Frederick Browning
Encyclopedia
Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Arthur Montague Browning GCVO, KBE, CB, DSO
(20 December 1896 – 14 March 1965) was a British Army
officer who has been called the "father of the British airborne forces". He is best known as the commander of the I Airborne Corps
and deputy commander of First Allied Airborne Army
during Operation Market Garden
. During the planning for this operation he memorably said: "I think we might be going a bridge too far." He was also an Olympic bobsleigh
competitor, and the husband of author Daphne du Maurier
.
A graduate of Eton College
and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
, Browning was commissioned a second lieutenant
in the Grenadier Guards
in 1915. During the First World War he fought on the Western Front
, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order
for conspicuous gallantry during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917. In September 1918, he became aide de camp to General
Sir Henry Rawlinson
. After the war, he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics
in St. Moritz
, Switzerland
, in which his team finished tenth. He married Daphne du Maurier in July 1932.
During the Second World War, Browning commanded the 1st Airborne Division
and I Airborne Corps
. He led the latter during Operation Market Garden, travelling by glider to participate in the assault. In December 1944 he became Chief of Staff of Admiral
Lord Louis Mountbatten
's South East Asia Command
. From 1946 to 1948, he was Military Secretary of the War Office
.
In January 1948, Browning became Comptroller
and Treasurer
to Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth Duchess of Edinburgh. After she ascended to the throne in 1952, he became treasurer in the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh. He suffered a severe nervous breakdown
in 1957 and retired in 1959. He died at Menabilly
, the mansion that inspired his wife's novel Rebecca
, on 14 March 1965.
, London. The house was later demolished to make way for an expansion of Harrods
, allowing him to claim in later life that he had been born in its piano department. He was the first son of Frederick Henry Browning, a wine merchant, and his wife Nancy (née
Alt). He had one sibling, his older sister Helen Grace. From an early age he was known to his family as "Tommy". He was educated at West Downs School
and Eton College
, which his grandfather had attended. While at Eton, he joined the Officer Training Corps.
on 24 November 1914. Although he did not achieve the necessary scores in all the required subjects, the headmasters of certain schools, such as Eton, were allowed to recommend students for nomination by the Army Council
. The headmaster, Edward Lyttelton
, put Browning's name forward and he entered Sandhurst on 27 December 1914. He graduated on 16 June 1915, and was commissioned a second lieutenant
in the Grenadier Guards
. Joining such an exclusive regiment, even in wartime, required a personal introduction and an interview by the regimental commander, Colonel Sir Henry Streatfield.
Initially, Browning joined the 4th Battalion, Grenadier Guards, which was training at Bovington Camp
. When it departed for the Western Front
in August 1915, he was transferred to the 5th (Reserve) Battalion. In October 1915 he left to join the 2nd Battalion at the front. Around this time he acquired the nickname "Boy". For a time he served in the same company of 2nd Battalion as Major
Winston Churchill
. Upon Churchill's arrival, Browning was given the job of showing him the company's trenches. When Browning discovered that Churchill had no greatcoat
, Browning gave Churchill his own. Browning was invalided back to England with trench fever
in January 1916, and, although only hospitalised for four weeks, did not rejoin the 2nd Battalion at the front until 6 October 1916.
Browning participated in the Battle of Pilckem Ridge on 31 July, the Battle of Poelcappelle
on 9 October and the Battle of Cambrai in November. He distinguished himself in this battle, for which he received the Distinguished Service Order
(DSO). The order was generally given to officers in command, above the rank of captain. When a junior officer like Browning, who was still only a lieutenant, was awarded the DSO, this was often regarded as an acknowledgement that the officer had only just missed out on the award of the Victoria Cross
. His citation read:
He was awarded the French Croix de Guerre on 14 December 1917, and mentioned in despatches on 23 May 1918. In September 1918, Browning became aide de camp to General
Sir Henry Rawlinson
, after which he returned to his regiment. He was promoted to the temporary rank of captain, and appointed adjutant
of the 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, in November 1918.
. In 1924 he was posted to Sandhurst as adjutant. He was the first adjutant, during the Sovereign's Parade of 1926, to ride his horse (named "The Vicar") up the steps of Old College and to dismount in the Grand Entrance. There is no satisfactory explanation as to why he did it. After the Second World War this became an enduring tradition, but since horses have great difficulty going down steps, a ramp is now provided for the horse to return. Other members of staff at Sandhurst at the time included Richard O'Connor
, Miles Dempsey
, Douglas Gracey, and Eric Dorman-Smith
, with whom he became close friends. Browning relinquished the appointment of adjutant at Sandhurst on 28 April 1928, and was promoted to major on 22 May 1928. Following a pattern whereby tours of duty away from the regiment alternated with those in it, he was sent for a refresher course at the Small Arms School before being posted to the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards, at Pirbright
.
His workload was very light, allowing plenty of time for sports. Browning competed in the Amateur Athletic Association of England
championships in hurdling
but failed to make Olympic selection. He did however make the Olympic five-man bobsleigh
team as brake-man. An injury incurred during a training accident prevented his participation in the bobsleigh at the 1924 Winter Olympics
, but he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics
in St. Moritz
, Switzerland, in which his team finished tenth. Browning was also a keen sailor, competing in the Household Cavalry Sailing Regatta at Chichester Harbour
in 1930. He purchased his own motor boat, a 20 feet (6.1 m) cabin cruiser
that he named Ygdrasil.
In 1931, Browning read Daphne du Maurier
's novel The Loving Spirit
and, impressed by its graphic depictions of the Cornish
coastline, set out to see it for himself in Ygdrasil. Afterwards, he left the boat moored in the River Fowey
for the winter, but returned in April 1932 to collect it. He heard that the author of the book that had impressed him so much was convalescing from an appendix
operation, and invited her out on his boat. After a short romance, he proposed to her but she rejected this, as she did not believe in marriage. Dorman-Smith then went to see her and explained that their living together without marriage would be disastrous for Browning's career. Du Maurier then proposed to Browning, who accepted. They were married in a simple ceremony at the Church of St Willow, Lanteglos-by-Fowey
on 19 July 1932, and honeymooned on Ygdrasil. Their marriage produced three children: two daughters, Tessa and Flavia, and a son, Christian, known as Kits.
Browning was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 1 February 1936, and was appointed commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards. The battalion was deployed to Egypt in 1936 and returned in December 1937. His term as commander ended on 1 August 1939; he was removed from the Grenadier Guards' regimental list but remained on full pay. On 1 September, he was promoted to colonel
, with his seniority backdated to 1 February 1939, and became Commandant of the Small Arms School.
. Part of the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, the 128th was a Territorial Army brigade that was preparing to join the British Expeditionary Force
. This was pre-empted by the Fall of France in June 1940, and the division assumed a defensive posture. In 1941, Browning became commander of the 24th Guards Brigade Group
, whose mission was to defend London from an attack from the south.
On 3 November 1941, Browning was promoted to major-general, and appointed commander of the 1st Airborne Division. In this new role he was instrumental in parachutists adopting the maroon beret
, and assigned an artist, Major Edward Seago, to design the Parachute Regiment's now famous emblem of the warrior Bellerophon
riding Pegasus
, the winged horse. However Browning "designed his own uniform, made of barathea
with a false Uhlan
-style front, incorporating a zip opening at the neck to reveal regulation shirt and tie, worn with medal ribbons, collar patches, and rank badges, capped off with grey kid gloves, and a highly polished Guards Sam Browne belt
and swagger stick
", all of which were worn in the field. He qualified as a pilot in 1942, and henceforth wore the Army Air Corps wings, which he also designed himself.
Browning supervised the newly-formed division as it underwent a prolonged period of expansion and intensive training, with new brigades raised and assigned to the division, and new equipment tested. Though not considered an airborne warfare visionary, he proved adept at dealing with an apathetic War Office
and an obstructionist Air Ministry
, and demonstrated a knack for overcoming bureaucratic obstacles. As the airborne forces expanded in size, the major difficulty in getting the 1st Airborne Division ready for operations was a shortage of aircraft. The Royal Air Force
had neglected air transport before the war, and the only available aircraft for airborne troops were conversions of obsolete bombers like the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley
. Air Chief Marshal
Sir Arthur Harris
in particular felt that the 1st Airborne Division was not worth the drain on of Bomber Command
's resources.
When Prime Minister
Winston Churchill and the United States Army Chief of Staff General
George C. Marshall visited the 1st Airborne Division on 16 April 1942, they were treated to a demonstration involving every available aircraft of No. 38 Wing RAF
—12 Whitleys and nine Hawker Hector
biplanes towing General Aircraft Hotspur gliders. At a meeting on 6 May chaired by Churchill, Browning was asked what he required. He stated that he needed 96 aircraft to get the 1st Airborne Division battle-ready. Churchill directed Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal
to find the required aircraft, and Portal agreed to supply 83 Whitleys, along with 10 Halifax bombers to tow the new, larger General Aircraft Hamilcar
gliders.
In July 1942, Browning travelled to the United States, where he toured airborne training facilities with his American counterpart, Major-General
William C. Lee
. Browning's tendency to lecture the Americans on airborne warfare made him few friends among the Americans, who felt that the British were still novices themselves. Browning was envious of the Americans' equipment, particularly the C-47 Dakota transports. On returning to the United Kingdom, he arranged for a joint exercise to be conducted with the 2nd Battalion, US 503rd Parachute Infantry. In mid–September, as the 1st Airborne Division was coming close to reaching full strength, Browning was informed that Operation Torch
, the Allied invasion of North Africa
, would take place in November. When he found that the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry, was to take part, Browning argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised, as the vast distances and comparatively light opposition would provide a number of opportunities for airborne operations.
The War Office and the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, General Sir Bernard Paget
, were won over by Browning's arguments, and agreed to detach 1st Parachute Brigade from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower
, who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion. After it had been brought to full operational strength, partly by cross-posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade, and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources, the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November.
The results of British airborne operations in North Africa
were mixed, and the subject of a detailed report by Browning. The airborne troops had operated under a number of handicaps, including shortages of photographs and maps. All the troop carrier aircrew were American, who lacked familiarity with airborne operations and in dealing with British troops and equipment. Browning felt that the inexperience with handling airborne operations extended to Eisenhowers's Allied Forces Headquarters
and that of the First Army, resulting in the paratroops being misused. He felt that had they been employed more aggressively and in greater strength they might have shortened the Tunisian Campaign by some months. The 1st Parachute Brigade had been called the "Rote Teufel" or "Red Devils" by the German troops they had fought. Browning pointed out to the brigade that this was an honour, as "distinctions given by the enemy are seldom won in battle except by the finest fighting troops." The title was officially confirmed by General Harold Alexander and henceforth applied to all British airborne troops.
On 1 January 1943, Browning was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB). He relinquished command of the 1st Airborne Division in March 1943 to take up a new post as Major-General, Airborne Forces at Eisenhower's Allied Forces Headquarters
(AFHQ). He soon clashed with the commander of the US 82nd Airborne Division, Major-General Matthew B. Ridgway. When Browning asked to see the plans for Operation Husky, Ridgway replied that they would not be available for scrutiny until after they had been approved by the US Seventh Army commander, Lieutenant-General George S. Patton, Jr. When Browning protested, Patton backed Ridgway, but Eisenhower and his chief of staff, Major-General Walter Bedell Smith
, supported Browning and forced them to back down.
Browning's dealings with the British Army were no smoother. His successor as commander of the 1st Airborne Division, Major-General George Hopkinson, had sold the commander of the British Eighth Army
, General Bernard Montgomery, on Operation Ladbroke
, a glider landing to seize the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse
. Browning's objections to the operation were ignored, and attempts to discuss airborne operations with the corps commanders elicited a directive from Montgomery that all such discussion had to go through him. Browning concluded that to be effective, the airborne advisor had to have equal rank with the army commanders.
In September 1943, Browning travelled to India where he inspected the 50th Parachute Brigade
, and met with Major-General Orde Wingate, the commander of the Chindits
. Browning held a series of meetings with General Sir Claude Auchinleck
, the Commander-in-Chief, India
; Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse
, the Air Officer Commander-in-Chief; and Lieutenant-General Sir George Giffard
, the General Officer Commanding Eastern Army. They discussed plans for improving the airborne establishment in India and expanding the airborne force there to a division. As a result of these discussions, and Browning's subsequent report to the War Office, the 44th Indian Airborne Division was formed in October 1944. Browning sent his most experienced airborne commander, Major-General Ernest Down
, to India to command it. Down's replacement as commander of the 1st Airborne Division by Montgomery's selection, Major-General Roy Urquhart
, an officer with no airborne experience, rather than Browning's choice, Brigadier Gerald Lathbury
of the 1st Parachute Brigade, would become controversial.
Some, however, saw him as "a ruthless and manipulative empire builder who brooked no opposition". Brigadier-General
James M. Gavin
recalled that when he travelled to England in November 1943, Ridgway "cautioned me against the machinations and scheming of General F. M. Browning, who was the senior British airborne officer, and well he should have." Major-General Ray Barker
told him that Browning was "an empire builder", an assessment that Gavin came to agree with.
on 16 April 1944.
I Airborne Corps became part of the First Allied Airborne Army
, commanded by Lieutenant-General Lewis H. Brereton
, when the latter was organised in August 1944. While retaining command of the corps, Browning also became Deputy Commander of the Army despite a poor relationship with Brereton and being disliked by many American officers, including Ridgway, who was now the commander of the US XVIII Airborne Corps. During preparations for one of many cancelled operations, Linnete II, his disagreement with Brereton over a risky operation caused him to threaten resignation, which, due to differences in military culture, Brereton regarded as tantamount to disobeying an order. Browning was forced into a humiliating backdown.
When I Airborne Corps was committed to action in Operation Market Garden
in September 1944, Browning's rift with Brereton had severe repercussions. Browning was concerned about the timetable put forward by Major-General Paul L. Williams
of the IX Troop Carrier Command
, under which the drop was staggered over several days, and not to make two drops on the first day. This restricted the number of combat troops available on the first day. He also disagreed with the British drop zones proposed by Air Vice Marshal Leslie Hollinghurst
of No. 38 Group RAF
, which he felt were too distant from the bridge at Arnhem
, but Browning now felt unable to challenge the airmen.
Browning downplayed evidence brought to him by his intelligence officer, Major Brian Urquhart
, that the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen
and the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg
were in the Arnhem area, but was not as confident as he led his subordinates to believe. According to Major-General Roy Urquhart
, when informed that his airborne troops would have to hold the bridge for two days, Browning responded that they could hold it for four, but then added: "But I think we might be going a bridge too far."
Browning landed by gliders with a tactical headquarters near Nijmegen. His use of 38 aircraft to move his corps headquarters on the first lift has been criticised. Half of these gliders carried signal equipment but for much of the operation he had no contact with either the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem or the US 101st Airborne Division
at Eindhoven. His headquarters had not been envisaged as a frontline unit, and the signals section that had been hastily assembled just weeks before lacked training and experience. In his pack, Browning carried three teddy bears and a framed print of Albrecht Dürer
's The Praying Hands
.
Gavin, now the US 82nd Airborne Division's commander, was critical of Browning, writing in his diary on 6 September 1944 that he "...unquestionably lacks the standing, influence and judgement that comes from a proper troop experience....his staff was superficial...Why the British units fumble along...becomes more and more apparent. Their tops lack the know-how, never do they get down into the dirt and learn the hard way."
After the war, Gavin and his staff were criticised for the decision to secure the high ground around Groesbeek
before attempting the capture of the Waal bridge
at Nijmegen. Browning took responsibility for this, noting that he "personally gave an order to Jim Gavin that, although every effort should be made to effect the capture of the Grave and Nijmegen bridges as soon as possible, it was essential that he should capture the Groesbeek Ridge and hold it".
After the battle, Browning was awarded the Order of Polonia Restituta (II class) by the Polish government-in-exile, but his critical evaluation of the contribution of Polish forces
led to the removal of Polish Major-General Stanisław Sosabowski as the commanding officer of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade
. Some writers later claimed that Sosabowski had been made a scapegoat for the failure of Market Garden, but Field Marshal Montgomery attached no blame to Browning or any of his subordinates, or indeed acknowledged failure at all. He told the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, that he would like Browning to take over VIII Corps in the event that Richard O'Connor were transferred to another theatre.
Lord Louis Mountbatten
, the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command
(SEAC), had need of a new chief of staff owing to the poor health of Lieutenant-General Henry Royds Pownall
. Brooke turned down Mountbatten's initial request for either Lieutenant-General Archibald Nye
or Lieutenant-General John Swayne
. Brooke then offered Browning for the post, and Mountbatten accepted. Pownall considered that Browning was "excellently qualified" for the post, although he had no staff college training and had never held a staff job before. Pownall noted that his "only reservation is that I believe [Browning] is rather nervy and highly strung". For his services as a corps commander, Browning was mentioned in despatches a second time, and was awarded the Legion of Merit
in the degree of Commander by the United States government.
Browning served in South East Asia from December 1944 until July 1946; Mountbatten soon came to regard him as indispensable. Browning had an American deputy, Major-General Horace H. Fuller, and brought a number of staff with him from Europe to SEAC headquarters in Kandy
, Ceylon. SEAC headquarters developed an adversarial relationship with that of Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese
's Allied Land Forces South East Asia (ALFSEA). Matters came to a head when Leese attempted to replace the victorious commander of the Fourteenth Army, Lieutenant-General Sir William Slim. In the resulting furore, Leese was relieved instead. Slim took over ALFSEA and was replaced as Fourteenth Army commander by Browning's friend General Sir Miles Dempsey
. For his services at SEAC, Browning was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1946. His last major military post was as Military Secretary of the War Office
from 1946 to 1948.
and Treasurer
to Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth Duchess of Edinburgh, although he did not officially retire from the Army until 5 April 1948. This appointment was made on the recommendation of Lord Mountbatten, whose nephew Philip Mountbatten was now the Duke of Edinburgh
. As such, Browning became the head of the Princess' personal staff. He also juggled a number of other duties. In 1948 he was involved with the 1948 Summer Olympics
as Deputy Chairman of the British Olympic Association
, and commandant of the British team. From 1944 to 1962 he was Commodore of the Royal Fowey Yacht Club
; on stepping down in 1962, he was elected its first Admiral.
Upon the death of King George VI in 1952, the Duchess of Edinburgh inherited the throne as Queen Elizabeth II. Browning and his staff became redundant, as the Queen was now served by the large staff of the monarch. The domestic staff remained at Clarence House
, where they continued to serve the Queen Mother
. The remainder were reorganised as the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh, with Browning as treasurer, the head of the office, moving into a new and larger office at Buckingham Palace
. Like the Duke they served, the office had no constitutional role, but followed his sporting, cultural and scientific interests. Browning became involved with the Cutty Sark
Trust, set up to preserve the famous ship, and in the administration of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award. In June 1953, Browning and Du Maurier attended the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
.
Browning had been drinking since the war, but it had now become chronic
. This led to a severe nervous breakdown
in July 1957, forcing his resignation from his position at the Palace in 1959. Du Maurier had known of his taking a mistress in Fowey, but his breakdown brought to light two other girlfriends in London. For her part, Du Maurier confessed to her own wartime affair. For his services to the Royal Household, Browning was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1953, and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in 1959. He retreated to Menabilly
, the mansion that had inspired Du Maurier's novel Rebecca
, which she had leased and restored in 1943. Browning caused a scandal in 1963 when, under the influence of prescription drugs and alcohol, he was involved in an automobile accident in which two people were injured. He was fined £50 and forced to pay court and medical costs. He died from a coronary at Menabilly on 14 March 1965.
in the film A Bridge Too Far, based on the events of Operation Market Garden. A copy of Browning's uniform was made to Bogarde's measurements from the original in the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum
. The Airborne Forces Museum, which opened in 1969, was for many years located in Browning Barracks, which had been built in 1964 and named after Browning. Browning Barracks remained the depot of the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces until 1993. The museum moved to the Imperial War Museum Duxford
in 2008, and Browning Barracks was sold for housing development.
Distinguished Service Order
The Distinguished Service Order is a military decoration of the United Kingdom, and formerly of other parts of the British Commonwealth and Empire, awarded for meritorious or distinguished service by officers of the armed forces during wartime, typically in actual combat.Instituted on 6 September...
(20 December 1896 – 14 March 1965) was a British Army
British Army
The British Army is the land warfare branch of Her Majesty's Armed Forces in the United Kingdom. It came into being with the unification of the Kingdom of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. The new British Army incorporated Regiments that had already existed in England...
officer who has been called the "father of the British airborne forces". He is best known as the commander of the I Airborne Corps
British I Airborne Corps
The 1st Airborne Corps was a airborne forces corps of the British Army during the Second World War. Together with the American XVIII Airborne Corps it was part of the 1st Allied Airborne Army.-Formation:...
and deputy commander of First Allied Airborne Army
First Allied Airborne Army
The First Allied Airborne Army was an Allied formation formed on 2 August 1944 by the order of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force. The formation was part of the Allied Expeditionary Force and controlled all Allied airborne forces in Western...
during Operation Market Garden
Operation Market Garden
Operation Market Garden was an unsuccessful Allied military operation, fought in the Netherlands and Germany in the Second World War. It was the largest airborne operation up to that time....
. During the planning for this operation he memorably said: "I think we might be going a bridge too far." He was also an Olympic bobsleigh
Bobsleigh
Bobsleigh or bobsled is a winter sport in which teams of two or four make timed runs down narrow, twisting, banked, iced tracks in a gravity-powered sled that are combined to calculate the final score....
competitor, and the husband of author Daphne du Maurier
Daphne du Maurier
Dame Daphne du Maurier, Lady Browning DBE was a British author and playwright.Many of her works have been adapted into films, including the novels Rebecca and Jamaica Inn and the short stories "The Birds" and "Don't Look Now". The first three were directed by Alfred Hitchcock.Her elder sister was...
.
A graduate of Eton College
Eton College
Eton College, often referred to simply as Eton, is a British independent school for boys aged 13 to 18. It was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as "The King's College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor"....
and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst , commonly known simply as Sandhurst, is a British Army officer initial training centre located in Sandhurst, Berkshire, England...
, Browning was commissioned a second lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces.- United Kingdom and Commonwealth :The rank second lieutenant was introduced throughout the British Army in 1871 to replace the rank of ensign , although it had long been used in the Royal Artillery, Royal...
in the Grenadier Guards
Grenadier Guards
The Grenadier Guards is an infantry regiment of the British Army. It is the most senior regiment of the Guards Division and, as such, is the most senior regiment of infantry. It is not, however, the most senior regiment of the Army, this position being attributed to the Life Guards...
in 1915. During the First World War he fought on the Western Front
Western Front (World War I)
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne...
, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order
Distinguished Service Order
The Distinguished Service Order is a military decoration of the United Kingdom, and formerly of other parts of the British Commonwealth and Empire, awarded for meritorious or distinguished service by officers of the armed forces during wartime, typically in actual combat.Instituted on 6 September...
for conspicuous gallantry during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917. In September 1918, he became aide de camp to General
General (United Kingdom)
General is currently the highest peace-time rank in the British Army and Royal Marines. It is subordinate to the Army rank of Field Marshal, has a NATO-code of OF-9, and is a four-star rank....
Sir Henry Rawlinson
Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baron Rawlinson
General Henry Seymour Rawlinson, 1st Baron Rawlinson, GCB, GCSI, GCVO, KCMG , known as Sir Henry Rawlinson, Bt between 1895 and 1919, was a British First World War general most famous for his roles in the Battle of the Somme of 1916 and the Battle of Amiens in 1918.-Military career:Rawlinson was...
. After the war, he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics
Bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics
At the 1928 Winter Olympics, only one bobsleigh event was contested, the five man event. The competition was held on Saturday, February 18, 1928.-Medalists:-Results:-Participating nations:...
in St. Moritz
St. Moritz
St. Moritz is a resort town in the Engadine valley in Switzerland. It is a municipality in the district of Maloja in the Swiss canton of Graubünden...
, Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
, in which his team finished tenth. He married Daphne du Maurier in July 1932.
During the Second World War, Browning commanded the 1st Airborne Division
British 1st Airborne Division
The 1st Airborne Division was a division of the British airborne forces during the Second World War. The division was formed in 1941, after British Prime Minister Winston Churchill demanded an airborne force...
and I Airborne Corps
British I Airborne Corps
The 1st Airborne Corps was a airborne forces corps of the British Army during the Second World War. Together with the American XVIII Airborne Corps it was part of the 1st Allied Airborne Army.-Formation:...
. He led the latter during Operation Market Garden, travelling by glider to participate in the assault. In December 1944 he became Chief of Staff of Admiral
Admiral (United Kingdom)
Admiral is a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, which equates to the NATO rank code OF-9, outranked only by the rank Admiral of the Fleet...
Lord Louis Mountbatten
Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma
Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas George Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC, FRS , was a British statesman and naval officer, and an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh...
's South East Asia Command
South East Asia Command
South East Asia Command was the body set up to be in overall charge of Allied operations in the South-East Asian Theatre during World War II.-Background:...
. From 1946 to 1948, he was Military Secretary of the War Office
War Office
The War Office was a department of the British Government, responsible for the administration of the British Army between the 17th century and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Defence...
.
In January 1948, Browning became Comptroller
Comptroller
A comptroller is a management level position responsible for supervising the quality of accounting and financial reporting of an organization.In British government, the Comptroller General or Comptroller and Auditor General is in most countries the external auditor of the budget execution of the...
and Treasurer
Treasurer
A treasurer is the person responsible for running the treasury of an organization. The adjective for a treasurer is normally "tresorial". The adjective "treasurial" normally means pertaining to a treasury, rather than the treasurer.-Government:...
to Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth Duchess of Edinburgh. After she ascended to the throne in 1952, he became treasurer in the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh. He suffered a severe nervous breakdown
Nervous breakdown
Mental breakdown is a non-medical term used to describe an acute, time-limited phase of a specific disorder that presents primarily with features of depression or anxiety.-Definition:...
in 1957 and retired in 1959. He died at Menabilly
Menabilly
Menabilly is an Elizabethan house on the south coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom, on the Rashleigh Estate, seat of the Rashleigh family. Menabilly is situated on the Gribben peninsula about west of Fowey...
, the mansion that inspired his wife's novel Rebecca
Rebecca (novel)
Rebecca is a novel by Daphne du Maurier. When Rebecca was published in 1938, du Maurier became – to her great surprise – one of the most popular authors of the day. Rebecca is considered to be one of her best works...
, on 14 March 1965.
Early life
Frederick Arthur Montague Browning was born on 20 December 1896 at his family home in KensingtonKensington
Kensington is a district of west and central London, England within the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. An affluent and densely-populated area, its commercial heart is Kensington High Street, and it contains the well-known museum district of South Kensington.To the north, Kensington is...
, London. The house was later demolished to make way for an expansion of Harrods
Harrods
Harrods is an upmarket department store located in Brompton Road in Brompton, in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, London. The Harrods brand also applies to other enterprises undertaken by the Harrods group of companies including Harrods Bank, Harrods Estates, Harrods Aviation and Air...
, allowing him to claim in later life that he had been born in its piano department. He was the first son of Frederick Henry Browning, a wine merchant, and his wife Nancy (née
NEE
NEE is a political protest group whose goal was to provide an alternative for voters who are unhappy with all political parties at hand in Belgium, where voting is compulsory.The NEE party was founded in 2005 in Antwerp...
Alt). He had one sibling, his older sister Helen Grace. From an early age he was known to his family as "Tommy". He was educated at West Downs School
West Downs School
West Downs School, Romsey Road, Winchester, Hampshire, was an English independent preparatory school, which was established in 1897 and closed in 1988.-History:...
and Eton College
Eton College
Eton College, often referred to simply as Eton, is a British independent school for boys aged 13 to 18. It was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as "The King's College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor"....
, which his grandfather had attended. While at Eton, he joined the Officer Training Corps.
First World War
Browning sat the examinations for the Royal Military Academy SandhurstRoyal Military Academy Sandhurst
The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst , commonly known simply as Sandhurst, is a British Army officer initial training centre located in Sandhurst, Berkshire, England...
on 24 November 1914. Although he did not achieve the necessary scores in all the required subjects, the headmasters of certain schools, such as Eton, were allowed to recommend students for nomination by the Army Council
Army Council (1904)
The Army Council is a governing board for the British military organization. It was created in 1904 along with other institutional changes made in that year to the British Army....
. The headmaster, Edward Lyttelton
Edward Lyttelton
Rev. Hon. Edward Lyttelton was an English sportsman, schoolmaster and clergyman. He played first-class cricket for Cambridge University and Middlesex as well as representing the England national football team.-Life:...
, put Browning's name forward and he entered Sandhurst on 27 December 1914. He graduated on 16 June 1915, and was commissioned a second lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces.- United Kingdom and Commonwealth :The rank second lieutenant was introduced throughout the British Army in 1871 to replace the rank of ensign , although it had long been used in the Royal Artillery, Royal...
in the Grenadier Guards
Grenadier Guards
The Grenadier Guards is an infantry regiment of the British Army. It is the most senior regiment of the Guards Division and, as such, is the most senior regiment of infantry. It is not, however, the most senior regiment of the Army, this position being attributed to the Life Guards...
. Joining such an exclusive regiment, even in wartime, required a personal introduction and an interview by the regimental commander, Colonel Sir Henry Streatfield.
Initially, Browning joined the 4th Battalion, Grenadier Guards, which was training at Bovington Camp
Bovington Camp
Bovington Camp is a British Army base in Dorset, England.It is home to The Armour Centre, formerly the Royal Armoured Corps Centre and includes Allenby Barracks and Stanley Barracks. Bovington Tank Museum is adjoining....
. When it departed for the Western Front
Western Front (World War I)
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne...
in August 1915, he was transferred to the 5th (Reserve) Battalion. In October 1915 he left to join the 2nd Battalion at the front. Around this time he acquired the nickname "Boy". For a time he served in the same company of 2nd Battalion as Major
Major
Major is a rank of commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every military in the world.When used unhyphenated, in conjunction with no other indicator of rank, the term refers to the rank just senior to that of an Army captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
. Upon Churchill's arrival, Browning was given the job of showing him the company's trenches. When Browning discovered that Churchill had no greatcoat
Greatcoat
A greatcoat, also known as a watchcoat, is a large overcoat typically made of wool designed for warmth and protection against the weather. Its collar and cuffs can be turned out to protect the face and hands from cold and rain, and the short cape around the shoulders provides extra warmth and...
, Browning gave Churchill his own. Browning was invalided back to England with trench fever
Trench fever
Trench fever is a moderately serious disease transmitted by body lice. It infected armies in Flanders, France, Poland, Galicia, Italy, Salonika, Macedonia, Mesopotamia, and Egypt in World War I Trench fever (also known as "Five day fever", "Quintan fever" (febris Quintana in Latin), "Urban trench...
in January 1916, and, although only hospitalised for four weeks, did not rejoin the 2nd Battalion at the front until 6 October 1916.
Browning participated in the Battle of Pilckem Ridge on 31 July, the Battle of Poelcappelle
Battle of Poelcappelle
The Battle of Poelcappelle marked the end of highly successful British attacks during the Battle of Passchendaele. Pitting the attacking forces against relatively intact German defences in rain and muddy conditions like those in August, the main attack was a failure and only the diversionary attack...
on 9 October and the Battle of Cambrai in November. He distinguished himself in this battle, for which he received the Distinguished Service Order
Distinguished Service Order
The Distinguished Service Order is a military decoration of the United Kingdom, and formerly of other parts of the British Commonwealth and Empire, awarded for meritorious or distinguished service by officers of the armed forces during wartime, typically in actual combat.Instituted on 6 September...
(DSO). The order was generally given to officers in command, above the rank of captain. When a junior officer like Browning, who was still only a lieutenant, was awarded the DSO, this was often regarded as an acknowledgement that the officer had only just missed out on the award of the Victoria Cross
Victoria Cross
The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories....
. His citation read:
He was awarded the French Croix de Guerre on 14 December 1917, and mentioned in despatches on 23 May 1918. In September 1918, Browning became aide de camp to General
General (United Kingdom)
General is currently the highest peace-time rank in the British Army and Royal Marines. It is subordinate to the Army rank of Field Marshal, has a NATO-code of OF-9, and is a four-star rank....
Sir Henry Rawlinson
Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baron Rawlinson
General Henry Seymour Rawlinson, 1st Baron Rawlinson, GCB, GCSI, GCVO, KCMG , known as Sir Henry Rawlinson, Bt between 1895 and 1919, was a British First World War general most famous for his roles in the Battle of the Somme of 1916 and the Battle of Amiens in 1918.-Military career:Rawlinson was...
, after which he returned to his regiment. He was promoted to the temporary rank of captain, and appointed adjutant
Adjutant
Adjutant is a military rank or appointment. In some armies, including most English-speaking ones, it is an officer who assists a more senior officer, while in other armies, especially Francophone ones, it is an NCO , normally corresponding roughly to a Staff Sergeant or Warrant Officer.An Adjutant...
of the 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, in November 1918.
Inter-war period
Browning was granted the substantive rank of captain on 24 November 1920. He retained his post as adjutant until November 1921, when he was posted to the Guards' Depot in CaterhamCaterham
Caterham is a town in the Tandridge District of Surrey, England. The town is geographically divided into two sections: Caterham on the Hill and Caterham Valley - the main town centre. The town lies close to the A22, a few miles south of Croydon, in a valley cut into the dip slope of the North Downs...
. In 1924 he was posted to Sandhurst as adjutant. He was the first adjutant, during the Sovereign's Parade of 1926, to ride his horse (named "The Vicar") up the steps of Old College and to dismount in the Grand Entrance. There is no satisfactory explanation as to why he did it. After the Second World War this became an enduring tradition, but since horses have great difficulty going down steps, a ramp is now provided for the horse to return. Other members of staff at Sandhurst at the time included Richard O'Connor
Richard O'Connor
General Sir Richard Nugent O'Connor KT, GCB, DSO & Bar, MC, ADC was a British Army general who commanded the Western Desert Force in the early years of World War II...
, Miles Dempsey
Miles Dempsey
General Sir Miles Christopher Dempsey, GBE, KCB, DSO, MC was commander of the British Second Army during the D-Day landings in the Second World War...
, Douglas Gracey, and Eric Dorman-Smith
Eric Dorman-Smith
Eric Edward Dorman-Smith , later de-Anglicised to Eric Edward Dorman O'Gowan, was a British Army soldier who served with distinction in World War I, and then seems to have become something of a bête noire to the British military establishment because of his lively mind, and unorthodox...
, with whom he became close friends. Browning relinquished the appointment of adjutant at Sandhurst on 28 April 1928, and was promoted to major on 22 May 1928. Following a pattern whereby tours of duty away from the regiment alternated with those in it, he was sent for a refresher course at the Small Arms School before being posted to the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards, at Pirbright
Pirbright
Pirbright is a village in Surrey, England. Neighbouring villages include Worplesdon, Deepcut, Brookwood and Normandy. Pirbright parish has an area of some falling into two distinct communities with the military area to the north of the railway and the village to the south...
.
His workload was very light, allowing plenty of time for sports. Browning competed in the Amateur Athletic Association of England
Amateur Athletic Association of England
The Amateur Athletic Association of England or AAA is the oldest national governing body for athletics in the world, having been established on 24 April 1880. In the past, it has effectively overseen athletics throughout Britain. Now, it supports regional athletic clubs and works to develop...
championships in hurdling
Hurdling
Hurdling is a type of track and field race.- Distances :There are sprint hurdle races and long hurdle races. The standard sprint hurdle race is 110 meters for men and 100 meters for women. The standard long hurdle race is 400 meters for both men and women...
but failed to make Olympic selection. He did however make the Olympic five-man bobsleigh
Bobsleigh
Bobsleigh or bobsled is a winter sport in which teams of two or four make timed runs down narrow, twisting, banked, iced tracks in a gravity-powered sled that are combined to calculate the final score....
team as brake-man. An injury incurred during a training accident prevented his participation in the bobsleigh at the 1924 Winter Olympics
Bobsleigh at the 1924 Winter Olympics
At the 1924 Winter Olympics, only one bobsleigh event was contested, the four man event. However, rules at the time also allowed a fifth sledder to compete...
, but he competed in the bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics
Bobsleigh at the 1928 Winter Olympics
At the 1928 Winter Olympics, only one bobsleigh event was contested, the five man event. The competition was held on Saturday, February 18, 1928.-Medalists:-Results:-Participating nations:...
in St. Moritz
St. Moritz
St. Moritz is a resort town in the Engadine valley in Switzerland. It is a municipality in the district of Maloja in the Swiss canton of Graubünden...
, Switzerland, in which his team finished tenth. Browning was also a keen sailor, competing in the Household Cavalry Sailing Regatta at Chichester Harbour
Chichester Harbour
Chichester Harbour is a large natural harbour to the south west of the city of Chichester on the Solent. It straddles the boundary of West Sussex and Hampshire. Geographically it is a ria. It is one of four natural harbours in that area of the coastline, the others being Portsmouth Harbour,...
in 1930. He purchased his own motor boat, a 20 feet (6.1 m) cabin cruiser
Cabin cruiser
A cabin cruiser is a type of power boat that provides accommodation for its crew and passengers inside the structure of the craft.A cabin cruiser usually ranges in size from in length, with larger pleasure craft usually considered yachts. Many cabin cruisers can be recovered and towed with a...
that he named Ygdrasil.
In 1931, Browning read Daphne du Maurier
Daphne du Maurier
Dame Daphne du Maurier, Lady Browning DBE was a British author and playwright.Many of her works have been adapted into films, including the novels Rebecca and Jamaica Inn and the short stories "The Birds" and "Don't Look Now". The first three were directed by Alfred Hitchcock.Her elder sister was...
's novel The Loving Spirit
The Loving Spirit
The Loving Spirit is Daphne du Maurier's first published novel from 1931, a saga which spans the lives of three generations of Cornish folk....
and, impressed by its graphic depictions of the Cornish
Cornwall
Cornwall is a unitary authority and ceremonial county of England, within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, and to the east by the county of Devon, over the River Tamar. Cornwall has a population of , and covers an area of...
coastline, set out to see it for himself in Ygdrasil. Afterwards, he left the boat moored in the River Fowey
River Fowey
The River Fowey is a river in Cornwall, United Kingdom.It rises about north-west of Brown Willy on Bodmin Moor, passes Lanhydrock House, Restormel Castle and Lostwithiel, then broadens at Milltown before joining the English Channel at Fowey. It is only navigable by larger craft for the last ....
for the winter, but returned in April 1932 to collect it. He heard that the author of the book that had impressed him so much was convalescing from an appendix
Vermiform appendix
The appendix is a blind-ended tube connected to the cecum , from which it develops embryologically. The cecum is a pouchlike structure of the colon...
operation, and invited her out on his boat. After a short romance, he proposed to her but she rejected this, as she did not believe in marriage. Dorman-Smith then went to see her and explained that their living together without marriage would be disastrous for Browning's career. Du Maurier then proposed to Browning, who accepted. They were married in a simple ceremony at the Church of St Willow, Lanteglos-by-Fowey
Lanteglos-by-Fowey
Lanteglos-by-Fowey is a coastal civil parish in south Cornwall, United Kingdom. It is situated on the east side of the tidal estuary of the River Fowey which separates it from the town and civil parish of Fowey....
on 19 July 1932, and honeymooned on Ygdrasil. Their marriage produced three children: two daughters, Tessa and Flavia, and a son, Christian, known as Kits.
Browning was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 1 February 1936, and was appointed commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards. The battalion was deployed to Egypt in 1936 and returned in December 1937. His term as commander ended on 1 August 1939; he was removed from the Grenadier Guards' regimental list but remained on full pay. On 1 September, he was promoted to colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
, with his seniority backdated to 1 February 1939, and became Commandant of the Small Arms School.
Second World War
Airborne troops
In 1940, Browning was given command of the 128th Infantry Brigade, with the rank of brigadierBrigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
. Part of the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, the 128th was a Territorial Army brigade that was preparing to join the British Expeditionary Force
British Expeditionary Force (World War II)
The British Expeditionary Force was the British force in Europe from 1939–1940 during the Second World War. Commanded by General Lord Gort, the BEF constituted one-tenth of the defending Allied force....
. This was pre-empted by the Fall of France in June 1940, and the division assumed a defensive posture. In 1941, Browning became commander of the 24th Guards Brigade Group
British 24th Infantry Brigade (Guards)
The 24th Infantry Brigade was a British Army formation from the First World War to the late 1990s.- 1914 - 1918 :The Brigade was first formed as part of the 8th Infantry Division by battalions returning from overseas stations to reinforce British forces on the Western Front in France...
, whose mission was to defend London from an attack from the south.
On 3 November 1941, Browning was promoted to major-general, and appointed commander of the 1st Airborne Division. In this new role he was instrumental in parachutists adopting the maroon beret
Maroon beret
The maroon beret is a military beret and has been an international symbol of elite airborne forces since it was chosen for British airborne forces in World War II. This distinctive head dress was officially introduced in 1942, at the direction of General Frederick Browning, commander of the British...
, and assigned an artist, Major Edward Seago, to design the Parachute Regiment's now famous emblem of the warrior Bellerophon
Bellerophon
Bellerophon or Bellerophontes is a hero of Greek mythology. He was "the greatest hero and slayer of monsters, alongside of Cadmus and Perseus, before the days of Heracles", and his greatest feat was killing the Chimera, a monster that Homer depicted with a lion's head, a goat's body, and a...
riding Pegasus
Pegasus
Pegasus is one of the best known fantastical as well as mythological creatures in Greek mythology. He is a winged divine horse, usually white in color. He was sired by Poseidon, in his role as horse-god, and foaled by the Gorgon Medusa. He was the brother of Chrysaor, born at a single birthing...
, the winged horse. However Browning "designed his own uniform, made of barathea
Barathea
Barathea, sometimes spelled barrathea, is a soft fabric, with a hopsack twill weave giving a surface that is lightly pebbled or ribbed. The yarns used cover various combinations of wool, silk and cotton. Worsted barathea is often used for evening coats, such as dress coats and dinner jackets, in...
with a false Uhlan
Uhlan
Uhlans were Polish light cavalry armed with lances, sabres and pistols. The title was later used by lancer regiments in the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian armies....
-style front, incorporating a zip opening at the neck to reveal regulation shirt and tie, worn with medal ribbons, collar patches, and rank badges, capped off with grey kid gloves, and a highly polished Guards Sam Browne belt
Sam Browne belt
The Sam Browne belt is a wide belt, usually leather, which is supported by a strap going diagonally over the right shoulder. It is most often seen as part of a military or police uniform.-Origins:...
and swagger stick
Swagger stick
A swagger stick is a short stick or riding crop usually carried by a uniformed person as a symbol of authority. A swagger stick is shorter than a staff or cane, and is usually made from rattan.-History:...
", all of which were worn in the field. He qualified as a pilot in 1942, and henceforth wore the Army Air Corps wings, which he also designed himself.
Browning supervised the newly-formed division as it underwent a prolonged period of expansion and intensive training, with new brigades raised and assigned to the division, and new equipment tested. Though not considered an airborne warfare visionary, he proved adept at dealing with an apathetic War Office
War Office
The War Office was a department of the British Government, responsible for the administration of the British Army between the 17th century and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Defence...
and an obstructionist Air Ministry
Air Ministry
The Air Ministry was a department of the British Government with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the Royal Air Force, that existed from 1918 to 1964...
, and demonstrated a knack for overcoming bureaucratic obstacles. As the airborne forces expanded in size, the major difficulty in getting the 1st Airborne Division ready for operations was a shortage of aircraft. The Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
had neglected air transport before the war, and the only available aircraft for airborne troops were conversions of obsolete bombers like the Armstrong Whitworth Whitley
Armstrong Whitworth Whitley
The Armstrong Whitworth A.W.38 Whitley was one of three British twin-engine, front line medium bomber types in service with the Royal Air Force at the outbreak of the Second World War...
. Air Chief Marshal
Air Chief Marshal
Air chief marshal is a senior 4-star air-officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force...
Sir Arthur Harris
Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir Arthur Travers Harris, 1st Baronet GCB OBE AFC , commonly known as "Bomber" Harris by the press, and often within the RAF as "Butcher" Harris, was Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief of RAF Bomber Command during the latter half of World War...
in particular felt that the 1st Airborne Division was not worth the drain on of Bomber Command
RAF Bomber Command
RAF Bomber Command controlled the RAF's bomber forces from 1936 to 1968. During World War II the command destroyed a significant proportion of Nazi Germany's industries and many German cities, and in the 1960s stood at the peak of its postwar military power with the V bombers and a supplemental...
's resources.
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Sovereign, to Parliament, to their political party and...
Winston Churchill and the United States Army Chief of Staff General
General (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, general is a four-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. General ranks above lieutenant general and below General of the Army or General of the Air Force; the Marine Corps does not have an...
George C. Marshall visited the 1st Airborne Division on 16 April 1942, they were treated to a demonstration involving every available aircraft of No. 38 Wing RAF
No. 38 Group RAF
No 38 Group RAF was formed on 6 November 1943 from nine squadrons as part of Fighter Command. It was finally disbanded on 1 April 2000.-History:...
—12 Whitleys and nine Hawker Hector
Hawker Hector
-See also:-Bibliography:* Air Transport Auxiliary Ferry Pilots Notes . Elvington, York, UK: Yorkshire Air Museum, 1996. ISBN 0-9512379-8-5....
biplanes towing General Aircraft Hotspur gliders. At a meeting on 6 May chaired by Churchill, Browning was asked what he required. He stated that he needed 96 aircraft to get the 1st Airborne Division battle-ready. Churchill directed Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal
Charles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Charles Frederick Algernon Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford KG GCB OM DSO & Bar MC was a senior Royal Air Force officer and an advocate of strategic bombing...
to find the required aircraft, and Portal agreed to supply 83 Whitleys, along with 10 Halifax bombers to tow the new, larger General Aircraft Hamilcar
General Aircraft Hamilcar
The General Aircraft Limited GAL. 49 Hamilcar or Hamilcar Mark I was a large British military glider produced during the Second World War, which was designed to carry heavy cargo, such as the Tetrarch or M22 Locust light tank...
gliders.
In July 1942, Browning travelled to the United States, where he toured airborne training facilities with his American counterpart, Major-General
Major general (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general...
William C. Lee
William C. Lee
Major General William Carey "Bill" Lee was an American U.S. Army soldier and general. Lee is often referred to as the "Father of the U.S. Airborne".-Biography:...
. Browning's tendency to lecture the Americans on airborne warfare made him few friends among the Americans, who felt that the British were still novices themselves. Browning was envious of the Americans' equipment, particularly the C-47 Dakota transports. On returning to the United Kingdom, he arranged for a joint exercise to be conducted with the 2nd Battalion, US 503rd Parachute Infantry. In mid–September, as the 1st Airborne Division was coming close to reaching full strength, Browning was informed that Operation Torch
Operation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
, the Allied invasion of North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
, would take place in November. When he found that the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry, was to take part, Browning argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised, as the vast distances and comparatively light opposition would provide a number of opportunities for airborne operations.
The War Office and the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, General Sir Bernard Paget
Bernard Paget
General Sir Bernard Charles Tolver Paget GCB, DSO, MC was a British officer who served in both the First and Second World Wars.-Military career:...
, were won over by Browning's arguments, and agreed to detach 1st Parachute Brigade from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
, who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion. After it had been brought to full operational strength, partly by cross-posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade, and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources, the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November.
The results of British airborne operations in North Africa
British airborne operations in North Africa
British airborne operations in North Africa were conducted by the British 1st Parachute Brigade as part of the Tunisian Campaign of World War II over the period between November 1942 and April 1943....
were mixed, and the subject of a detailed report by Browning. The airborne troops had operated under a number of handicaps, including shortages of photographs and maps. All the troop carrier aircrew were American, who lacked familiarity with airborne operations and in dealing with British troops and equipment. Browning felt that the inexperience with handling airborne operations extended to Eisenhowers's Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Force Headquarters was the headquarters that controlled all Allied operational forces in the Mediterranean Theatre of World War II from late 1942 to the end of the war....
and that of the First Army, resulting in the paratroops being misused. He felt that had they been employed more aggressively and in greater strength they might have shortened the Tunisian Campaign by some months. The 1st Parachute Brigade had been called the "Rote Teufel" or "Red Devils" by the German troops they had fought. Browning pointed out to the brigade that this was an honour, as "distinctions given by the enemy are seldom won in battle except by the finest fighting troops." The title was officially confirmed by General Harold Alexander and henceforth applied to all British airborne troops.
On 1 January 1943, Browning was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB). He relinquished command of the 1st Airborne Division in March 1943 to take up a new post as Major-General, Airborne Forces at Eisenhower's Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Forces Headquarters
Allied Force Headquarters was the headquarters that controlled all Allied operational forces in the Mediterranean Theatre of World War II from late 1942 to the end of the war....
(AFHQ). He soon clashed with the commander of the US 82nd Airborne Division, Major-General Matthew B. Ridgway. When Browning asked to see the plans for Operation Husky, Ridgway replied that they would not be available for scrutiny until after they had been approved by the US Seventh Army commander, Lieutenant-General George S. Patton, Jr. When Browning protested, Patton backed Ridgway, but Eisenhower and his chief of staff, Major-General Walter Bedell Smith
Walter Bedell Smith
Walter Bedell "Beetle" Smith was a senior United States Army general who served as General Dwight D. Eisenhower's chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters during the Tunisia Campaign and the Allied invasion of Italy...
, supported Browning and forced them to back down.
Browning's dealings with the British Army were no smoother. His successor as commander of the 1st Airborne Division, Major-General George Hopkinson, had sold the commander of the British Eighth Army
Eighth Army (United Kingdom)
The Eighth Army was one of the best-known formations of the British Army during World War II, fighting in the North African and Italian campaigns....
, General Bernard Montgomery, on Operation Ladbroke
Operation Ladbroke
Operation Ladbroke was a glider landing of British airborne forces near Syracuse, Sicily, that began on 9 July 1943 as part of the Allied invasion of Sicily. The first Allied mission using large numbers of the aircraft, the operation was carried out from Tunisia by the 1st Airlanding...
, a glider landing to seize the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse
Syracuse, Italy
Syracuse is a historic city in Sicily, the capital of the province of Syracuse. The city is notable for its rich Greek history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture, and as the birthplace of the preeminent mathematician and engineer Archimedes. This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in...
. Browning's objections to the operation were ignored, and attempts to discuss airborne operations with the corps commanders elicited a directive from Montgomery that all such discussion had to go through him. Browning concluded that to be effective, the airborne advisor had to have equal rank with the army commanders.
In September 1943, Browning travelled to India where he inspected the 50th Parachute Brigade
50th Parachute Brigade (India)
The 50th Parachute Brigade is a formation of the Indian Army, first formed in 1941. The formation was initially raised as part of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in October 1941, as an independent parachute brigade. Later it was one of two parachute brigades in the 44th Indian...
, and met with Major-General Orde Wingate, the commander of the Chindits
Chindits
The Chindits were a British India "Special Force" that served in Burma and India in 1943 and 1944 during the Burma Campaign in World War II. They were formed into long range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines...
. Browning held a series of meetings with General Sir Claude Auchinleck
Claude Auchinleck
Field Marshal Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck, GCB, GCIE, CSI, DSO, OBE , nicknamed "The Auk", was a British army commander during World War II. He was a career soldier who spent much of his military career in India, where he developed a love of the country and a lasting affinity for the soldiers...
, the Commander-in-Chief, India
Commander-in-Chief, India
During the period of the British Raj, the Commander-in-Chief, India was the supreme commander of the Indian Army. The Commander-in-Chief and most of his staff were based at General Headquarters, India, and liaised with the civilian Governor-General of India...
; Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse
Richard Peirse
Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Edmund Charles Peirse KCB DSO AFC , was a senior Royal Air Force commander.-RAF career:...
, the Air Officer Commander-in-Chief; and Lieutenant-General Sir George Giffard
George Giffard
General Sir George Giffard GCB DSO was a British military officer, who had a distinguished career in command of African troops in World War I, rising to command an Army Group in South East Asia in World War II.-Early career:...
, the General Officer Commanding Eastern Army. They discussed plans for improving the airborne establishment in India and expanding the airborne force there to a division. As a result of these discussions, and Browning's subsequent report to the War Office, the 44th Indian Airborne Division was formed in October 1944. Browning sent his most experienced airborne commander, Major-General Ernest Down
Ernest Down
Lieutenant-General Sir Ernest Edward Down KBE CB was a British General during World War II.-Military career:Ernest Down was commissioned into the Dorset Regiment in February 1923. He served in World War II being appointed Commander of the 2nd Parachute Brigade in North Africa in 1942...
, to India to command it. Down's replacement as commander of the 1st Airborne Division by Montgomery's selection, Major-General Roy Urquhart
Roy Urquhart
Major General Robert "Roy" Elliott Urquhart, CB, DSO was a British military officer. He became prominent for his role commanding the British 1st Airborne Division during Operation Market Garden.-Early career:...
, an officer with no airborne experience, rather than Browning's choice, Brigadier Gerald Lathbury
Gerald Lathbury
General Sir Gerald William Lathbury, GCB, DSO, MBE was a British Army officer during the Second World War and later became Governor of Gibraltar-Military career:...
of the 1st Parachute Brigade, would become controversial.
Some, however, saw him as "a ruthless and manipulative empire builder who brooked no opposition". Brigadier-General
Brigadier general (United States)
A brigadier general in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, is a one-star general officer, with the pay grade of O-7. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general. Brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed...
James M. Gavin
James M. Gavin
James Maurice "Jumpin' Jim" Gavin was a prominent Lieutenant General in the United States Army during World War II...
recalled that when he travelled to England in November 1943, Ridgway "cautioned me against the machinations and scheming of General F. M. Browning, who was the senior British airborne officer, and well he should have." Major-General Ray Barker
Ray Barker
Ray Wehnes Barker was a Major General of the Allied Forces, and served in the European Theater of Operations During World War II. General Barker was a key member of the combined United States-British group, which became known as COSSAC...
told him that Browning was "an empire builder", an assessment that Gavin came to agree with.
Operation Market Garden
Browning assumed a new command on 4 December 1943. His Directive No. 1 announced that "the title of the force is Headquarters, Airborne Troops (21st Army Group). All correspondence will bear the official title, but verbally it will be known as the Airborne Corps and I will be referred to as the Corps Commander." He was promoted to lieutenant-general on 7 January 1944, with his seniority backdated to 9 December 1943. He officially became commander of I Airborne CorpsBritish I Airborne Corps
The 1st Airborne Corps was a airborne forces corps of the British Army during the Second World War. Together with the American XVIII Airborne Corps it was part of the 1st Allied Airborne Army.-Formation:...
on 16 April 1944.
I Airborne Corps became part of the First Allied Airborne Army
First Allied Airborne Army
The First Allied Airborne Army was an Allied formation formed on 2 August 1944 by the order of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force. The formation was part of the Allied Expeditionary Force and controlled all Allied airborne forces in Western...
, commanded by Lieutenant-General Lewis H. Brereton
Lewis H. Brereton
Lewis Hyde Brereton was a military aviation pioneer and lieutenant general in the United States Air Force...
, when the latter was organised in August 1944. While retaining command of the corps, Browning also became Deputy Commander of the Army despite a poor relationship with Brereton and being disliked by many American officers, including Ridgway, who was now the commander of the US XVIII Airborne Corps. During preparations for one of many cancelled operations, Linnete II, his disagreement with Brereton over a risky operation caused him to threaten resignation, which, due to differences in military culture, Brereton regarded as tantamount to disobeying an order. Browning was forced into a humiliating backdown.
Operation Market Garden
Operation Market Garden was an unsuccessful Allied military operation, fought in the Netherlands and Germany in the Second World War. It was the largest airborne operation up to that time....
in September 1944, Browning's rift with Brereton had severe repercussions. Browning was concerned about the timetable put forward by Major-General Paul L. Williams
Paul L. Williams (US general)
Paul Langdon Williams was a United States Army Air Forces and United States Air Force general. As head of the IX Troop Carrier Command during World War II, he was responsible for the airlift of the airborne landings in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, Normandy, southern France, Holland and...
of the IX Troop Carrier Command
IX Troop Carrier Command
The IX Troop Carrier Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with the Ninth Air Force, based at Greenville Army Air Base, South Carolina. It was inactivated on 31 March 1946...
, under which the drop was staggered over several days, and not to make two drops on the first day. This restricted the number of combat troops available on the first day. He also disagreed with the British drop zones proposed by Air Vice Marshal Leslie Hollinghurst
Leslie Norman Hollinghurst
Air Chief Marshal Sir Leslie Norman Hollinghurst GBE, KCB, DFC , was a British First World War Flying Ace who later became an Air Chief Marshal in the RAF.-Involvement in the First World War:...
of No. 38 Group RAF
No. 38 Group RAF
No 38 Group RAF was formed on 6 November 1943 from nine squadrons as part of Fighter Command. It was finally disbanded on 1 April 2000.-History:...
, which he felt were too distant from the bridge at Arnhem
John Frost Bridge
John Frost Bridge is the road bridge over the Lower Rhine at Arnhem, in the Netherlands.The bridge is named after Major-General John Dutton Frost , who commanded the British forces that reached and defended the bridge during the Battle of Arnhem in September, 1944.-Rijnbrug:There had been a...
, but Browning now felt unable to challenge the airmen.
Browning downplayed evidence brought to him by his intelligence officer, Major Brian Urquhart
Brian Urquhart
Sir Brian Urquhart, KCMG, MBE is a former Undersecretary-General of the United Nations. He is also a World War II veteran and an author.-Early life:...
, that the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen
9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen
The 9th SS Panzer Division "Hohenstaufen", also known as SS-Panzergrenadier-Division 9, SS-Panzergrenadier-Division 9 Hohenstaufen or 9. SS-Panzer-Division Hohenstaufen, was a German Waffen-SS Armoured division which saw action on both the Eastern and Western Fronts during World War II. The...
and the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg
10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg
The 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg or 10.SS-Panzer-Division Frundsberg was a German Waffen SS panzer division. The division was formed at the beginning of 1943 as a reserve for the expected Allied invasion of France. However, their first campaign was in the Ukraine in April 1944...
were in the Arnhem area, but was not as confident as he led his subordinates to believe. According to Major-General Roy Urquhart
Roy Urquhart
Major General Robert "Roy" Elliott Urquhart, CB, DSO was a British military officer. He became prominent for his role commanding the British 1st Airborne Division during Operation Market Garden.-Early career:...
, when informed that his airborne troops would have to hold the bridge for two days, Browning responded that they could hold it for four, but then added: "But I think we might be going a bridge too far."
Browning landed by gliders with a tactical headquarters near Nijmegen. His use of 38 aircraft to move his corps headquarters on the first lift has been criticised. Half of these gliders carried signal equipment but for much of the operation he had no contact with either the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem or the US 101st Airborne Division
101st Airborne Division
The 101st Airborne Division—the "Screaming Eagles"—is a U.S. Army modular light infantry division trained for air assault operations. During World War II, it was renowned for its role in Operation Overlord, the D-Day landings on 6 June 1944, in Normandy, France, Operation Market Garden, the...
at Eindhoven. His headquarters had not been envisaged as a frontline unit, and the signals section that had been hastily assembled just weeks before lacked training and experience. In his pack, Browning carried three teddy bears and a framed print of Albrecht Dürer
Albrecht Dürer
Albrecht Dürer was a German painter, printmaker, engraver, mathematician, and theorist from Nuremberg. His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance ever since...
's The Praying Hands
Betende Hände
Betende Hände, in English Praying hands , is a famous Pen-and-ink drawing by the German printmaker, painter and theorist Albrecht Dürer made circa 1508. The artwork is stored at Albertina museum — Graphische Sammlung in Vienna, Austria...
.
Gavin, now the US 82nd Airborne Division's commander, was critical of Browning, writing in his diary on 6 September 1944 that he "...unquestionably lacks the standing, influence and judgement that comes from a proper troop experience....his staff was superficial...Why the British units fumble along...becomes more and more apparent. Their tops lack the know-how, never do they get down into the dirt and learn the hard way."
After the war, Gavin and his staff were criticised for the decision to secure the high ground around Groesbeek
Groesbeek
Groesbeek is a municipality and a town in the eastern Netherlands.-Description:Groesbeek is named after a small stream called the Groesbeek, which in its original form doesn't exist anymore...
before attempting the capture of the Waal bridge
Waalbrug
The Waalbrug is an arch bridge over the Waal River in Nijmegen, Gelderland, Netherlands.The full length of the Waalbrug is , and the middle of the arch is about high...
at Nijmegen. Browning took responsibility for this, noting that he "personally gave an order to Jim Gavin that, although every effort should be made to effect the capture of the Grave and Nijmegen bridges as soon as possible, it was essential that he should capture the Groesbeek Ridge and hold it".
After the battle, Browning was awarded the Order of Polonia Restituta (II class) by the Polish government-in-exile, but his critical evaluation of the contribution of Polish forces
Polish Armed Forces in the West
Polish Armed Forces in the West refers to the Polish military formations formed to fight alongside the Western Allies against Nazi Germany and its allies...
led to the removal of Polish Major-General Stanisław Sosabowski as the commanding officer of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade
Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade
The 1st Independent Parachute Brigade was a parachute brigade under command of Maj.Gen. Stanisław Sosabowski, created in Scotland in September 1941, with the exclusive mission to drop into occupied Poland in order to help liberate the country. The British government, however, pressured the Polish...
. Some writers later claimed that Sosabowski had been made a scapegoat for the failure of Market Garden, but Field Marshal Montgomery attached no blame to Browning or any of his subordinates, or indeed acknowledged failure at all. He told the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, that he would like Browning to take over VIII Corps in the event that Richard O'Connor were transferred to another theatre.
South East Asia Command
Events took a different course. AdmiralAdmiral (United Kingdom)
Admiral is a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, which equates to the NATO rank code OF-9, outranked only by the rank Admiral of the Fleet...
Lord Louis Mountbatten
Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma
Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas George Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC, FRS , was a British statesman and naval officer, and an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh...
, the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command
South East Asia Command
South East Asia Command was the body set up to be in overall charge of Allied operations in the South-East Asian Theatre during World War II.-Background:...
(SEAC), had need of a new chief of staff owing to the poor health of Lieutenant-General Henry Royds Pownall
Henry Royds Pownall
Lieutenant General Sir Henry Royds Pownall KCB, KBE, DSO was a British general, who held several important command and Staff appointments during World War II. In particular, he was Chief of Staff to the British Expeditionary Force in France and Belgium until the fall of France in May 1940...
. Brooke turned down Mountbatten's initial request for either Lieutenant-General Archibald Nye
Archibald Nye
Lieutenant-General Sir Archibald Edward Nye, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, KCB, KBE, MC was a British Army officer who served in both World War I and World War II...
or Lieutenant-General John Swayne
John Swayne
Lieutenant General Sir John George des Reaux Swayne KCB CBE was General Officer Commanding South-East Command.-Military career:Swayne was commissioned into the Somerset Light Infantry in 1911...
. Brooke then offered Browning for the post, and Mountbatten accepted. Pownall considered that Browning was "excellently qualified" for the post, although he had no staff college training and had never held a staff job before. Pownall noted that his "only reservation is that I believe [Browning] is rather nervy and highly strung". For his services as a corps commander, Browning was mentioned in despatches a second time, and was awarded the Legion of Merit
Legion of Merit
The Legion of Merit is a military decoration of the United States armed forces that is awarded for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements...
in the degree of Commander by the United States government.
Browning served in South East Asia from December 1944 until July 1946; Mountbatten soon came to regard him as indispensable. Browning had an American deputy, Major-General Horace H. Fuller, and brought a number of staff with him from Europe to SEAC headquarters in Kandy
Kandy
Kandy is a city in the center of Sri Lanka. It was the last capital of the ancient kings' era of Sri Lanka. The city lies in the midst of hills in the Kandy plateau, which crosses an area of tropical plantations, mainly tea. Kandy is one of the most scenic cities in Sri Lanka; it is both an...
, Ceylon. SEAC headquarters developed an adversarial relationship with that of Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese
Oliver Leese
Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver William Hargreaves Leese, 3rd Baronet, KCB, CBE, DSO was a British general during World War II.-Early years:...
's Allied Land Forces South East Asia (ALFSEA). Matters came to a head when Leese attempted to replace the victorious commander of the Fourteenth Army, Lieutenant-General Sir William Slim. In the resulting furore, Leese was relieved instead. Slim took over ALFSEA and was replaced as Fourteenth Army commander by Browning's friend General Sir Miles Dempsey
Miles Dempsey
General Sir Miles Christopher Dempsey, GBE, KCB, DSO, MC was commander of the British Second Army during the D-Day landings in the Second World War...
. For his services at SEAC, Browning was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1946. His last major military post was as Military Secretary of the War Office
War Office
The War Office was a department of the British Government, responsible for the administration of the British Army between the 17th century and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Defence...
from 1946 to 1948.
Later life
In January 1948, Browning became ComptrollerComptroller
A comptroller is a management level position responsible for supervising the quality of accounting and financial reporting of an organization.In British government, the Comptroller General or Comptroller and Auditor General is in most countries the external auditor of the budget execution of the...
and Treasurer
Treasurer
A treasurer is the person responsible for running the treasury of an organization. The adjective for a treasurer is normally "tresorial". The adjective "treasurial" normally means pertaining to a treasury, rather than the treasurer.-Government:...
to Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth Duchess of Edinburgh, although he did not officially retire from the Army until 5 April 1948. This appointment was made on the recommendation of Lord Mountbatten, whose nephew Philip Mountbatten was now the Duke of Edinburgh
Duke of Edinburgh
The Duke of Edinburgh is a British royal title, named after the city of Edinburgh, Scotland, which has been conferred upon members of the British royal family only four times times since its creation in 1726...
. As such, Browning became the head of the Princess' personal staff. He also juggled a number of other duties. In 1948 he was involved with the 1948 Summer Olympics
1948 Summer Olympics
The 1948 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIV Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event which was held in London, England, United Kingdom. After a 12-year hiatus because of World War II, these were the first Summer Olympics since the 1936 Games in Berlin...
as Deputy Chairman of the British Olympic Association
British Olympic Association
The British Olympic Association is the national Olympic committee for Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It was formed in 1905 in the House of Commons, and at that time consisted of seven national governing body members from the following sports: fencing, life-saving, cycling, skating, rowing,...
, and commandant of the British team. From 1944 to 1962 he was Commodore of the Royal Fowey Yacht Club
Royal Fowey Yacht Club
The Royal Fowey Yacht Club is located in a waterfront setting at Fowey, on the south coast of Cornwall one of the UK's most secure harbours.Its antecedents can be traced back to 1880; its third Honorary Secretary, from 1893, was Arthur Quiller-Couch, who became Sir Arthur. The minutes and...
; on stepping down in 1962, he was elected its first Admiral.
Upon the death of King George VI in 1952, the Duchess of Edinburgh inherited the throne as Queen Elizabeth II. Browning and his staff became redundant, as the Queen was now served by the large staff of the monarch. The domestic staff remained at Clarence House
Clarence House
Clarence House is a royal home in London, situated on The Mall, in the City of Westminster. It is attached to St. James's Palace and shares the palace's garden. For nearly 50 years, from 1953 to 2002, it was home to Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, but is since then the official residence of The...
, where they continued to serve the Queen Mother
Queen mother
Queen Mother is a title or position reserved for a widowed queen consort whose son or daughter from that marriage is the reigning monarch. The term has been used in English since at least 1577...
. The remainder were reorganised as the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh, with Browning as treasurer, the head of the office, moving into a new and larger office at Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace, in London, is the principal residence and office of the British monarch. Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality...
. Like the Duke they served, the office had no constitutional role, but followed his sporting, cultural and scientific interests. Browning became involved with the Cutty Sark
Cutty Sark
The Cutty Sark is a clipper ship. Built in 1869, she served as a merchant vessel , and then as a training ship until being put on public display in 1954...
Trust, set up to preserve the famous ship, and in the administration of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award. In June 1953, Browning and Du Maurier attended the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
The Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II was the ceremony in which the newly ascended monarch, Elizabeth II, was crowned Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Ceylon, and Pakistan, as well as taking on the role of Head of the Commonwealth...
.
Browning had been drinking since the war, but it had now become chronic
Alcoholism
Alcoholism is a broad term for problems with alcohol, and is generally used to mean compulsive and uncontrolled consumption of alcoholic beverages, usually to the detriment of the drinker's health, personal relationships, and social standing...
. This led to a severe nervous breakdown
Nervous breakdown
Mental breakdown is a non-medical term used to describe an acute, time-limited phase of a specific disorder that presents primarily with features of depression or anxiety.-Definition:...
in July 1957, forcing his resignation from his position at the Palace in 1959. Du Maurier had known of his taking a mistress in Fowey, but his breakdown brought to light two other girlfriends in London. For her part, Du Maurier confessed to her own wartime affair. For his services to the Royal Household, Browning was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1953, and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in 1959. He retreated to Menabilly
Menabilly
Menabilly is an Elizabethan house on the south coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom, on the Rashleigh Estate, seat of the Rashleigh family. Menabilly is situated on the Gribben peninsula about west of Fowey...
, the mansion that had inspired Du Maurier's novel Rebecca
Rebecca (novel)
Rebecca is a novel by Daphne du Maurier. When Rebecca was published in 1938, du Maurier became – to her great surprise – one of the most popular authors of the day. Rebecca is considered to be one of her best works...
, which she had leased and restored in 1943. Browning caused a scandal in 1963 when, under the influence of prescription drugs and alcohol, he was involved in an automobile accident in which two people were injured. He was fined £50 and forced to pay court and medical costs. He died from a coronary at Menabilly on 14 March 1965.
Legacy
Browning was portrayed by Dirk BogardeDirk Bogarde
Sir Dirk Bogarde was an English actor and novelist. Initially a matinee idol in such films as Doctor in the House and other Rank Organisation pictures, Bogarde later acted in art-house films such as Death in Venice...
in the film A Bridge Too Far, based on the events of Operation Market Garden. A copy of Browning's uniform was made to Bogarde's measurements from the original in the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum
Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum
The Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum is now located at Imperial War Museum Duxford. Prior to 2008 it was based at Browning Barracks in the Aldershot Military Town area near Aldershot in Hampshire...
. The Airborne Forces Museum, which opened in 1969, was for many years located in Browning Barracks, which had been built in 1964 and named after Browning. Browning Barracks remained the depot of the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces until 1993. The museum moved to the Imperial War Museum Duxford
Imperial War Museum Duxford
Imperial War Museum Duxford is a branch of the Imperial War Museum near the village of Duxford in Cambridgeshire, England. Britain's largest aviation museum, Duxford houses the museum's large exhibits, including nearly 200 aircraft, military vehicles, artillery and minor naval vessels in seven...
in 2008, and Browning Barracks was sold for housing development.