, the Italian Army invaded Greece

Greco-Italian War

The Greco-Italian War was a conflict between Italy and Greece which lasted from 28 October 1940 to 23 April 1941. It marked the beginning of the Balkans Campaign of World War II...

and the focus was off both Egypt and Graziani. He was allowed to continue his planning at a leisurely pace. An Italian advance to Mersa Matruh was scheduled to start on 15 December... or maybe 18 December. But soon Graziani and the Italians were to lose control of the pace of events in Egypt.

On 8 December 1940, the British launched a raid against the fortified Italian camps set up in a defensive line outside Sidi Barrani

Sidi Barrani

. General Berti was on sick leave and General Italo Gariboldi

Italo Gariboldi

Italo Gariboldi was a senior officer in the Italian Royal Army before and during World War II. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross...

had temporarily taken his place. The British raid was a complete success and the few units of the Tenth Army in Egypt that were not destroyed were forced to withdraw. By 11 December, the British raid had become a full scale counterattack

Counterattack

called Operation Compass

Operation Compass

Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...

. The Italians were forced back again and again and further and further into Libya. Before what started as a raid was over, the whole of the Tenth Army had been destroyed.

External references

The Italian Army in Egypt during World War II

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