Culture of Tunisia
Encyclopedia
The culture of Tunisia is a product of more than three thousand years of history and an important multi-ethnic influx. Ancient Tunisia
was a major civilization crossing through history; different cultures, civilizations and multiple successive dynasties contributed to the culture of the country over centuries with a varying degrees of influence. Among these cultures were the Carthaginian
- their native civilization, Roman
, Vandal
, Jewish, Christian
, Arab
, Islamic, Turkish
, and French
, in addition to native Berbers
. This unique mixture of cultures made Tunisia
, with its strategic geographical location in the Mediterranean, the core of some great civilizations of Mare Nostrum
.
The history of Tunisia
reveals this rich past where different successive Mediterranean cultures had a strong presence. After the Carthaginian Republic, the Roman Empire
came and left a lasting effect on the land with various monuments and cities such the El-Jem Amphitheater and the archaeological site of the ancient city of Carthage
, which is classified as a world heritage site
. El Jem is just one of seven world heritage sites found in Tunisia.
After a few centuries of the presence of Christianity, represented by the Church of Africa
, the Arab Islamic conquest transformed the whole country and founded a new city called Al-Qayrawan
, Al-Qayrawan is a renowned center for religious and intellectual pursuits.
With the annexation of Tunisia by the Ottoman Empire
, the center of power shifted from Tunis
to Istanbul
. This shift in power allowed the local government of the new Ottoman Province to gain more independence, which was maintained until the institution of the French Protectorate (which was later seen as occupation). The protectorate introduced elements of Western – French – culture.
The important elements of Tunisian culture are diverse and represent a unique, mixed heritage. This heritage can be experienced first-hand in: museums such as the Bardo Museum
, the contrast and diversity of city architecture such as Sidi Bou Said
or the medina of Tunis
, cuisine such as cheeses and French croissants, music reflecting Andalusian and Ottoman influences, literature, cinema, religion, the arts, and sports and other areas of Tunisian culture.
The Encyclopédie 360 describes Tunisia as a country that "did not develop truly original art" but is "strongly marked by various influences and is engrained with monuments which illustrate the various stages of its history ". In his thesis study on Cultural Policy in Tunisia, Rafik Said has mused that, "this relatively small area has produced estates, overlapping of cultures, and a confrontation of morals and doctrines throughout its history. Janice Rhodes Deledalle has referred to Tunisia as "cosmopolitan" and has said that "Tunisia cannot be considered in the category of as other colonies", because of the diversity of cultures embedded in Tunisia's heritage throughout the ages.
Tunisia's cultural life dates to prehistoric times, as illustrated by dolmens near Bou Salem
and rock carvings of the Tunisian Sahara
. The Hermaïon of El Guettar, discovered near the city of El Guettar in the south, is the oldest extant religious display discovered.
The dawning era of Tunisian cultural history was shaped by Carthaginian influences including Phoenicia
n, Greek
and Egypt
ian. There is much evidence of Phoenician and western artwork and Egyptian glass work found in Punic tombs, notably in masks which the Phoenician used to drive out evil spirits or demons of death with their decorations, such as the lotus motifs found on many objects or in the artistic design buildings. The paintings and sculptures of the lids of sarcophagi from the necropolis of Carthage and El Alia, the architecture of the mausoleum of Dougga
are characterized by the combined influence of Greece and Egypt. In addition, we find a trace of Hellenic
influences overlapping Egyptian and Punic culture. In sculpture found in Tunisia, there has been a distinct, almost symbolic evolution towards a style which is a representative, idealized perfection of a body, state, etc. Greek pottery is also emulated, and it is a fact that potters from Greece were employed to produce objects in Carthage.
The works of Roman Tunisia do not differ greatly from those of Europe. Among those handed down to us are Thuburbo Majus
, Gigthis, the amphitheater of El Jem, the capital of Dougga, the Baths of Antoninus
and the Triumphal Arch of Caracalla. Subsequently, when Christianity was founded in Carthage, numerous monuments were erected. The Church in Africa, having been illustrated with famous martyrs such as St. Cyprian of Carthage or bishops as Saint Augustin d'Hippone, grew quickly in prestige. Many Christian monuments are erected including the catacombs of Sousse
or the Makthar baptistery. Basilicas in multiple aisles, like St. Cyprian, were built based on the Syrian influences. However, the Church suffered persecution under a long reign of the Vandals who confiscated some of its properties. The arrival of the Byzantines lead to the disappearance of the latter and the restoration of a dense network of Orthodox bishops. During this period, many hills were crowned with Byzantine fortifications, such as in Kélibia
.
With the Arab conquest, specifically during the reign of the dynasty Aghlabids, Kairouan
became a renowned intellectual center, attracting many scholars. In played an important role in translation and research, particularly in the dissemination of medical science knowledge. In mathematics, contributions to computational algorithm
s were also made in Kairouan. The Arabs then erected buildings specific to Islamic architecture. While some retain a Byzantine essence, such as Three Doors Mosque in Kairouan (built in the ninth century) or ribat Sousse, many of the ancient columns are purely Arab such as the great Zitouna Mosque of Tunis (ninth century) and the Great Mosque of Mahdia in Kairouan (tenth century).
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, poets, scholars, historians increased in number in Tunisia. Zitouna Mosque, in the medina of Tunis housed the first Islamic university, and replaced Kairouan as an active center of intellectuals that included doctors and scholars, such as Ibn Zaïtoun, Ibn Al Abhar, Ibn Al Gafsi and Ibn Arafa. Thanks to scholars like Ibn Khaldun
and writers such as Abou el Kacem Chebbi, Tunisia for centuries became a major cultural center in the Arab-Muslim world and Mediterranean.
During the Turkish conquest in the sixteenth century, mosques, such as that of Sidi Mahrez Mosque
in Tunis were erected in a manner to those in Constantinople
, although the Zaouia
s generally retain their north African style in Kairouan.
The French protectorate in turn left its mark on local architecture by adding a new urban style that can be found in the construction of a new city plan juxtaposed against the old medina of Tunis. Heavily influenced by Paris, with the Avenue Bourguiba, the style is known as "Rococo
Tunisian ".
. Other minor languages include French and Shelha. Lingua Franca
and Sened are languages that are not spoken anymore. National identity is strong and Tunisian efforts to create a national culture have proved stronger than in the nineteenth century. National culture and heritage is constantly referred to with reference to the country's modern history, in particular, the fight against the French protectorate and the construction of the modern state that followed from the 1950s. This is celebrated through national holidays, in the names of streets recalling historical figures or key dates or the subject of films or documentaries. With the start of the rule of President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali on November 7, 1987, the official reference to the figure 7 and the theme of "Change" contributes to the perpetuation of that tradition.
is predominantly red and consists of a white circle in the middle containing a red crescent
around a five-pointed star
. The Bey of Tunis Al-Husayn II ibn Mahmud
decided to create the flag after the Battle of Navarino
on 20 October 1827, which was adopted in 1831 or 1835. It remained the country's official flag during its time as a French protectorate
, and was confirmed as the national flag of the Republic of Tunisia with the signing of the Constitution of Tunisia on 1 June 1959. It was not until 30 June 1999 that its proportions and design were clearly specified in law.
The crescent and star recalls the Ottoman flag
and is therefore an indication of Tunisia's history as a part of the Ottoman Empire
. It differs from the Turkish flag, however, in the color of the crescent and the position of the star and circle. The crescent is white on the Turkish flag, but red on the Tunisian flag. On the Turkish flag, the star is off-centered, while on the Tunisian flag, the star and circle is located in the center of the flag.
Imported by the Andalusians in the sixteenth century, jasmine
has become the national flower of Tunisia. The gathering takes place at dawn and then, upon nightfall, when young boys collect small bouquets, and later sell them to passersby on the street or to motorists stopped at intersections.
Furthermore, jasmine is the subject of a specific sign language. A man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single and in addition, offering white jasmine is seen as a proof of love while on the contrary, offering odorless winter jasmine is a sign of insolence.
The Tunisian Constitution provides for the free exercise of religion as they do not affect public order. The government generally respects this right but do not allow the establishment of political parties based on religion. Muslim religious holidays such as Eid el-Adha, Eid el-Fitr or Mouled are considered national holidays. The government also recognizes the sanctity of religious holidays for non-Muslims, particularly those of the monotheistic religions.
Islam
is the main official religion of Tunisia with a rate of around 99% of the population. 99% of Tunisians are Sunni Muslims of the Maliki
rite, the rest being attached to the Hanafi cult. There is also a small community of Muslim Sufis but there are no statistics regarding its size. The country is also dotted with small white buildings scattered in rural and urban areas and called marabouts. These tombs of saints, often male, are usually housed in places such as caves, hills, springs or points on the coast. Through meditation, these characters were supposed to heal the sick and blind. Their graves are still key to the relationship between the human and the divine in the context of festivals bringing together members of a particular community (a village, or extended family or tribe). Today, the Tunisians continue to pray and to ask them for favors.
In the 1970s, an Islamist movement, based on close adherence to the Koran and other sacred texts, opposed to some unorthodox practices developed and reached its climax with the formation of a political movement, the Ennahda (Renaissance) in the 1980s. Most of their leaders were arrested or exiled during the 1990s.
Roman Catholics, Jews
, Greek Orthodox, and Protestants are some others. These religious groups are small but promised their rights of practicing their religion by Tunisian government. Christianity
and Judaism
have a very small following in Tunisia but the country is characterized by its tolerance and openness to other cultures which influenced these religious minorities. For instance, the teaching of Islam is compulsory in public schools but the program of religious studies at the secondary level also includes the history of Judaism and Christianity. The Tunisians also retain some native beliefs of Berber origin such as the evil eye
. A number of practices, such as shutters painted blue are also used to repel evil spirits.
, Douiret
, Matmata
, Tamezrett, etc., and in some villages of the island of Djerba
, mainly Guellala/Iquallalen, Ajim, Sedouikech / Azdyuch and Ouirsighen / At Ursighen.
During the French protectorate in Tunisia, the French introduced many institutions, especially in education, which become a strong vehicle for dissemination. It quickly become a marker of social advancement and openness to more modern and liberal values.
From independence, the country gradually became Arabized even if the administration, justice and education had long been bilingual, while the knowledge of European languages has been enhanced by exposure of Tunisia to the continent through the TV. Visas were introduced by the French minister Charles Pasqua
in 1986 for population movements between Tunisia and France. In October 1999, commercial establishments are forced to give twice the space for Arabic characters as Latin characters. At the same time, the administration of Tunisia is forced to communicate only in Arabic but only the departments of Defense and Justice and the legislature are actually fully Arabized. Like many other documents produced by the administration, the Official Journal of the Republic of Tunisia, which enacts laws and decrees, is written in Arabic but is translated in French
, although this version has no legal value and can not be considered official. In this context, the use of French seems to be on the decline despite the increased number of graduates of the educational system, which leads to the fact that much of French remains an important social indicator. Since it is widely practiced in the business, the medical world and cultural world, we can even consider that it has gentrified.
Now even if the courses are entirely in Arabic
in kindergarten and the first three grades (undergraduate), thereafter, the second cycle of primary and secondary education is half Arabic and half French. English
was also taught from the age of 15 from 1970, from the age of 10 years from 1994 and from the age of 14 years from 1997 and then from the age of 12 years in 2000.
Now days Tunisian are easy going, enjoy food, traveling and an easy going life. Women play a big role in the Tunisian culture. Men in Tunisia give lots of respect to their partner and mothers.
Tunisia is the third favorite destination of European tourists, with it's rich heritage, history and open minded people, Tunisia has been voted Best Mediterranean country by trip adviser three years in a row. Tunisia is also the Third largest exporter of Olive oil.
and Sunnah
.
The first educational institution of modern Tunisia was the Sadiki College
, founded in 1875 by the Grand Vizier Pasha Kheireddine, followed by the Khaldounia School in 1896. In 1956, after independence, began a policy of education reform that was characterized by the unity, the nationalization and the Arabization of the education system. In this context, Habib Bourguiba
said in 1958:, "Living on the margins of institutions and harassing the protectorate system for recognition of our rights, I told myself that if the government passed into our hands, we'd address primarily the problem of education." This "problem" was so vast that the state gave priority to national education and culture from then on. This is one reason why the Tunisian government specifically created a body dedicated to culture, then called "Ministry of Cultural Affairs and Information". The second reason was the need to separate culture and education, the latter no longer the only means of transmitting culture. The third reason was the responsibility to the nation.
In 1966, as part of increasing political literacy of the workforce, the Institute of Adult Education became responsible for making some 150,000 people literate in a period of five years. It conducted these activities mainly in the productive sectors - agricultural cooperatives, factories, mines and large companies - but also in the craft centres, army, prisons and youth centres. The lessons of this institute include, in addition to reading, writing and arithmetic lessons, geography, history, civics, law, and social and religious education. Additional courses of vocational training are also given opportunities. More generally, the length of the main course is two years with five sessions of one hour and a half per day, a total of 450 hours, culminating with a certificate of social education. A third year bilingual course was created in 1968 for those wishing to continue their studies. This led to some 1,090 people attending this course during the 1968-1969 school year. This resulted in the institute being awarded the Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Prize during the third International Day of Literacy, on September 8, 1969, "for decisive contribution to the launch and implementation of a national adult literacy in which is developed, tested and has implemented an effective methodology for literacy and education ".
On December 31, 1966, there were 21 public libraries for children and independent public libraries for adults. The children's libraries are run by women, deemed more likely to understand children. Mobile teachers and librarians were employed to ensure the promotion of culture in rural areas, and some 52 centers of literature were established with the purpose of loaning books for home study. This measure was aimed at increasing the development of reading habits into the customs of the Tunisian people.
, one in Sfax
, one at Kairouan
, one in Gabès
, one in Gafsa
, one in Monastir
and one in Jendouba
but it also has 178 other institutions including 24 colleges for Technology Studies (ISET) and six higher institutes of teacher training (ISFM).
At the same time, there are two French schools in Tunisia, the Lycée Pierre Mendes-France and the Lycée Gustave Flaubert, both of which apply the methods and programs similar to those applied in France. There is also the American international School and Tunis International school. New updated into education's curiculum has been implemented during the last 20 years; and now is qualified to be an international system. 80% of Tunisian hold some kind of degree. With almost 66% are holder of bachelor. The penetration rate of education among Tunisian is 87% Attendance remains strong despite high tuition fees (from 1.400 to 1.800 dinars per year in the cycle). Originally intended to educate the children of expatriates and a Francophile elite, they now attract a majority of Tunisians (over 60% of the 3,000 students today) particularly from the bourgeois of Tunisia who are attracted by their multicultural courses and attracted to the possibility of pursuing higher studies in France. It is in this context that the Paris Dauphine University is considering opening an office in Tunisia in 2009 to accommodate 1,000 students.
Vocational training is provided by a group of public operators which include the Tunisian Agency for Vocational Training, which provides instructional supervision of all public and private operators. The diplomas issued after an initial training are given at three levels: the certificate of vocational aptitude (CAP) which is a course lasting a minimum of one years after basic education, certification as professional engineer (construction ) which is a course lasting a minimum of one years after the first cycle of secondary education after obtaining a CPC, and a higher technical certificate (BTP) from a course lasting minimum of two years after the baccalaureate or after obtaining the construction certificate.
In 2001, 19.9% of the national budget is spent on education in Tunisia. In 2005, the literacy rate is 76.2% and the enrollment of children 12 to 17 years, equal for boys and girls, is 66%. Access to higher education is 27% of the age group it concerns.
s of ancient Rome
. The Archaeological Museum of Sousse, founded in 1951, has the second largest collection of mosaics after the Bardo. The Oceanographic Museum of Salammbo, with its 11 rooms, is the main Tunisian museum dedicated to the sea. The National Museum of Islamic Art in Tunisia has several collections of pottery, pieces of Korans and calligraphy
dating from when Raqqada occupied the Aghlabids capital, from the 9th century.
In the 1970s, a program was implemented in cooperation with UNESCO
. It provides four types of museum: museums synthesis, regional museums, local museums and specialized museums. The Bardo Museum is a good example of museum synthesis since this type of museum is expected to house objects from all periods of the history of Tunisia without taking into account the origin of these.
The existence of these museums is justified by the fact that they illustrate the evolution of artistic creation over the civilizations. Regional museums are limited to chief towns and governorates, specializing in the history of each region. As for local museums, they are part of a policy of decentralization of culture to participate through museum education of the masses by encouraigng more and more people to visit the museums. Some local museums exist in Makthar, Utica
, Carthage
and Monastir
. Finally, specialized museums themselves can be divided into two other categories of museums: the museums dedicated to a historical period and museums specializing in a given subject]. In the first category, there is already the Dar Hussein museum, entirely devoted to the medieval Tunisia. In the second category, two projects were selected: the mosaic museum and a Paleo-Christian museum. The mosaic museum is fully justified by the richness of Tunisia in art museums and provides an evolution both thematically and chronologically on the subject. As for the Paleo-Christian Museum, it is now located in Carthage.
Other specialized museums are also considered as museums of culture and science museums. These are used to trace the history and evolution of technology.
, Spain
, Persia and the Near East forming the style known as Arabesque
. Tunisian artists are known for their mosaics and pottery. Their mosaics use a variety of colors in repetitive patterns to adorn walls and floors by depicting a story or person. Mosaics are often used in architecture by implementing the use of geometric shapes and accenting with gold. Though, the displays of some artwork can be seen on buildings and architecture, one could find many sources of art in one place in the Bardo Museum
in Tunis
.
Tunisian music is the result of a cultural mix strongly influenced by Egypt
. According to Mohammed Abdel Wahab
, Tunisian music has also been influenced by old Andalusian songs injected with Turkish, Persian and Greek influences. He believes that the Tunisian music has undergone three phases of outside influences: the first from the East and whose center was in Mecca
and Medina
, the second coming from Muslim Spain which was the center of Andalusia
and the last coming from the Ottoman Empire
and whose center was Istanbul
. The legacy of its three phases are illustrated respectively in the creation of Tunisian traditional music, the Malouf
the introduction of the Nuba
in Tunisian music, and finally the use of forms such as Turkish, Samai and Bashraf. Also influenced by Western culture, it is relatively diversified.
Of major note in Tunisian classical music is the Malouf. Deriving from the reign of the Aghlabids in the 15th century, it is a particular type of Arab-Andalusian music. In urban areas it uses stringed instruments (fiddle
, oud
and Kanun) and percussion (darbuka) while in rural areas, it may also be accompanied by instruments like the mezoued, gasba and the zurna
.
At the beginning of twentieth century, musical activity was dominated by the liturgical repertoire associated with different religious brotherhoods and secular repertoire which consisted of instrumental pieces and songs in different Andalusian forms and styles of origins, essentially borrowing characteristics of musical language. In 1930 "The Rachidia" was founded well known thanks to artists from the Jewish community. The founding in 1934 of a musical school help revive Arab Andalusian music largely to a social and cultural revival led by the elite of the time who became aware of the risks of loss of the musical heritage and which they believed theatened the foundations of Tunisian national identity. The institution did not take long to assemble an elite group of musicians and poets and scholars. The creation of Radio Tunis in 1938 allowed musicians are greater opportunity to disseminate their works.
The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the emergence of composers and performers working mostly in the orchestra of the Tunisian Radio and Television. Song using melodies and popular rhythms experienced a significant rise. From the 1980s, the music scene saw the emergence of a generation of musicians, composers and performers of Arab and Western musical training who believed that Tunisian music needed new song writing techniques. The emergence of new patterns of racial and improvised music since the late 1990s changed the musical landscape of Tunisia. At the same time, the majority of the population is attracted by the music of Arab origin (Egyptian, Lebanese or Syrian). Popular western music has also had major success with the emergence of many groups and festivals, including rock music
, hip-hop, reggae
and jazz
.
Among the major Tunisian contemporary artists include Hedi Habbouba, Saber Rebai
, Dhafer Youssef
, Belgacem Bouguenna, Sonia M'Barek and Latifa
. Other notable musicians include Salah El Mahdi, Anouar Brahem
, Zied Gharsa and Lotfi Bouchnak.
Tunisian cinema is today recognized as one of the most liberal, most inventive (and one of the most prize-winning) cinemas of the Arab world. Since the 90s, Tunisia became an attractive place for filming and numerous companies has emerged serving the foreign film industry and have become successful.
Cinema has been present in Tunisia since its first world appearance. Starting from 1896, the Lumière brothers
were showing animated views in the streets of Tunis
. In 1919, the first feature-length movie produced on the African continent: Les Cinq gentlemen maudits (The Five Accursed Gentlemen) was filmed in Tunisia. In 1924, Zohra directed a medium-length film called Ain Al-Ghazal (The Girl from Carthage) thus making him, one of the very first native filmmakers on the African continent. In 1966, the first feature Tunisian film (95 minutes) Al-Fajr (The Dawn) was directed and produced by Omar Khlifi; it was shot on a 35 mm film
. Tunisia also hosts the Carthage Film Festival
which has been taking place since 1966. The festival gives priority to films from Arab and African countries. It is the oldest film festival on the African continent and the Arab World.
In 1927, the first Tunisian film distribution company, Tunis-Film, started its activities. After independence, movies were exclusively produced by SATPEC (Société Anonyme Tunisienne de Production et d'Expansion Cinématographique) which controlled cinema and filming productions in the country at the time. Nevertheless, during the 80s, private production companies and studios emerged and wanted to make Tunisia the Mediterranean Hollywood. The producer Tarak Ben Ammar
, a nephew of Wasila Bourguiba, succeeded in attracting some big production companies to shoot inside his studios in Monastir
. Major foreign movies were filmed in Tunisia including but not limited to Roman Polanski
's Pirates and Franco Zeffirelli
's Jesus of Nazareth. After visiting Tunisia, George Lucas
was seduced by the natural beauty and authentic old architecture of some southern Tunisian towns, where he decided to film the important Tatooine scenes of Star Wars
, as well as Indiana Jones
. Moreover, Anthony Minghella
filmed the nine Academy Awards
winner The English Patient
in a south-west oasis of the country.
When it comes to domestic productions, they were rare: the few movies which were produced since 1967 tried to reflect the new social dynamics, development, identity research and modernity shock. Some of them achieved a relative success outside Tunisia such as La Goulette (Halq El-Wadi 1996) directed by Ferid Boughdir which showed a flashback of typical community life in the small suburb of La Goulette in a period where Muslims, Jews and Christians lived together in tolerance and peace. Halfaouine: Child of the Terraces (Asfour Stah 1990), from the same director Boughdir is possibly the biggest popular success in the history of Tunisian Cinema. The movie showed the life of a child from Tunis (Halfouine suburb) in the 60s who was on a quest to understand relationships, the world of women and how to be a man.
In earlier films, including Man of Ashes (Rih Essedd 1986) director and writer Nouri Bouzid depicts controversial issues in Tunisian society, addressing social issues like prostitution, pedophilia and inter-faith relations between Tunisian Muslims and Tunisian Jews. In the 1991 film Bezness, he explores the emerging sexual tourism trade inside the country.
The Ambassadors
(As-Soufraa 1975) directed by Naceur Ktari portrayed the life of immigrant Maghrebins in France and their struggle against racism. The film won the Golden Tanit for the best picture during the Carthage Film Festival in 1976, the special jury award from the Locarno International Film Festival
in the same year and it has been classified in the Un Certain Regard category during the 1978 Cannes Film Festival
.
The first feature-film ever to be directed by a woman in the Arab World was The Silences of Palace
(Samt Al-Qusur 1994) by Moufida Tlatli
. The director won several international jury awards for her work. The movie shows the daily life in an aristocratic palace in Tunis through the eyes of a young woman.
In 2007, several films were produced and grabbed public attention such as Making Of directed by Nouri Bouzid and Nejib Belkadi's VHS Kahloucha.
, Pauline Carton
, Gérard Philipe
and Jean Marais
to mention a few. On November 7, 1962, Habib Bourguiba
, whose brother is a playwright, devoted his speech to this art, which he considers "a powerful means of disseminating culture and a most effective means of popular education". From this date, November 7 is regarded as the Tunisian National Day of drama.
In 1970, under the leadership of the actor Aly Ben Ayed, Caligula by Albert Camus
was translated into Arabic and the play was a great success. Other works written by Habib Boularès
such as Murad III or The Time of Buraq retained the themes of bloody violence. Increasingly more and more shows are restricted for the benefit of a more sophisticated audience. The New Theater of Tunis grew up with Mohamed Driss
as one of the most prolific authors. In 1988, Driss was appointed head of the Tunisian National Theater
(TNT) and took charge of renovating a neglected theatre, Le Paris, located in the heart of Tunis. He acquired a stage, the team of modern architects and renamed it the "Fourth Art". Opened in 1996, it alternates between cycles of TNT theater and ballet, circus and song. Each cultural season lasts from October 1 to June 30 and the theatre has hosted more than 80 theatrical performances.
El Teatro is the first private theatre in Tunisia. Founded in 1987 by Taoufik Jebali, in a wing of the hotel El Mechtel Tunis, El Teatro consists of the main hall of representatives with some 200 seats, an annex called the Carré d'Art, a gallery and exhibition called Free Area. El Teatro is directed by Zeineb Farhat. Throughout the year, El Teatro offers theater, dance performances, jazz concerts, galas of Arabic music, art exhibitions and poetry readings.
s, weddings and festive events such as festivals, concerts, football games, etc. Tunisian dance resembles that of Egyptian dance, and is distinguished mainly by its dynamic, since it is faster with more staccato
, and the multitude of forms, with each region having its own "style". It is therefore difficult to speak of a Tunisian dance, especially since the Egyptian influence appears to have long proven itself in major cities.
The variety of dances performed by the Tunisians probably reflects the migration flows that have traversed the country throughout the centuries. Thus, the early Phoenicians brought with them their songs and dances, whose traces are rooted in the region of Tunis, while the Romans have left few traces of art in relation to their architectural contribution. The arrival of the Banu Hilal in the eleventh century, completed the implementation of the Arab Maghreb, in Tunisia when the traditions, music and dance of the nomads of Upper Egypt were introduced. Religious dances were influenced by Sufism
but by the end of the 15th century, had progressively become Andalusian with their dances and urban music. Oriental dance would arrive later with the Ottomans, although some experts in the history of North African art have said it was brought to Tunisia by the first Turkish corsairs in the sixteenth century while others say that the origin of this dance goes back further to the era of matriarchy in Mesopotamia
and founded by the early Phoenicians. This form of oriental dance usually performed in Tunisia insists on the movements of the pelvis in rhythm, movement highlighted by the elevation of the arms to horizontal, and feet moving in rhythm and transferring weight onto the right leg or left.
The dance reflects a social phenomenon born in the working classes of Tunisian cities. The male dance, accompanied by love songs often evoke libertine seduction, attraction and carnal pleasures of life, and has long been performed in cafes backed by music, typically the darbuka and mezoued. Since the 1970s, however, the dance has declined in cafes and is more often characterized in modern times as being displayed at festivals and circumcision ceremonies or marriage in the neighborhoods of big cities.
The Nuba, more rooted in popular practice, is linked to the dancers and the Kerkennah Djerba to a lesser extent. Some experts say that their dress is of Greek origin. Structured into several scenes, the dance is often accompanied by acrobatic games with jars filled with water.
The most common religious dance is probably the Stambali which is originally a ritual dance to the glorify Sidi Saad, a religious Sudanese Muslim who arrived in Tunisia in the sixteenth century with his followers . Today his shrine is located in the Mornag
region. However, in the aftermath of independence, the authorities have banned the ritual and closed many of the sanctuaries. Followers still continue their rituals at home, but today it has been more adopted by the Jews and no longer has any connection with its Islamic origins.
Today, the National Troupe Folk Art Center or the National Dance of Ariana practice the traditional dances Tunisian dances. The national archives notably suffer from a lack of documents related to these dances and folk arts.
Because of the prohibition of reproducing the human image, the Muslim ruling dynasties have stifled pictorial art for centuries. The painter therefore often turned to calligraphy. Not until the French protectorate was this form of artwork reborn. Although at the beginning of the twentieth century, galleries had already become reserved for European painters and artists such as Moses Levy
and Yahia Turki
were able to present their work.
The birth of a Tunisian contemporary painting is strongly linked to the School of Tunis, established by a group of artists from Tunisia with united by the desire to incorporate native themes and rejecting the influence of Orientalist colonial painting. It was founded in 1949 and brings together French and Tunisian Muslims, Christians and Jews. Pierre Boucherle was its main instigator, along with Yahia Turki
, Abdelaziz Gorgi
, Moses Levy
, Ammar Farhat and Jules Lellouche. Given its doctrine, some members have therefore turned to the sources of aesthetic Arab-Muslim art: such as miniature Islamic architecture, etc. Expressionist paintings by Amara Debbache, Jellal Ben Abdallah and Ali Ben Salem are recognized while abstract art captures the imagination of painters like Edgar Naccache, Nello Levy and Hedi Turki.
After independence in 1956, the art movement in Tunisia was propelled by the dynamics of nation building and by artists serving the state. A Ministry of Culture was established, under the leadership of ministers such as Habib Boularès
who saw art and education and power. Artists gained international recognition such as El Mekki or Zoubeir Turki and influenced a generation of new young painters. Sadok Gmech draws his inspiration from national wealth while Moncef Ben Amor turns to fantasy. In another development, Youssef Rekik reused the technique of painting on glass and founded Nja Mahdaoui calligraphy with its mystical dimension.
Moreover, Tunisia has left many European painters, with Alexander Roubtzoff often being regarded as the "painter of Tunisia". He arrived in Tunis in 1914 through a grant from the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg, and he decided to settle permanently in Tunisia. Until his death in 1949, he produced some 3,000 paintings representing various facets of Tunisia as a protectorate. Paul Klee
and August Macke
also visited Tunisia in 1914 and left a lasting impression. Macke is noted for his series of watercolors in the cubist style while Klee is noted for his advocation of light and colors to illustrate the Tunisian landscape.
There are currently fifty art galleries housing exhibitions of Tunisian and international artists. These galleries include Gallery Yahia in Tunis and Carthage Essaadi gallery.
Tunisian literature exists in two forms: Arabic and French. Arabic literature dates back to the seventh century with the arrival of Arab civilization in the region. It is more important in both volume and value than French literature, introduced during the French protectorate from 1881.
Among the literary figures include Douagi Ali, who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays, Khraief Bashir, an Arabic novelist who published many notable books in the 1930s and which caused a scandal because the dialogues were written in Tunisian dialect, and others such as Moncef Ghachem, Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad
or Mahmoud Messaadi. As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as Aboul-Qacem Echebbi
. As for literature in French, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of Albert Memmi
, who predicted that literature Tunisian was sentenced to die young, a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including Abdelwahab Meddeb
, Bakri Tahar, Mustapha Tlili, Hele Beji or Mellah Fawzi. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.
The national bibliography lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia, with 885 titles in Arabic. In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007. Nearly a third of the books are published for children.
In this context, private publishing companies developed fast; the editorial production between 1987 and 1996 amounted to 6,068 titles. Now, most of Tunisia's book production comes from the private sector from over a hundred publishers. The budget devoted to literature by the Ministry of Culture in 2003 exceeded three million Tunisian dinar
s for the purchase of Tunisian and foreign books and periodicals. 2003 was also proclaimed "National Book Year" in Tunisia which allowed the organization of fairs and exhibitions, meetings for reflection and debate, writing contests, etc.
.
In 2007, some 245 newspapers and magazines (compared to only 91 in 1987) are 90% owned by private groups and independents. The Tunisian political parties have the right to publish their own newspapers, but those of the opposition parties have very limited editions (like Al Mawkif or Mouwatinoun). Freedom of the press is guaranteed by the constitution although almost all newspapers following the government line report without critical approach to the activities of the president, government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally Party (in power) through the Agence Tunis Afrique Presse.
During the summer, annually in the July, the Carthage International Festival takes place, the International Festival of Arts of Mahr (late July-early August) and the International Festival of Hammamet.
It is during the months of October–November that the Carthage Film Festival
is held, every alternate year to the Carthage Theatre Festival. The Carthage Film Festival was created in 1966 by the Tunisian Minister of Culture, to showcase films from the Maghreb
, Africa and the Middle East. In order to be eligible for competition, a film must have a director of African or Middle Eastern nationality, and have been produced at least two years before entry. Its grand prize is the Tanit d'or
, or "Golden Tanit," named for the lunar goddess
of ancient Carthage
; the award is in the shape of her symbol, a trapezium sumrounted by a horizontal line and a circle.
Finally, the year is completed by the Sahara International Festival, which honors the cultural traditions associated with the Tunisian desert. This attracts many tourists and musicians from all around the world such as horsemen who flaunt their saddles and local fabrics and skills.
Other festivals honor traditional Tunisian music and notably jazz, including the Tabarka Jazz Festival.
Islamic architecture
is expressed in various facets in Tunisia. Through many buildings, Kairouan
forms the epicenter of an architectural movement expressing the relationship between buildings and spirituality with the ornamental decoration of religious buildings in the holy city. In Djerba
, the architecture such as the fortress of Kef
reflects the military and spiritual destiny of a Sufi influence in the region.
The influential role of the various dynasties that ruled the country, particularly in building cities and princes of Raqqada Mahdia, illuminates the role of the geopolitical context in the architectural history of the country. Thus, many original fortresses that protected the coast from Byzantine invasions evolved into cities, like Monastir
, Sousse
or Lamta.
The medina of Tunis, is World Heritage Site
of UNESCO, and is a typical example of Islamic architecture. However, in the areas between the ports of Bizerte
and Ghar El Melh, settlements founded by the Moors
fleeing Andalusia were reconquered by Catholic sovereigns and has more of a Christian influence.
Given the cosmopolitan nature of cities in Tunisia, they have retained a diversity and juxtaposition of styles. Many buildings were designed by many different architects, artisans and entrepreneurs during the French protectorate. Among the most famous architects of that time were Victor Valensi, Guy Raphael, Henri Saladin, Joss Ellenon and Jean-Emile Resplandy.
Five distinct architectural and decorative styles are particularly popular: those of the eclectic style (neo-classical
, baroque
, etc..) Between 1881 and 1900 and then again until 1920 the style was neo-Mauresque, between 1925 and 1940 it was in the Art Deco
style and then the modernist style between 1943 and 1947.
In the south, the oasis of Gafsa
, Tozeur
or Nafta, and ksours and cave dwellings of Matmata are characterized by their response to the hostile environment arising from the heat and dryness of the desert or semi-desert.
Tunisia is also known for its many craft products and many of the regions of Tunisia have different specialities and trades.
Tunisian pottery is mainly influenced by Guellala, a city behind the creation of other pottery centers on the coast of Tunisia, including Tunis, Nabeul
, Moknine
, etc. Yellow, green or brown enamel is the trademark of Nabeul for example. Shaping, baking and decoration of pottery however, remain primitive.
The ironwork in Tunisia dates back to the Andalusian era when the studded ornamental wrought iron doors become a characteristic. Blue is the tradition with the window shutters, intended to beautify the homes and preserve the privacy of residents and ward off evil spirits. The grids recall the lattices of the Arab-Andalusian tradition, and carved wood panels, which enabled women to watch the street without being seen.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, each region and often even each village had its own costume. Today, traditional dress is mostly reserved for only weddings and other national or native ceremonies. On a national level, the jebba
has become traditional dress, a wide coat covering the whole body, which differs depending on the quality of its fabric, its colors and its trimmings. The men's slippers are usually the natural color of the leather
,
while women's are generally of embroidered silk
, cotton
, gold
and silver
with floral patterns. Although the workshops in each city and some villages produce textiles typical of the region such as Gabes, the quantity sold is low compared to centers such as Kairouan which is still the national center of carpet production. The kilim
, an embroidered rug is a legacy of Ottoman rule in Tunisia.
Finally, Tunisia has a rich tradition of mosaics dating back to ancient times. Punic mosaics were found at sites around Kerkouane or Byrsa hill at Carthage dating to Roman times, a mosacis with pictorial representation, combined with high quality marble, has been found, especially on the site of Chemtou
.
is considered a ceremonial garment. White in summer and gray in winter, it is a sleeveless tunic that a man wears over a shirt, vest and baggy trousers (called seroual). On ordinary days, the men merely simple trousers and shirts, or/and a woolen tunic of a more slimmer fit than the jebba and fitted with long sleeves. In winter, they wear a heavy wool cloak which is often hooded, or in the north a kachabiya, which differs from the latter by its brown and white stripes.
In urban areas, the ceremonial dress consists of a linen shirt with collar and long sleeves. The seroual is adorned at the bottom of the legs with decorative pockets. A wide belt, cut from the same material keeps the seroual in shape. A jebba, a wool and silk full dress is worn in winter. The shoes, leather slippers, leave the heel exposed. Finally, the headdress is a fez or Qaboos, a red felt hat which is sometimes adorned with a tassel of black thread. For a casual ceremony, during leisure hours, often just a jebba is worn.
Women's clothing is much more diverse than that of men. In the towns, the vast majority of young women have adopted the European style but women of a certain age, even in urban areas, often wrap a sefseri, white veil of silk or fine wool that covers the head with a blouse and baggy pants. These figures of women wearing sefseri is engrained in the traditional culture of Tunisia as much as the blue and white houses of Sidi Bou Said. In rural areas, women still wear brightly colored dresses, often in the Berber style and made of blue or red cotton, representing their region or their village. The fabric is opened on the side and is held at the waist with a belt and at the shoulders by two clasps. Women of all ages typically wear a massive amount of jewelry with the clothing and it is common to see women with tens, even hundreds of gold sovereigns, necklaces and other trimmings around their necks and from the sides of the headdress.
The festive ceremonial costumes differ somewhat across regions. In the Sahel, the centerpiece of the ceremonial dress is a dress draped in wool or cotton, drawn to a bodice embroidered with silk and silver, a velvet jacket decorated with gold, lace pants and a silk belt. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the brides of the wealthy aristocracy of Tunis often wore a Kaftan
cut in velvet
, brocade
or silk
and richly embroidered with gold and enriched with precious stones. Nowadays, some marrying in Sousse and Hammamet
still wear a kaftan with elbow-length sleeves, an open front, and varying in length from the knee to the mid calf. The richness and originality of the costumes are typically based less on the cut or the fabric as they are on woven patterns or embroidery.
Wearing the hijab
is not widespread in Tunisia although the country has seen a relative increase since the early 2000s. Indeed, the state prohibited it in schools and in the government offices.
, flute
and some doll
s as an accompaniment. The performance would often include the technique of imitating various characters in the context of Halqa, when two or three other narrators are involved and invite the public to participate. Other forms of narrative are the stories told by the cyclic meddah, the character of boussadia and Stambali shows, both of which are linked to communities from sub-Saharan Africa.
The narratives are institutionalized into different types: Nadira, the Hikaye, the Qissa and Khurafi. The Nadira (story), as well as recitations of the Koran was considered the oral genre par excellence by the Tunisian elite and working classes. It consists of cycles, relating a vast repertoire of stories based on vulgar but intelligent and witty character named Jha. Other narrators specialize in Hikaye or Hikayat, a Tunisian term to describe the epic sagas that recall the history of Tunisian towns and villages, particularly from the eleventh century. The latter emphasize the female characters, in which the character of Zazi represents the archetype of Tunisian women, and are a fundamental part of oral tradition as they include elements of local Arab epics. As for the Qissa, it can be defined in terms of classical Koranic stories. Didactic in nature, it is considered part of Arab-Islamic religious literature Finally, the Khurafi is the most imaginative and popular oral tradition of Tunisia. Functioning as a kind of collective memory, it results from an interaction between the narrators and the public.
The puppet called karakouz, has been present in North Africa from the fourteenth century, and the Teatro dei Pupi (originating in Sicily), enjoyed popularity until the early twentieth century. The performances took place during the month of Ramadan
in Halfaouine, a district of Tunis. Karakouz was once played in Turkish until the beginning of the nineteenth century before moving to the Tunisian dialect. The main characters are lively and include officials, a smoker of hashish, the French Madama, Salbi, Nina and ethnic Albanians amongst others. This type of show relies heavily on double entendres, puns, satire
, black comedy
and caricature
. Among the themes addressed are superstition, sexuality or women. The Teatro dei Pupi, executed in Tunisian dialect, account for its three main characters: Nina the Jew, Nekula the Maltese
and Ismail Pasha, a valiant warrior who fought against the Christian kings.
Gradually after independence, gender roles and behavioral norms views start to change in Tunisian culture with the development of gender equality inside the society. In 1957 the Code of Personal Status (CSP) came into force, which gives women a new status, unprecedented in the Arab-Muslim world.
This code establishes in particular the principle of equality between man and woman in terms of citizenship, forbade polygamy, allows women to divorce, established the minimum age for marriage at 15 for women and 18 for men and requires the consent of both spouses as a rule of validity of any marriage. Later, in 1964, the minimum age for marriage was advanced to 17 years for women and 20 years for men. Later, on the 50th anniversary of the CSP, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali decided to unify this age for young men and women in 2007.
Today, the position of women in Tunisia is among the most privileged in North Africa, and can be compared to that of European women. In 2002, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women commended Tunisia for "its great strides forward in promoting equality between men and women". Nevertheless, in rural places where life to some degree remains traditional, Tunisian women still have a long way to go to reach genuine equality. The man is still considered the head of family and inheritance is completely unequal.
The official government policies and programs for decades has strongly emphasized on gender equality and on promoting social development, translating into concrete results. According to latest figures, women make up 26% of the working population and more than 10,000 women are heads of businesses. At the same time, over one third of the approximately 56.000 graduates emerging annually from Tunisian universities are girls. On 1 November 1983, President Habib Bourguiba
appointed the first two women ministers: Fethia Mzali (Family and Promotion of Women) and Souad Yaacoubi (Public Health) as leaders. Today the proportions of female representation in legislative and advisory bodies are: 22.7% in the Chamber of Deputies, over 15% in the Chamber of Advisors, over 27% in municipal councils, 18% in the Economic and Social Council, 13.3% in the Higher Council of the Judiciary, 12% among ministry departmental staff. In some areas, women outnumber men, for instance in the pharmaceutical sector women represent more than 72% of all Tunisian Pharmacists. In addition, Tunisian Women are present in key national domains such Education where they constitute half of the educational body and 40% of university professors.
The Tunisian household is based on the patriarchal model where the man is placed in the dominant role. Most households are based upon the model of the nuclear family
within which the tasks are assigned according to age and sex and personal skills. Developments in education and employment, however, somewhat alleviated this situation.
A study published by the National Family and Population on June 19, 2007, shows that 1 in 10 women accept intercourse before marriage and for boys, this statistic is 4 to 10. The study also shows a sharp decline in the average age at marriage with 33 years for men and 29.2 years for women.
n, Roman
, Arab
, Turkish
, French
, and the native Berber people
. Tunisian food uses a variety of ingredients and in different ways. The main dish that is served in Tunisia is Couscous
, made of minuscule grains that are cooked and usually served with meat and vegetables. In cooking they also use a variety of flavors such as: olive oil
, aniseed, coriander
, cumin
, caraway
, cinnamon
, saffron
, mint
, orange
, blossom
, and rose water.
Many of the cooking styles and utensils began to take shape when the ancient tribes were nomads. Nomadic people were limited in their cooking by what locally made pots and pans they could carry with them. A tagine is really the name of a conical-lidded pot, although today the same word is applied to what is cooked in it.
Like all countries in the Mediterranean basin, Tunisia offers a "sun cuisine", based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood (a wide range of fish) and meat from rearing (lamb).
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Unlike other North African cuisine, Tunisian food is quite spicy. A popular condiment and ingredient which is used extensively Tunisian cooking, harissa
is a hot red pepper sauce made of red chili peppers and garlic
, flavoured with coriander
, cumin
, olive oil
and often tomatoes. There is an old wive's tale that says a husband can judge his wife's affections by the amount of hot peppers she uses when preparing his food. If the food becomes bland then a man may believe that his wife no longer loves him. However when the food is prepared for guests the hot peppers are often toned down to suit the possibly more delicate palate of the visitor. Like harissa or chili peppers, the tomato is also an ingredient which cannot be separated from the cuisine of Tunisia. Tuna
, eggs
, olives and various varieties of pasta
, cereals, herbs and spices are also ingredients which are featured prominently in Tunisian cooking.
Tabil
, pronounced "table", is a word in Tunisian Arabic meaning "seasoning" and refers to a particular Tunisian spice mix, although earlier it meant ground coriander. Paula Wolfert makes the plausible claim that tabil is one of the spice mixes brought to Tunisia by Muslims expelled from Andalusia
in 1492 after the fall of Granada
. Today tabil, closely associated with the cooking of Tunisia, features garlic, cayenne pepper, caraway and coriander seeds pounded in a mortar and then dried in the sun and is often used in cooking beef or veal.
Thanks to its long coastline and numerous fishing ports, Tunisia can serve an abundant, varied and exceptionally fresh supply of fish in its restaurants. Many diners will be content to have their fish simply grilled and served filleted or sliced with lemon juice and a little olive oil. Fish can also be baked, fried in olive oil, stuffed, seasoned with cumin
(kamoun). Squid, cuttle fish, and octopus are often served in hot crispy batter with slices of lemon, as a cooked salad or stuffed and served with couscous.
Couscous
is the national dish of Tunisia and can be prepared in many ways, Its also known as the best couscous of North Africa. It is cooked in a special kind of double boiler called a kiska:s in Arabic or couscoussière in French. Meat and vegetables are boiled in the lower half. The top half has holes in the bottom through which the steam rises to cook the grain which is put in this part. Cooked this way the grain acquires the flavour of whatever is below. The usual grain is semolina
. To serve, the grain is piled in the middle of a dish, and the meat and vegetables put on top. A sauce can be then poured over before serving.
Like in the rest of North Africa, couscous is served on all occasions. It is traditionally eaten with lamb, the semolina must be very fine, and the vegetables (carrots, little white cabbages, turnips, chick peas) only lightly cooked. Depending on the season, the vegetables change: there may also be cardoons, cold broad beans, or pumpkin. Unlike Moroccan tajines, a tajine in Tunisia usually refers to a kind of "quiche
" made from beaten eggs and grated cheese consisting of meat and/or various vegetable fillings, prepared like a large cake and cooked in the oven.
The most sought-after seafood speciality is poisson complet: the fish is prepared, fried, grilled or sautéed, accompanied by potato chips and either normal or spicy tastira, depending on the kind of peppers used in the dish. The peppers are grilled with a little tomato, a lot of onion and a little garlic, all of which is finely chopped and served with a poached egg.
has 14 teams that complete against one another for a trophy, also a chance to qualify for the Champions league of the African Nations. The Tunisian national team won the African Nations Cup in the year 2004.
However, sports like volleyball (eight national team championship wins in Africa) and handball (seven national team championship wins in Africa) are also among the sports most represented. Handball is considered the country's second most popular sport and in 2005, Tunisia held the 2005 World Handball Championships
and won 4th place in the competition. Other notable sports include the martial arts (taekwondo
, judo
and karate
), athletics and tennis
. Other major sports like cycling are less represented in contrast, because of lack of infrastructure and equipment but competitors still compete in the Tour of Tunisia.
The Tunisian sports year is punctuated by major competitions such as the championships in football, handball, volleyball and basketball. The country also organizes international competitions. Thus, the first edition of the FIFA World Cup Under-20 was held in Tunisia in 1977,
the final stages of the African Cup of Nations in 1965,
1994 and 2004, and the last edition was won by the national team.
In May 2007, the country had 1,673 registered sports clubs whose main assets are in football (250) and taekwondo (206). Then come karate and its derivatives (166), wheelchair sports (140), handball (85), athletics (80), judo (66) kung fu (60), kick boxing (59), basketball (48), bowls (47), table tennis (45), volleyball (40) boxing (37), swimming (31) and tennis (30).
. This department, created on December 11, 1961, is, according to the decree n ° 2005-1707 of June 6, 2005, "responsible, under the general policy of the state to run national choices in the fields of culture and heritage preservation and establish plans and programs to promote these areas ".
In 1999, the budget allocated to 0.6% to culture and reached 1.25% in 2009 and is set to reach 1.5% in 2010. 50% of this increase is linked to a policy of decentralization of culture through the promotion in the areas of cultural institutions such as houses of culture, cultural committees and associations. During 2007, seven libraries were established and 30 public libraries managed. Ten houses of culture were under construction, half completed in 2008, and another 40 houses are under maintenance. The year 2008 was also proclaimed "national year of translation".
On November 7, 2007, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali announced the creation of a Higher Council for Culture, made up of celebrities and those belonging to various fields of culture and arts, which will be invited to discuss proposed ideas and approaches to promote their areas and strengthen the influence of Tunisia abroad.
In practice, the average number of performances has increased from 1,863 in 2000 to 3,560 in 2007. Special rates not exceeding 35% of the normal price is set for students, teachers and members of the touring theatre. Moreover, to enter the House of Culture in Tunis, the entrance is often free or not under any circumstances exceeds 100 millimes.
However, while Kairouan's ambition is to become the "capital of Islamic culture" in 2009, MPs criticize some of the poor quality of artistic productions. Some regret the delay in the excavation of sites such as Salakta or El Haouaria and criticize the dilapidated state of some buildings, particularly that of Borj Zouara and Bab Saadoun. Moreover, the Tunisian museums should, according to some, be the subject of more attention, notably by addressing the problem of low attendance caused by the high cost of tickets.
History of ancient Tunisia
History of ancient Tunisia has been divided into three articles:*Early History of Tunisia**Berber background**Accounts of the Berbers**Ancient Berber religion**Berber tribal affiliations**Berber language history**Sea traders from the east...
was a major civilization crossing through history; different cultures, civilizations and multiple successive dynasties contributed to the culture of the country over centuries with a varying degrees of influence. Among these cultures were the Carthaginian
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
- their native civilization, Roman
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
, Vandal
Vandals
The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe that entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century. The Vandals under king Genseric entered Africa in 429 and by 439 established a kingdom which included the Roman Africa province, besides the islands of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearics....
, Jewish, Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
, Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
, Islamic, Turkish
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, and French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, in addition to native Berbers
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
. This unique mixture of cultures made Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
, with its strategic geographical location in the Mediterranean, the core of some great civilizations of Mare Nostrum
Mare Nostrum
Mare Nostrum may refer to:*Mare Nostrum, the Roman term for the Mediterranean Sea, adopted by Italian nationalists and fascists.*Mare Nostrum , a Spanish-language novel by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez...
.
The history of Tunisia
History of Tunisia
The History of Tunisia is subdivided into the following articles:*Outlines of early Tunisia*History of Punic era Tunisia*History of Roman era Tunisia*History of early Islamic Tunisia*History of medieval Tunisia*History of Ottoman era Tunisia...
reveals this rich past where different successive Mediterranean cultures had a strong presence. After the Carthaginian Republic, the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
came and left a lasting effect on the land with various monuments and cities such the El-Jem Amphitheater and the archaeological site of the ancient city of Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
, which is classified as a world heritage site
World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
. El Jem is just one of seven world heritage sites found in Tunisia.
After a few centuries of the presence of Christianity, represented by the Church of Africa
Christianity in Africa
Christianity is now one of the two most widely practised religions in Africa and is the largest religion in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most adherents outside Egypt, Ethiopia and Eritrea are Roman Catholic or Protestant. The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in...
, the Arab Islamic conquest transformed the whole country and founded a new city called Al-Qayrawan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
, Al-Qayrawan is a renowned center for religious and intellectual pursuits.
With the annexation of Tunisia by the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, the center of power shifted from Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
to Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
. This shift in power allowed the local government of the new Ottoman Province to gain more independence, which was maintained until the institution of the French Protectorate (which was later seen as occupation). The protectorate introduced elements of Western – French – culture.
The important elements of Tunisian culture are diverse and represent a unique, mixed heritage. This heritage can be experienced first-hand in: museums such as the Bardo Museum
Bardo Museum
The Bardo National Museum is a museum located in Tunis, Tunisia.-Location:...
, the contrast and diversity of city architecture such as Sidi Bou Said
Sidi Bou Said
Sidi Bou Said is a town in northern Tunisia located about 20 km from the capital, Tunis.The town got its name for a Muslim religious figure who lived there, Abou Said ibn Khalef ibn Yahia Ettamini el Beji . The town itself is a tourist attraction as it is known for the extensive use of blue and...
or the medina of Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
, cuisine such as cheeses and French croissants, music reflecting Andalusian and Ottoman influences, literature, cinema, religion, the arts, and sports and other areas of Tunisian culture.
Cultural diversity
Tunisia's cultural life dates to prehistoric times, as illustrated by dolmens near Bou Salem
Bou Salem
Bou Salem is a town and commune in the Jendouba Governorate, Tunisia. As of 2004 it had a population of 20,098.-References:...
and rock carvings of the Tunisian Sahara
Sahara
The Sahara is the world's second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over , it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean...
. The Hermaïon of El Guettar, discovered near the city of El Guettar in the south, is the oldest extant religious display discovered.
The dawning era of Tunisian cultural history was shaped by Carthaginian influences including Phoenicia
Phoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
n, Greek
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
and Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
ian. There is much evidence of Phoenician and western artwork and Egyptian glass work found in Punic tombs, notably in masks which the Phoenician used to drive out evil spirits or demons of death with their decorations, such as the lotus motifs found on many objects or in the artistic design buildings. The paintings and sculptures of the lids of sarcophagi from the necropolis of Carthage and El Alia, the architecture of the mausoleum of Dougga
Dougga
Dougga or Thugga is an ancient Roman city in northern Tunisia, included in a 65 hectare archaeological site.UNESCO qualified Dougga as a World Heritage Site in 1997, believing that it represents “the best-preserved Roman small town in North Africa”...
are characterized by the combined influence of Greece and Egypt. In addition, we find a trace of Hellenic
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
influences overlapping Egyptian and Punic culture. In sculpture found in Tunisia, there has been a distinct, almost symbolic evolution towards a style which is a representative, idealized perfection of a body, state, etc. Greek pottery is also emulated, and it is a fact that potters from Greece were employed to produce objects in Carthage.
The works of Roman Tunisia do not differ greatly from those of Europe. Among those handed down to us are Thuburbo Majus
Thuburbo Majus
Thuburbo Majus is a large Roman site in northern Tunisia. It is located roughly 60 km southwest of Carthage on a major African thoroughfare. This thoroughfare connects Carthage to the Sahara. Other towns along the way included Sbiba, Sufes, Sbeitla, and Sufetula. Parts of the old Roman road are...
, Gigthis, the amphitheater of El Jem, the capital of Dougga, the Baths of Antoninus
Antoninus
Antoninus is an Ancient Roman family name which derived from the given name Antonius the Latin form of Anthony.*Any of the Antonines, including:**Antoninus Pius **Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus *Caracalla...
and the Triumphal Arch of Caracalla. Subsequently, when Christianity was founded in Carthage, numerous monuments were erected. The Church in Africa, having been illustrated with famous martyrs such as St. Cyprian of Carthage or bishops as Saint Augustin d'Hippone, grew quickly in prestige. Many Christian monuments are erected including the catacombs of Sousse
Sousse
Sousse is a city in Tunisia. Located 140 km south of the capital Tunis, the city has 173,047 inhabitants . Sousse is in the central-east of the country, on the Gulf of Hammamet, which is a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The name may be of Berber origin: similar names are found in Libya and in...
or the Makthar baptistery. Basilicas in multiple aisles, like St. Cyprian, were built based on the Syrian influences. However, the Church suffered persecution under a long reign of the Vandals who confiscated some of its properties. The arrival of the Byzantines lead to the disappearance of the latter and the restoration of a dense network of Orthodox bishops. During this period, many hills were crowned with Byzantine fortifications, such as in Kélibia
Kelibia
Kelibia is a coastal town on the Cap Bon peninsula, Nabeul province in the far northeastern part of Tunisia. Its sand beaches are considered one the finest of the Mediterranean sea....
.
With the Arab conquest, specifically during the reign of the dynasty Aghlabids, Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
became a renowned intellectual center, attracting many scholars. In played an important role in translation and research, particularly in the dissemination of medical science knowledge. In mathematics, contributions to computational algorithm
Algorithm
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for calculating a function. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning...
s were also made in Kairouan. The Arabs then erected buildings specific to Islamic architecture. While some retain a Byzantine essence, such as Three Doors Mosque in Kairouan (built in the ninth century) or ribat Sousse, many of the ancient columns are purely Arab such as the great Zitouna Mosque of Tunis (ninth century) and the Great Mosque of Mahdia in Kairouan (tenth century).
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, poets, scholars, historians increased in number in Tunisia. Zitouna Mosque, in the medina of Tunis housed the first Islamic university, and replaced Kairouan as an active center of intellectuals that included doctors and scholars, such as Ibn Zaïtoun, Ibn Al Abhar, Ibn Al Gafsi and Ibn Arafa. Thanks to scholars like Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun was an Arab Tunisian historiographer and historian who is often viewed as one of the forerunners of modern historiography, sociology and economics...
and writers such as Abou el Kacem Chebbi, Tunisia for centuries became a major cultural center in the Arab-Muslim world and Mediterranean.
During the Turkish conquest in the sixteenth century, mosques, such as that of Sidi Mahrez Mosque
Sidi Mahrez Mosque
Sidi Mahrez Mosque, also known as Mohamed Bey El Mouradi Mosque, is a mosque in Tunis, Tunisia, located in Medina area of the city. It is an official Historical Monument...
in Tunis were erected in a manner to those in Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, although the Zaouia
Zaouia
A zaouia or zawiya is an Islamic religious school or monastery. The term is Maghrebi and West African, roughly corresponding to the Eastern term madrassa...
s generally retain their north African style in Kairouan.
The French protectorate in turn left its mark on local architecture by adding a new urban style that can be found in the construction of a new city plan juxtaposed against the old medina of Tunis. Heavily influenced by Paris, with the Avenue Bourguiba, the style is known as "Rococo
Rococo
Rococo , also referred to as "Late Baroque", is an 18th-century style which developed as Baroque artists gave up their symmetry and became increasingly ornate, florid, and playful...
Tunisian ".
National symbols
The vast majority of Tunisians are Arab/Berber (98%) followed by European (1%) and Jewish (1%). The most spoken language is Arabic, but the dialect is Tunisian ArabicTunisian Arabic
Tunisian Arabic is a Maghrebi dialect of the Arabic language, spoken by some 11 million people. It is usually known by its own speakers as Derja, which means dialect, to distinguish it from Standard Arabic, or as Tunsi, which means Tunisian...
. Other minor languages include French and Shelha. Lingua Franca
Lingua Franca
Lingua Franca was an American magazine about intellectual and literary life in academia.-Founding:The magazine was founded in 1990 by Jeffrey Kittay, an editor and Professor of French Literature at Yale University...
and Sened are languages that are not spoken anymore. National identity is strong and Tunisian efforts to create a national culture have proved stronger than in the nineteenth century. National culture and heritage is constantly referred to with reference to the country's modern history, in particular, the fight against the French protectorate and the construction of the modern state that followed from the 1950s. This is celebrated through national holidays, in the names of streets recalling historical figures or key dates or the subject of films or documentaries. With the start of the rule of President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali on November 7, 1987, the official reference to the figure 7 and the theme of "Change" contributes to the perpetuation of that tradition.
Flag
The national flag of TunisiaFlag of Tunisia
The flag of Tunisia, adopted as national flag in 1959, was in origin the naval ensign of the kingdom of Tunis, adopted either in 1831 or 1835 by Al-Husayn II ibn Mahmud...
is predominantly red and consists of a white circle in the middle containing a red crescent
Crescent
In art and symbolism, a crescent is generally the shape produced when a circular disk has a segment of another circle removed from its edge, so that what remains is a shape enclosed by two circular arcs of different diameters which intersect at two points .In astronomy, a crescent...
around a five-pointed star
Five-pointed star
A five-pointed star is a very common ideogram throughout the world. If the colinear edges are joined together a pentagram is produced, which is the simplest of the unicursal star polygons, and a symbol of mystical and magical significance....
. The Bey of Tunis Al-Husayn II ibn Mahmud
Al-Husayn II ibn Mahmud
Al-Husayn II ibn Mahmud was the Bey of Tunis from 1824 until his death in 1835....
decided to create the flag after the Battle of Navarino
Battle of Navarino
The naval Battle of Navarino was fought on 20 October 1827, during the Greek War of Independence in Navarino Bay , on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. A combined Ottoman and Egyptian armada was destroyed by a combined British, French and Russian naval force...
on 20 October 1827, which was adopted in 1831 or 1835. It remained the country's official flag during its time as a French protectorate
Beylik of Tunis
-Ottoman beylik:The Beylik of Tunis was founded on July 15, 1705, after the Husainid Dynasty led by Al-Husayn I ibn Ali at-Turki defeated the Turkish Deys....
, and was confirmed as the national flag of the Republic of Tunisia with the signing of the Constitution of Tunisia on 1 June 1959. It was not until 30 June 1999 that its proportions and design were clearly specified in law.
The crescent and star recalls the Ottoman flag
Ottoman Flag
The term Ottoman flag refers to any of the flags used by the ruling Sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty. Various flags were used within the Ottoman Empire during its existence, and the sultan also used different personal flags on different occasions of state...
and is therefore an indication of Tunisia's history as a part of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
. It differs from the Turkish flag, however, in the color of the crescent and the position of the star and circle. The crescent is white on the Turkish flag, but red on the Tunisian flag. On the Turkish flag, the star is off-centered, while on the Tunisian flag, the star and circle is located in the center of the flag.
Coat of arms
As for the national coat of arms, they are officially adopted in 1861 and include revised versions on June 21, 1956 and May 30, 1963. The top has a Carthaginian galley sailing on the sea while the lower part is divided vertically and on the right depicts a black lion seizing a silver scimitar. A banner bears the national motto: "Liberty, Order, Justice".Jasmine
Jasmine
Jasminum , commonly known as jasmines, is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family . It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm temperate regions of the Old World...
has become the national flower of Tunisia. The gathering takes place at dawn and then, upon nightfall, when young boys collect small bouquets, and later sell them to passersby on the street or to motorists stopped at intersections.
Furthermore, jasmine is the subject of a specific sign language. A man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single and in addition, offering white jasmine is seen as a proof of love while on the contrary, offering odorless winter jasmine is a sign of insolence.
Religion
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
is the main official religion of Tunisia with a rate of around 99% of the population. 99% of Tunisians are Sunni Muslims of the Maliki
Maliki
The ' madhhab is one of the schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam. It is the second-largest of the four schools, followed by approximately 25% of Muslims, mostly in North Africa, West Africa, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and in some parts of Saudi Arabia...
rite, the rest being attached to the Hanafi cult. There is also a small community of Muslim Sufis but there are no statistics regarding its size. The country is also dotted with small white buildings scattered in rural and urban areas and called marabouts. These tombs of saints, often male, are usually housed in places such as caves, hills, springs or points on the coast. Through meditation, these characters were supposed to heal the sick and blind. Their graves are still key to the relationship between the human and the divine in the context of festivals bringing together members of a particular community (a village, or extended family or tribe). Today, the Tunisians continue to pray and to ask them for favors.
Roman Catholics, Jews
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
, Greek Orthodox, and Protestants are some others. These religious groups are small but promised their rights of practicing their religion by Tunisian government. Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
and Judaism
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
have a very small following in Tunisia but the country is characterized by its tolerance and openness to other cultures which influenced these religious minorities. For instance, the teaching of Islam is compulsory in public schools but the program of religious studies at the secondary level also includes the history of Judaism and Christianity. The Tunisians also retain some native beliefs of Berber origin such as the evil eye
Evil eye
The evil eye is a look that is believed by many cultures to be able to cause injury or bad luck for the person at whom it is directed for reasons of envy or dislike...
. A number of practices, such as shutters painted blue are also used to repel evil spirits.
Languages
Tunisia is homogeneous in terms of language, since nearly all of the population speaks French and Tunisian Arabic which is the country's official language. Tunisian Arabic is actually a dialect - or more accurately a set of dialects, for which there is no official body of standards, but is derived from Arabic, French and Italian. Tunisian Arabic is not understood by most Arab speaking countries as it does derive from a mixture of few language. Tunisian is literally is spoken mostly in the context of a daily dialogue within the family. The chelha meanwhile is spoken by less than 1% of the population, mainly in the semi-Berber villages of the south, including CheniniChenini
Chenini is a ruined Berber village in the Tataouine district in southern Tunisia. Located on a hilltop near a modern village of the same name, Chenini was a fortified granary, or ksar Like other ksour created by North African Berber communities, Chenini was built on a hilltop - in this instance,...
, Douiret
Douiret
Douiret is a ruined Berber village in the Tataouine district in southern Tunisia. Located on a hilltop near a modern village of the same name, Douiret was a fortified granary, or ksar Like other ksour created by North African Berber communities, Douiret was built on a hilltop to help protect it...
, Matmata
Matmâta
Matmata is a small Berber speaking town in southern Tunisia. Some of the local Berber residents live in traditional underground "troglodyte" structures. In 2004 it had a population of 2,116....
, Tamezrett, etc., and in some villages of the island of Djerba
Djerba
Djerba , also transliterated as Jerba or Jarbah, is, at 514 km², the largest island of North Africa, located in the Gulf of Gabes, off the coast of Tunisia.-Description:...
, mainly Guellala/Iquallalen, Ajim, Sedouikech / Azdyuch and Ouirsighen / At Ursighen.
During the French protectorate in Tunisia, the French introduced many institutions, especially in education, which become a strong vehicle for dissemination. It quickly become a marker of social advancement and openness to more modern and liberal values.
From independence, the country gradually became Arabized even if the administration, justice and education had long been bilingual, while the knowledge of European languages has been enhanced by exposure of Tunisia to the continent through the TV. Visas were introduced by the French minister Charles Pasqua
Charles Pasqua
Charles Pasqua is a French businessman and Gaullist politician. He was Interior Minister from 1986 to 1988, under Jacques Chirac's cohabitation government, and also from 1993 to 1995, under the government of Edouard Balladur...
in 1986 for population movements between Tunisia and France. In October 1999, commercial establishments are forced to give twice the space for Arabic characters as Latin characters. At the same time, the administration of Tunisia is forced to communicate only in Arabic but only the departments of Defense and Justice and the legislature are actually fully Arabized. Like many other documents produced by the administration, the Official Journal of the Republic of Tunisia, which enacts laws and decrees, is written in Arabic but is translated in French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
, although this version has no legal value and can not be considered official. In this context, the use of French seems to be on the decline despite the increased number of graduates of the educational system, which leads to the fact that much of French remains an important social indicator. Since it is widely practiced in the business, the medical world and cultural world, we can even consider that it has gentrified.
Now even if the courses are entirely in Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
in kindergarten and the first three grades (undergraduate), thereafter, the second cycle of primary and secondary education is half Arabic and half French. English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
was also taught from the age of 15 from 1970, from the age of 10 years from 1994 and from the age of 14 years from 1997 and then from the age of 12 years in 2000.
Current Day Tunisia
Present day Tunisia is very prosperous with 80% of the population being described as well off. Almost 70 % of the population own a car and 55% own their own House.Now days Tunisian are easy going, enjoy food, traveling and an easy going life. Women play a big role in the Tunisian culture. Men in Tunisia give lots of respect to their partner and mothers.
Tunisia is the third favorite destination of European tourists, with it's rich heritage, history and open minded people, Tunisia has been voted Best Mediterranean country by trip adviser three years in a row. Tunisia is also the Third largest exporter of Olive oil.
Education
Development of education
There was until the nineteenth century, no modern state education in Tunisia. There was actually a score of European schools run by religious institutions while traditional learning was taught in the Zaytuna mosque and the kouttab, particularly the religious sciences studied from commentaries on the Qur'anQur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
and Sunnah
Sunnah
The word literally means a clear, well trodden, busy and plain surfaced road. In the discussion of the sources of religion, Sunnah denotes the practice of Prophet Muhammad that he taught and practically instituted as a teacher of the sharī‘ah and the best exemplar...
.
The first educational institution of modern Tunisia was the Sadiki College
Sadiki College
Sadiki College, also known as Collège Sadiki, is a lycée in Tunis, Tunisia. It was established in 1875. Associations formed by its alumni played a major role in the early constitutionalist movement in the country....
, founded in 1875 by the Grand Vizier Pasha Kheireddine, followed by the Khaldounia School in 1896. In 1956, after independence, began a policy of education reform that was characterized by the unity, the nationalization and the Arabization of the education system. In this context, Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba was a Tunisian statesman, the Founder and the first President of the Republic of Tunisia from July 25, 1957 until 7 November 1987...
said in 1958:, "Living on the margins of institutions and harassing the protectorate system for recognition of our rights, I told myself that if the government passed into our hands, we'd address primarily the problem of education." This "problem" was so vast that the state gave priority to national education and culture from then on. This is one reason why the Tunisian government specifically created a body dedicated to culture, then called "Ministry of Cultural Affairs and Information". The second reason was the need to separate culture and education, the latter no longer the only means of transmitting culture. The third reason was the responsibility to the nation.
In 1966, as part of increasing political literacy of the workforce, the Institute of Adult Education became responsible for making some 150,000 people literate in a period of five years. It conducted these activities mainly in the productive sectors - agricultural cooperatives, factories, mines and large companies - but also in the craft centres, army, prisons and youth centres. The lessons of this institute include, in addition to reading, writing and arithmetic lessons, geography, history, civics, law, and social and religious education. Additional courses of vocational training are also given opportunities. More generally, the length of the main course is two years with five sessions of one hour and a half per day, a total of 450 hours, culminating with a certificate of social education. A third year bilingual course was created in 1968 for those wishing to continue their studies. This led to some 1,090 people attending this course during the 1968-1969 school year. This resulted in the institute being awarded the Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Mohammad Rezā Shāh Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, Shah of Persia , ruled Iran from 16 September 1941 until his overthrow by the Iranian Revolution on 11 February 1979...
Prize during the third International Day of Literacy, on September 8, 1969, "for decisive contribution to the launch and implementation of a national adult literacy in which is developed, tested and has implemented an effective methodology for literacy and education ".
On December 31, 1966, there were 21 public libraries for children and independent public libraries for adults. The children's libraries are run by women, deemed more likely to understand children. Mobile teachers and librarians were employed to ensure the promotion of culture in rural areas, and some 52 centers of literature were established with the purpose of loaning books for home study. This measure was aimed at increasing the development of reading habits into the customs of the Tunisian people.
Educational system
The non-compulsory preschool education, which is for children 3 to 6 years is provided in kindergartens. Basic education is compulsory and free, from 6 to 16 years, and is divided into two stages: the first cycle of six years is provided in primary schools while the second cycle of a three-year runs in college. This course is sanctioned by a diploma of graduation from basic education to enable graduates to access secondary education (always free) taught in high schools for four years after the 1995 reform. Students are then directed to a second cycle of three years with five subjects (letters, science, technology, computer science and economics and management) and sanctioned by the BA for access to higher education. Tunisia has twelve universities - five in Tunis, one in SousseSousse
Sousse is a city in Tunisia. Located 140 km south of the capital Tunis, the city has 173,047 inhabitants . Sousse is in the central-east of the country, on the Gulf of Hammamet, which is a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The name may be of Berber origin: similar names are found in Libya and in...
, one in Sfax
Sfax
Sfax is a city in Tunisia, located southeast of Tunis. The city, founded in AD 849 on the ruins of Taparura and Thaenae, is the capital of the Sfax Governorate , and a Mediterranean port. Sfax has population of 340,000...
, one at Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
, one in Gabès
Gabès
Gabès , also spelt Cabès, Cabes, Kabes, Gabbs and Gaps, the ancient Tacape, is the capital city of the Gabès Governorate, a province of Tunisia. It lies on the coast of the Gulf of Gabès. With a population of 116,323 it is the 6th largest Tunisian city.-History:Strabo refers to Tacape as an...
, one in Gafsa
Gafsa
Gafsa is the capital of Gafsa Governorate of Tunisia. Its name was appropriated by archaeologists for the Mesolithic Capsian culture. With a population of 84,676, it is the 9th Tunisian city.-Overview:...
, one in Monastir
Monastir, Tunisia
-Areas within Monastir:Monastir's north-eastern territories lead into a place called Route de la Falaise, through which you will reach its most notable suburb, Skanes, which is 6 miles from Monastir's town centre...
and one in Jendouba
Jendouba
Jendouba is a large city in northwestern Tunisia, and capital of the Jendouba Governorate. It is an important crossroads with many road links to other towns such as El Kef, Tabarka, Ain Draham and Béja. The main economic activity is agriculture....
but it also has 178 other institutions including 24 colleges for Technology Studies (ISET) and six higher institutes of teacher training (ISFM).
At the same time, there are two French schools in Tunisia, the Lycée Pierre Mendes-France and the Lycée Gustave Flaubert, both of which apply the methods and programs similar to those applied in France. There is also the American international School and Tunis International school. New updated into education's curiculum has been implemented during the last 20 years; and now is qualified to be an international system. 80% of Tunisian hold some kind of degree. With almost 66% are holder of bachelor. The penetration rate of education among Tunisian is 87% Attendance remains strong despite high tuition fees (from 1.400 to 1.800 dinars per year in the cycle). Originally intended to educate the children of expatriates and a Francophile elite, they now attract a majority of Tunisians (over 60% of the 3,000 students today) particularly from the bourgeois of Tunisia who are attracted by their multicultural courses and attracted to the possibility of pursuing higher studies in France. It is in this context that the Paris Dauphine University is considering opening an office in Tunisia in 2009 to accommodate 1,000 students.
Vocational training is provided by a group of public operators which include the Tunisian Agency for Vocational Training, which provides instructional supervision of all public and private operators. The diplomas issued after an initial training are given at three levels: the certificate of vocational aptitude (CAP) which is a course lasting a minimum of one years after basic education, certification as professional engineer (construction ) which is a course lasting a minimum of one years after the first cycle of secondary education after obtaining a CPC, and a higher technical certificate (BTP) from a course lasting minimum of two years after the baccalaureate or after obtaining the construction certificate.
In 2001, 19.9% of the national budget is spent on education in Tunisia. In 2005, the literacy rate is 76.2% and the enrollment of children 12 to 17 years, equal for boys and girls, is 66%. Access to higher education is 27% of the age group it concerns.
Museums
The Bardo National Museum is one of the largest institutions of its kind in the Mediterranean, consisting of archaeological treasures from over several millennia by many cultures. The museum officially opened on May 7, 1888, and offers one of the finest and largest collections of mosaicMosaic
Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It may be a technique of decorative art, an aspect of interior decoration, or of cultural and spiritual significance as in a cathedral...
s of ancient Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
. The Archaeological Museum of Sousse, founded in 1951, has the second largest collection of mosaics after the Bardo. The Oceanographic Museum of Salammbo, with its 11 rooms, is the main Tunisian museum dedicated to the sea. The National Museum of Islamic Art in Tunisia has several collections of pottery, pieces of Korans and calligraphy
Calligraphy
Calligraphy is a type of visual art. It is often called the art of fancy lettering . A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious and skillful manner"...
dating from when Raqqada occupied the Aghlabids capital, from the 9th century.
In the 1970s, a program was implemented in cooperation with UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
. It provides four types of museum: museums synthesis, regional museums, local museums and specialized museums. The Bardo Museum is a good example of museum synthesis since this type of museum is expected to house objects from all periods of the history of Tunisia without taking into account the origin of these.
The existence of these museums is justified by the fact that they illustrate the evolution of artistic creation over the civilizations. Regional museums are limited to chief towns and governorates, specializing in the history of each region. As for local museums, they are part of a policy of decentralization of culture to participate through museum education of the masses by encouraigng more and more people to visit the museums. Some local museums exist in Makthar, Utica
Utica, Tunisia
Utica is an ancient city northwest of Carthage near the outflow of the Medjerda River into the Mediterranean Sea, traditionally considered to be the first colony founded by the Phoenicians in North Africa...
, Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
and Monastir
Monastir, Tunisia
-Areas within Monastir:Monastir's north-eastern territories lead into a place called Route de la Falaise, through which you will reach its most notable suburb, Skanes, which is 6 miles from Monastir's town centre...
. Finally, specialized museums themselves can be divided into two other categories of museums: the museums dedicated to a historical period and museums specializing in a given subject]. In the first category, there is already the Dar Hussein museum, entirely devoted to the medieval Tunisia. In the second category, two projects were selected: the mosaic museum and a Paleo-Christian museum. The mosaic museum is fully justified by the richness of Tunisia in art museums and provides an evolution both thematically and chronologically on the subject. As for the Paleo-Christian Museum, it is now located in Carthage.
Other specialized museums are also considered as museums of culture and science museums. These are used to trace the history and evolution of technology.
Arts
Most of the country's older art came from the influences of ChinaChina
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, Persia and the Near East forming the style known as Arabesque
Arabesque
The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements...
. Tunisian artists are known for their mosaics and pottery. Their mosaics use a variety of colors in repetitive patterns to adorn walls and floors by depicting a story or person. Mosaics are often used in architecture by implementing the use of geometric shapes and accenting with gold. Though, the displays of some artwork can be seen on buildings and architecture, one could find many sources of art in one place in the Bardo Museum
Bardo Museum
The Bardo National Museum is a museum located in Tunis, Tunisia.-Location:...
in Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
.
Music
Tunisian music is the result of a cultural mix strongly influenced by Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. According to Mohammed Abdel Wahab
Mohammed Abdel Wahab
Mohammed Abdel Wahab , also transliterated Mohammed Abd el-Wahaab was a prominent 20th-century Arab Egyptian singer and composer...
, Tunisian music has also been influenced by old Andalusian songs injected with Turkish, Persian and Greek influences. He believes that the Tunisian music has undergone three phases of outside influences: the first from the East and whose center was in Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
and Medina
Medina
Medina , or ; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and...
, the second coming from Muslim Spain which was the center of Andalusia
Andalusia
Andalusia is the most populous and the second largest in area of the autonomous communities of Spain. The Andalusian autonomous community is officially recognised as a nationality of Spain. The territory is divided into eight provinces: Huelva, Seville, Cádiz, Córdoba, Málaga, Jaén, Granada and...
and the last coming from the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
and whose center was Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
. The legacy of its three phases are illustrated respectively in the creation of Tunisian traditional music, the Malouf
Malouf
Malouf may refer to:* Maalouf , the family surname.* Music of Tunisia* David Malouf, an Australian writer...
the introduction of the Nuba
Nuba
Nuba is a collective term used here for the peoples who inhabit the Nuba Mountains, in Sudan, Africa. Although the term is used to describe them as if they composed a single group, the Nuba are multiple distinct peoples and speak different languages...
in Tunisian music, and finally the use of forms such as Turkish, Samai and Bashraf. Also influenced by Western culture, it is relatively diversified.
Of major note in Tunisian classical music is the Malouf. Deriving from the reign of the Aghlabids in the 15th century, it is a particular type of Arab-Andalusian music. In urban areas it uses stringed instruments (fiddle
Fiddle
The term fiddle may refer to any bowed string musical instrument, most often the violin. It is also a colloquial term for the instrument used by players in all genres, including classical music...
, oud
Oud
The oud is a pear-shaped stringed instrument commonly used in North African and Middle Eastern music. The modern oud and the European lute both descend from a common ancestor via diverging paths...
and Kanun) and percussion (darbuka) while in rural areas, it may also be accompanied by instruments like the mezoued, gasba and the zurna
Zurna
The zurna , is a multinational outdoor wind instrument, usually accompanied by a davul in Anatolian folk music. The name is from Turkish zurna, itself derived from Persian سرنای surnāy, composed of sūr “banquet, feast” and nāy “reed, pipe”...
.
At the beginning of twentieth century, musical activity was dominated by the liturgical repertoire associated with different religious brotherhoods and secular repertoire which consisted of instrumental pieces and songs in different Andalusian forms and styles of origins, essentially borrowing characteristics of musical language. In 1930 "The Rachidia" was founded well known thanks to artists from the Jewish community. The founding in 1934 of a musical school help revive Arab Andalusian music largely to a social and cultural revival led by the elite of the time who became aware of the risks of loss of the musical heritage and which they believed theatened the foundations of Tunisian national identity. The institution did not take long to assemble an elite group of musicians and poets and scholars. The creation of Radio Tunis in 1938 allowed musicians are greater opportunity to disseminate their works.
The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the emergence of composers and performers working mostly in the orchestra of the Tunisian Radio and Television. Song using melodies and popular rhythms experienced a significant rise. From the 1980s, the music scene saw the emergence of a generation of musicians, composers and performers of Arab and Western musical training who believed that Tunisian music needed new song writing techniques. The emergence of new patterns of racial and improvised music since the late 1990s changed the musical landscape of Tunisia. At the same time, the majority of the population is attracted by the music of Arab origin (Egyptian, Lebanese or Syrian). Popular western music has also had major success with the emergence of many groups and festivals, including rock music
Rock music
Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed during and after the 1960s, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States. It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by rhythm and blues and country music...
, hip-hop, reggae
Reggae
Reggae is a music genre first developed in Jamaica in the late 1960s. While sometimes used in a broader sense to refer to most types of Jamaican music, the term reggae more properly denotes a particular music style that originated following on the development of ska and rocksteady.Reggae is based...
and jazz
Jazz
Jazz is a musical style that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States. It was born out of a mix of African and European music traditions. From its early development until the present, jazz has incorporated music from 19th and 20th...
.
Among the major Tunisian contemporary artists include Hedi Habbouba, Saber Rebai
Saber Rebaï
Saber Rebaï , born in Sfax, Tunisia is an award winning Tunisian pan-Arab singer and composer that enjoys popularity throughout the Arab World and internationally with concerts in Europe, the Americas and Asia. He is mostly known for his song "Sidi Mansour". Some albums carry the variant...
, Dhafer Youssef
Dhafer Youssef
Dhafer Youssef is a composer, singer and oud player. He developed an interest in jazz at an early age and clandestinely listened to it during his education at a Qur'anic school. He later left Tunisia to start a jazz career and has lived in Europe since 1990, usually in Paris or Vienna. He also...
, Belgacem Bouguenna, Sonia M'Barek and Latifa
Latifa
Latifa Bint Alayah Al Arfaoui , better known as Latifa , is an Arab pop music singer, Latifa standing for gentle in Arabic.-Early life:...
. Other notable musicians include Salah El Mahdi, Anouar Brahem
Anouar Brahem
Anouar Brahem is an oud player and composer. He is widely acclaimed as an innovator in his field...
, Zied Gharsa and Lotfi Bouchnak.
Cinema
Cinema has been present in Tunisia since its first world appearance. Starting from 1896, the Lumière brothers
Auguste and Louis Lumière
The Lumière brothers, Auguste Marie Louis Nicolas and Louis Jean , were among the earliest filmmakers in history...
were showing animated views in the streets of Tunis
Tunis
Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants....
. In 1919, the first feature-length movie produced on the African continent: Les Cinq gentlemen maudits (The Five Accursed Gentlemen) was filmed in Tunisia. In 1924, Zohra directed a medium-length film called Ain Al-Ghazal (The Girl from Carthage) thus making him, one of the very first native filmmakers on the African continent. In 1966, the first feature Tunisian film (95 minutes) Al-Fajr (The Dawn) was directed and produced by Omar Khlifi; it was shot on a 35 mm film
35 mm film
35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for chemical still photography and motion pictures. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, which consists of strips 35 millimeters in width...
. Tunisia also hosts the Carthage Film Festival
Carthage Film Festival
The Carthage Film Festival is a biannual October film festival hosted by the government of Tunisia. It alternates with the Damascus International Film Festival....
which has been taking place since 1966. The festival gives priority to films from Arab and African countries. It is the oldest film festival on the African continent and the Arab World.
In 1927, the first Tunisian film distribution company, Tunis-Film, started its activities. After independence, movies were exclusively produced by SATPEC (Société Anonyme Tunisienne de Production et d'Expansion Cinématographique) which controlled cinema and filming productions in the country at the time. Nevertheless, during the 80s, private production companies and studios emerged and wanted to make Tunisia the Mediterranean Hollywood. The producer Tarak Ben Ammar
Tarak Ben Ammar
Tarak Ben Ammar is an international movie producer and distributor, He is famous for his interest in artistic movies, especially when they are related to Mediterranean culture or require North African locations...
, a nephew of Wasila Bourguiba, succeeded in attracting some big production companies to shoot inside his studios in Monastir
Monastir, Tunisia
-Areas within Monastir:Monastir's north-eastern territories lead into a place called Route de la Falaise, through which you will reach its most notable suburb, Skanes, which is 6 miles from Monastir's town centre...
. Major foreign movies were filmed in Tunisia including but not limited to Roman Polanski
Roman Polanski
Roman Polanski is a French-Polish film director, producer, writer and actor. Having made films in Poland, Britain, France and the USA, he is considered one of the few "truly international filmmakers."...
's Pirates and Franco Zeffirelli
Franco Zeffirelli
Franco Zeffirelli KBE is an Italian director and producer of films and television. He is also a director and designer of operas and a former senator for the Italian center-right Forza Italia party....
's Jesus of Nazareth. After visiting Tunisia, George Lucas
George Lucas
George Walton Lucas, Jr. is an American film producer, screenwriter, and director, and entrepreneur. He is the founder, chairman and chief executive of Lucasfilm. He is best known as the creator of the space opera franchise Star Wars and the archaeologist-adventurer character Indiana Jones...
was seduced by the natural beauty and authentic old architecture of some southern Tunisian towns, where he decided to film the important Tatooine scenes of Star Wars
Star Wars
Star Wars is an American epic space opera film series created by George Lucas. The first film in the series was originally released on May 25, 1977, under the title Star Wars, by 20th Century Fox, and became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon, followed by two sequels, released at three-year...
, as well as Indiana Jones
Indiana Jones
Colonel Henry Walton "Indiana" Jones, Jr., Ph.D. is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Indiana Jones franchise. George Lucas and Steven Spielberg created the character in homage to the action heroes of 1930s film serials...
. Moreover, Anthony Minghella
Anthony Minghella
Anthony Minghella, CBE was an English film director, playwright and screenwriter. He was Chairman of the Board of Governors at the British Film Institute between 2003 and 2007....
filmed the nine Academy Awards
Academy Awards
An Academy Award, also known as an Oscar, is an accolade bestowed by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to recognize excellence of professionals in the film industry, including directors, actors, and writers...
winner The English Patient
The English Patient (film)
The English Patient is a 1996 romantic drama film based on the novel of the same name by Sri Lankan-Canadian writer Michael Ondaatje. The film, written for the screen and directed by Anthony Minghella, won nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture...
in a south-west oasis of the country.
When it comes to domestic productions, they were rare: the few movies which were produced since 1967 tried to reflect the new social dynamics, development, identity research and modernity shock. Some of them achieved a relative success outside Tunisia such as La Goulette (Halq El-Wadi 1996) directed by Ferid Boughdir which showed a flashback of typical community life in the small suburb of La Goulette in a period where Muslims, Jews and Christians lived together in tolerance and peace. Halfaouine: Child of the Terraces (Asfour Stah 1990), from the same director Boughdir is possibly the biggest popular success in the history of Tunisian Cinema. The movie showed the life of a child from Tunis (Halfouine suburb) in the 60s who was on a quest to understand relationships, the world of women and how to be a man.
In earlier films, including Man of Ashes (Rih Essedd 1986) director and writer Nouri Bouzid depicts controversial issues in Tunisian society, addressing social issues like prostitution, pedophilia and inter-faith relations between Tunisian Muslims and Tunisian Jews. In the 1991 film Bezness, he explores the emerging sexual tourism trade inside the country.
The Ambassadors
Les Ambassadeurs (film)
Les Ambassadeurs is a Tunisian film produced in 1975 by Naceur Ktari. It won the Tanit d'or for best film Carthage Film Festival in 1976 and the special jury prize at Locarno International Film Festival the same year...
(As-Soufraa 1975) directed by Naceur Ktari portrayed the life of immigrant Maghrebins in France and their struggle against racism. The film won the Golden Tanit for the best picture during the Carthage Film Festival in 1976, the special jury award from the Locarno International Film Festival
Locarno International Film Festival
The Film Festival Locarno is an international film festival held annually in the city of Locarno, Switzerland since 1946. After Cannes and Venice and together with Karlovy Vary, Locarno is the Film Festival with the longest history...
in the same year and it has been classified in the Un Certain Regard category during the 1978 Cannes Film Festival
Cannes Film Festival
The Cannes International Film Festival , is an annual film festival held in Cannes, France, which previews new films of all genres including documentaries from around the world. Founded in 1946, it is among the world's most prestigious and publicized film festivals...
.
The first feature-film ever to be directed by a woman in the Arab World was The Silences of Palace
The Silences of Palace
The Silences of the Palace is a 1994 Tunisian film written and directed by Moufida Tlatli. It was the first featured-length movie to be directed by a woman in the Arab World.- Plot :...
(Samt Al-Qusur 1994) by Moufida Tlatli
Moufida Tlatli
Moufida Tlatli is a Tunisian film director. She was the first Arab woman to direct a full featured-film in the Arab World.- Biography :She was born in Sidi Bou Saïd suburb of the capital Tunis in 1947...
. The director won several international jury awards for her work. The movie shows the daily life in an aristocratic palace in Tunis through the eyes of a young woman.
In 2007, several films were produced and grabbed public attention such as Making Of directed by Nouri Bouzid and Nejib Belkadi's VHS Kahloucha.
Theatre
The Tunisian theater was mostly developed between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century during the French protectorate. Theatres grew up such as the French Theater, Politeama Rossini, Arena, Theater Tunisia, the Gringa, Paradiso, etc. Some wooden built theaters saw their premises destroyed by fire while others have simply changed their function. Only one has survived keeping its primary use, the Municipal Theater of Tunis. In over a century of existence, the theater has hosted big names of the Tunisian and international theatrical scene, such as Sarah BernhardtSarah Bernhardt
Sarah Bernhardt was a French stage and early film actress, and has been referred to as "the most famous actress the world has ever known". Bernhardt made her fame on the stages of France in the 1870s, and was soon in demand in Europe and the Americas...
, Pauline Carton
Pauline Carton
Pauline Carton was a French film actress. She appeared in over 170 films between 1912 and 1970.-Selected filmography:* Le p'tit Parigot * The Blood of a Poet * High and Low...
, Gérard Philipe
Gérard Philipe
Gérard Philipe was a prominent French actor, who had appeared in 34 films between 1944 and 1959.-Career:...
and Jean Marais
Jean Marais
-Biography:A native of Cherbourg, France, Marais starred in several movies directed by Jean Cocteau, for a time his lover, most famously Beauty and the Beast and Orphée ....
to mention a few. On November 7, 1962, Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba was a Tunisian statesman, the Founder and the first President of the Republic of Tunisia from July 25, 1957 until 7 November 1987...
, whose brother is a playwright, devoted his speech to this art, which he considers "a powerful means of disseminating culture and a most effective means of popular education". From this date, November 7 is regarded as the Tunisian National Day of drama.
In 1970, under the leadership of the actor Aly Ben Ayed, Caligula by Albert Camus
Albert Camus
Albert Camus was a French author, journalist, and key philosopher of the 20th century. In 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons within the Revolutionary Union Movement, which was opposed to some tendencies of the Surrealist movement of André Breton.Camus was awarded the 1957...
was translated into Arabic and the play was a great success. Other works written by Habib Boularès
Habib Boularès
Habib Boularès is a Tunisian diplomat and politician, currently serving as secretary-general of the Arab-Maghreb Union. He first entered the cabinet in 1970 as minister of culture and information, serving in that post until 1971...
such as Murad III or The Time of Buraq retained the themes of bloody violence. Increasingly more and more shows are restricted for the benefit of a more sophisticated audience. The New Theater of Tunis grew up with Mohamed Driss
Mohamed Driss
Mohamed Driss is a Tunisian writer, actor, and director of theatre. Since 1988 he has been the director of the National Theatre of Tunisia.He began his career in 1961 and is, subsequently, an actor, both amateur and professional, a student in Tunis and Paris, producer, and director...
as one of the most prolific authors. In 1988, Driss was appointed head of the Tunisian National Theater
National Theatre of Tunisia
The National Theatre of Tunisia is a Tunisian Government-owned corporation of a cultural nature. Financially autonomous, the theatre was created by Law No. 113 of 30 December 1983 relating to acts 73-74 of the Finance Act of 1983 and meets the same rules and regulations as public institutions...
(TNT) and took charge of renovating a neglected theatre, Le Paris, located in the heart of Tunis. He acquired a stage, the team of modern architects and renamed it the "Fourth Art". Opened in 1996, it alternates between cycles of TNT theater and ballet, circus and song. Each cultural season lasts from October 1 to June 30 and the theatre has hosted more than 80 theatrical performances.
El Teatro is the first private theatre in Tunisia. Founded in 1987 by Taoufik Jebali, in a wing of the hotel El Mechtel Tunis, El Teatro consists of the main hall of representatives with some 200 seats, an annex called the Carré d'Art, a gallery and exhibition called Free Area. El Teatro is directed by Zeineb Farhat. Throughout the year, El Teatro offers theater, dance performances, jazz concerts, galas of Arabic music, art exhibitions and poetry readings.
Dance
Dancing in Tunisia is characterized by a multitude of forms it takes and the contexts in which it appears, including circumcisionCircumcision
Male circumcision is the surgical removal of some or all of the foreskin from the penis. The word "circumcision" comes from Latin and ....
s, weddings and festive events such as festivals, concerts, football games, etc. Tunisian dance resembles that of Egyptian dance, and is distinguished mainly by its dynamic, since it is faster with more staccato
Staccato
Staccato is a form of musical articulation. In modern notation it signifies a note of shortened duration and separated from the note that may follow by silence...
, and the multitude of forms, with each region having its own "style". It is therefore difficult to speak of a Tunisian dance, especially since the Egyptian influence appears to have long proven itself in major cities.
The variety of dances performed by the Tunisians probably reflects the migration flows that have traversed the country throughout the centuries. Thus, the early Phoenicians brought with them their songs and dances, whose traces are rooted in the region of Tunis, while the Romans have left few traces of art in relation to their architectural contribution. The arrival of the Banu Hilal in the eleventh century, completed the implementation of the Arab Maghreb, in Tunisia when the traditions, music and dance of the nomads of Upper Egypt were introduced. Religious dances were influenced by Sufism
Sufism
Sufism or ' is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a '...
but by the end of the 15th century, had progressively become Andalusian with their dances and urban music. Oriental dance would arrive later with the Ottomans, although some experts in the history of North African art have said it was brought to Tunisia by the first Turkish corsairs in the sixteenth century while others say that the origin of this dance goes back further to the era of matriarchy in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
and founded by the early Phoenicians. This form of oriental dance usually performed in Tunisia insists on the movements of the pelvis in rhythm, movement highlighted by the elevation of the arms to horizontal, and feet moving in rhythm and transferring weight onto the right leg or left.
The dance reflects a social phenomenon born in the working classes of Tunisian cities. The male dance, accompanied by love songs often evoke libertine seduction, attraction and carnal pleasures of life, and has long been performed in cafes backed by music, typically the darbuka and mezoued. Since the 1970s, however, the dance has declined in cafes and is more often characterized in modern times as being displayed at festivals and circumcision ceremonies or marriage in the neighborhoods of big cities.
The Nuba, more rooted in popular practice, is linked to the dancers and the Kerkennah Djerba to a lesser extent. Some experts say that their dress is of Greek origin. Structured into several scenes, the dance is often accompanied by acrobatic games with jars filled with water.
The most common religious dance is probably the Stambali which is originally a ritual dance to the glorify Sidi Saad, a religious Sudanese Muslim who arrived in Tunisia in the sixteenth century with his followers . Today his shrine is located in the Mornag
Mornag
Mornag is a small town and commune in Tunisia. As of 2006 it had a population of 26,406. It lies along the A1 ....
region. However, in the aftermath of independence, the authorities have banned the ritual and closed many of the sanctuaries. Followers still continue their rituals at home, but today it has been more adopted by the Jews and no longer has any connection with its Islamic origins.
Today, the National Troupe Folk Art Center or the National Dance of Ariana practice the traditional dances Tunisian dances. The national archives notably suffer from a lack of documents related to these dances and folk arts.
Painting
Moses Levy
Moses Levy was a prominent Jew, from a prominent Jewish family, in Colonial America. His father, Samson Levy, was a signatory of the celebrated resolutions not to import goods from England until the Stamp Act had been repealed. Moses was educated at the University of Pennsylvania, from which he...
and Yahia Turki
Yahia Turki
Yahia Turki, , born Yahia Ben Mahmoud El Hajjem in 1903 in Istanbul, Turkey, died 1 March 1969, was a Tunisian painter described as the "father of Tunisian painting".-Biography:...
were able to present their work.
The birth of a Tunisian contemporary painting is strongly linked to the School of Tunis, established by a group of artists from Tunisia with united by the desire to incorporate native themes and rejecting the influence of Orientalist colonial painting. It was founded in 1949 and brings together French and Tunisian Muslims, Christians and Jews. Pierre Boucherle was its main instigator, along with Yahia Turki
Yahia Turki
Yahia Turki, , born Yahia Ben Mahmoud El Hajjem in 1903 in Istanbul, Turkey, died 1 March 1969, was a Tunisian painter described as the "father of Tunisian painting".-Biography:...
, Abdelaziz Gorgi
Abdelaziz Gorgi
Abdelaziz Gorgi was a Tunisian artist. He was one of the founders of the Tunis School of painting and one of the most prominent members of Tunisia's cultural scene.-Biography:...
, Moses Levy
Moses Levy
Moses Levy was a prominent Jew, from a prominent Jewish family, in Colonial America. His father, Samson Levy, was a signatory of the celebrated resolutions not to import goods from England until the Stamp Act had been repealed. Moses was educated at the University of Pennsylvania, from which he...
, Ammar Farhat and Jules Lellouche. Given its doctrine, some members have therefore turned to the sources of aesthetic Arab-Muslim art: such as miniature Islamic architecture, etc. Expressionist paintings by Amara Debbache, Jellal Ben Abdallah and Ali Ben Salem are recognized while abstract art captures the imagination of painters like Edgar Naccache, Nello Levy and Hedi Turki.
After independence in 1956, the art movement in Tunisia was propelled by the dynamics of nation building and by artists serving the state. A Ministry of Culture was established, under the leadership of ministers such as Habib Boularès
Habib Boularès
Habib Boularès is a Tunisian diplomat and politician, currently serving as secretary-general of the Arab-Maghreb Union. He first entered the cabinet in 1970 as minister of culture and information, serving in that post until 1971...
who saw art and education and power. Artists gained international recognition such as El Mekki or Zoubeir Turki and influenced a generation of new young painters. Sadok Gmech draws his inspiration from national wealth while Moncef Ben Amor turns to fantasy. In another development, Youssef Rekik reused the technique of painting on glass and founded Nja Mahdaoui calligraphy with its mystical dimension.
Moreover, Tunisia has left many European painters, with Alexander Roubtzoff often being regarded as the "painter of Tunisia". He arrived in Tunis in 1914 through a grant from the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg, and he decided to settle permanently in Tunisia. Until his death in 1949, he produced some 3,000 paintings representing various facets of Tunisia as a protectorate. Paul Klee
Paul Klee
Paul Klee was born in Münchenbuchsee, Switzerland, and is considered both a German and a Swiss painter. His highly individual style was influenced by movements in art that included expressionism, cubism, and surrealism. He was, as well, a student of orientalism...
and August Macke
August Macke
August Macke was one of the leading members of the German Expressionist group Der Blaue Reiter . He lived during a particularly innovative time for German art which saw the development of the main German Expressionist movements as well as the arrival of the successive avant-garde movements which...
also visited Tunisia in 1914 and left a lasting impression. Macke is noted for his series of watercolors in the cubist style while Klee is noted for his advocation of light and colors to illustrate the Tunisian landscape.
There are currently fifty art galleries housing exhibitions of Tunisian and international artists. These galleries include Gallery Yahia in Tunis and Carthage Essaadi gallery.
Literature
Among the literary figures include Douagi Ali, who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays, Khraief Bashir, an Arabic novelist who published many notable books in the 1930s and which caused a scandal because the dialogues were written in Tunisian dialect, and others such as Moncef Ghachem, Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad
Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad
Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad was a Tunisian theologian, journalist and intellectual. In 1931 he published Deuil sur la femme de Haddad , an important text in Tunisian literature.- Youth :...
or Mahmoud Messaadi. As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as Aboul-Qacem Echebbi
Aboul-Qacem Echebbi
Abou-Al-kacem El-chebbi was a Tunisian poet. He is probably best known for writing the final two verses of the current National Anthem of Tunisia, Humat al-Hima , that was written originally by the Egyptian poet Mustafa Sadik el-Rafii.Echebbi was born in Tozeur, Tunisia, on 24 February 1909, the...
. As for literature in French, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of Albert Memmi
Albert Memmi
Albert Memmi is a Tunisian Jewish writer and essayist who migrated to France.- Biography :Born in colonial Tunisia,from a Tunisian Jewish mother and a Tunisian-Italian Jewish father, he speaks Hebrew and Tunisian-Arabic...
, who predicted that literature Tunisian was sentenced to die young, a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including Abdelwahab Meddeb
Abdelwahab Meddeb
Abdelwahab Meddeb is an award-winning French-language poet, novelist, essayist, translator, editor, Islamic scholar, cultural critic, political commentator, radio producer, public intellectual and professor of comparative literature at the University of Paris X-Nanterre.- Biography and career...
, Bakri Tahar, Mustapha Tlili, Hele Beji or Mellah Fawzi. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.
The national bibliography lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia, with 885 titles in Arabic. In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007. Nearly a third of the books are published for children.
Publishing
At the end of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, the relationship between the bourgeois elite and business associations and the Khaldounia Alumni College Sadiki printing press was close. But its weakness, was that control was exercised by the authorities of the French protectorate and affected the publication and dissemination of newspapers at a local level. After the First World War, Tunisian gradually moved into a better position and it is in the inter-war years as that Arabic publishing began flourishing. Before the independence was proclaimed in 1956, the publication of the Tunisian literature was still provided by the booksellers, printers and a few publishing houses run by the private French press. Subsequently, the state commanded the creation of a major new publishing structure with the aim of establishing a modern national culture in coordination with its general culture and education targets. Thus, the state produced over 70% of the books between 1956 and 1987 which left private publishing little opportunity to evolve. It was not until the early 1990s that the state abandoned its role centralising the publishing and solely managing a series institutions.In this context, private publishing companies developed fast; the editorial production between 1987 and 1996 amounted to 6,068 titles. Now, most of Tunisia's book production comes from the private sector from over a hundred publishers. The budget devoted to literature by the Ministry of Culture in 2003 exceeded three million Tunisian dinar
Tunisian dinar
The dinar is the currency of Tunisia. It is subdivided into 1000 milim or millimes . The abbreviation DT is often used in Tunisia, although writing "dinar" after the amount is also acceptable ; the abbreviation TD is also mentioned in a few places, but is less frequently used, given the common use...
s for the purchase of Tunisian and foreign books and periodicals. 2003 was also proclaimed "National Book Year" in Tunisia which allowed the organization of fairs and exhibitions, meetings for reflection and debate, writing contests, etc.
Media
The TV media has long remained under the domination of the Establishment of the Broadcasting Authority Tunisia (ERTT) and its predecessor, the Tunisian Radio and Television, founded in 1957. On November 7, 2006, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali announced the demerger of the business, which became effective on August 31, 2007. Until then, ERTT managed all public television stations (Tunisia 7 and Canal 21, which had replaced the defunct RTT 2) and four national radio stations (Radio Tunis, Tunisia Radio Culture, Youth and Radio RTCI) and five regional Sfax, Monastir, Gafsa, Le Kef and Tataouine. Most programs are in Arabic but some are in French. Since 2003, a growth in private sector broadcasting is underway, witnessing the creation of Radio Mosaique FM, Jawhara FM and Zaytuna FM and Hannibal TV and Nessma TVNessma TV
Nessma TV is a commercial TV channel, that has a range covering Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria Libya and Mauritania. Mediaset owns 25% of it. All programs broadcast on this channel have subtitles in French or Maghrebi Arabic. It broadcasts such programs like Maghreb version of Who Wants to Be a...
.
In 2007, some 245 newspapers and magazines (compared to only 91 in 1987) are 90% owned by private groups and independents. The Tunisian political parties have the right to publish their own newspapers, but those of the opposition parties have very limited editions (like Al Mawkif or Mouwatinoun). Freedom of the press is guaranteed by the constitution although almost all newspapers following the government line report without critical approach to the activities of the president, government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally Party (in power) through the Agence Tunis Afrique Presse.
Festivals
Hundreds of international festivals, national, regional or local punctuate the calendar year. Music and theatrical festivals dominate the national cultural scene.During the summer, annually in the July, the Carthage International Festival takes place, the International Festival of Arts of Mahr (late July-early August) and the International Festival of Hammamet.
It is during the months of October–November that the Carthage Film Festival
Carthage Film Festival
The Carthage Film Festival is a biannual October film festival hosted by the government of Tunisia. It alternates with the Damascus International Film Festival....
is held, every alternate year to the Carthage Theatre Festival. The Carthage Film Festival was created in 1966 by the Tunisian Minister of Culture, to showcase films from the Maghreb
Maghreb
The Maghreb is the region of Northwest Africa, west of Egypt. It includes five countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara...
, Africa and the Middle East. In order to be eligible for competition, a film must have a director of African or Middle Eastern nationality, and have been produced at least two years before entry. Its grand prize is the Tanit d'or
Tanit d'or
The Tanit d'or is the grand prize of the Carthage Film Festival, hosted biennially in Tunisia. The award is named for the lunar goddess of ancient Carthage and takes the shape of her symbol, a trapezium surmounted by a horizontal line and a circle....
, or "Golden Tanit," named for the lunar goddess
Tanit
Tanit was a Phoenician lunar goddess, worshipped as the patron goddess at Carthage. Tanit was worshiped in Punic contexts in the Western Mediterranean, from Malta to Gades into Hellenistic times. From the fifth century BCE onwards Tanit is associated with that of Baal Hammon...
of ancient Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
; the award is in the shape of her symbol, a trapezium sumrounted by a horizontal line and a circle.
Finally, the year is completed by the Sahara International Festival, which honors the cultural traditions associated with the Tunisian desert. This attracts many tourists and musicians from all around the world such as horsemen who flaunt their saddles and local fabrics and skills.
Other festivals honor traditional Tunisian music and notably jazz, including the Tabarka Jazz Festival.
Architecture
Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures in Islamic culture....
is expressed in various facets in Tunisia. Through many buildings, Kairouan
Kairouan
Kairouan , also known as Kirwan or al-Qayrawan , is the capital of the Kairouan Governorate in Tunisia. Referred to as the Islamic Cultural Capital, it is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city was founded by the Arabs around 670...
forms the epicenter of an architectural movement expressing the relationship between buildings and spirituality with the ornamental decoration of religious buildings in the holy city. In Djerba
Djerba
Djerba , also transliterated as Jerba or Jarbah, is, at 514 km², the largest island of North Africa, located in the Gulf of Gabes, off the coast of Tunisia.-Description:...
, the architecture such as the fortress of Kef
El Kef
El Kef , also known as Le Kef, is a city in north western Tunisia and the capital of the Kef Governorate.Situated in the northwest of the country, to the west of Tunis and some east of the border between Algeria and Tunisia, El Kef has a population of . The old town is built on the cliff face...
reflects the military and spiritual destiny of a Sufi influence in the region.
The influential role of the various dynasties that ruled the country, particularly in building cities and princes of Raqqada Mahdia, illuminates the role of the geopolitical context in the architectural history of the country. Thus, many original fortresses that protected the coast from Byzantine invasions evolved into cities, like Monastir
Monastir, Tunisia
-Areas within Monastir:Monastir's north-eastern territories lead into a place called Route de la Falaise, through which you will reach its most notable suburb, Skanes, which is 6 miles from Monastir's town centre...
, Sousse
Sousse
Sousse is a city in Tunisia. Located 140 km south of the capital Tunis, the city has 173,047 inhabitants . Sousse is in the central-east of the country, on the Gulf of Hammamet, which is a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The name may be of Berber origin: similar names are found in Libya and in...
or Lamta.
The medina of Tunis, is World Heritage Site
World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
of UNESCO, and is a typical example of Islamic architecture. However, in the areas between the ports of Bizerte
Bizerte
Bizerte or Benzert , is the capital city of Bizerte Governorate in Tunisia and the northernmost city in Africa. It has a population of 230,879 .-History:...
and Ghar El Melh, settlements founded by the Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
fleeing Andalusia were reconquered by Catholic sovereigns and has more of a Christian influence.
Five distinct architectural and decorative styles are particularly popular: those of the eclectic style (neo-classical
Neoclassical architecture
Neoclassical architecture was an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century, manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulas as an outgrowth of some classicizing...
, baroque
Baroque
The Baroque is a period and the style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music...
, etc..) Between 1881 and 1900 and then again until 1920 the style was neo-Mauresque, between 1925 and 1940 it was in the Art Deco
Art Deco
Art deco , or deco, is an eclectic artistic and design style that began in Paris in the 1920s and flourished internationally throughout the 1930s, into the World War II era. The style influenced all areas of design, including architecture and interior design, industrial design, fashion and...
style and then the modernist style between 1943 and 1947.
In the south, the oasis of Gafsa
Gafsa
Gafsa is the capital of Gafsa Governorate of Tunisia. Its name was appropriated by archaeologists for the Mesolithic Capsian culture. With a population of 84,676, it is the 9th Tunisian city.-Overview:...
, Tozeur
Tozeur
Tozeur is an oasis and a city in south west Tunisia. The city is located North West of Chott el-Djerid, in between this Chott and the smaller Chott el-Gharsa. It is the capital of the Tozeur Governorate....
or Nafta, and ksours and cave dwellings of Matmata are characterized by their response to the hostile environment arising from the heat and dryness of the desert or semi-desert.
Crafts
Tunisian pottery is mainly influenced by Guellala, a city behind the creation of other pottery centers on the coast of Tunisia, including Tunis, Nabeul
Nabeul
Nabeul is a coastal town in northeastern Tunisia, on the south coast near to the Cap Bon peninsula. It is located at around and is the capital of the Nabeul Governorate...
, Moknine
Moknine
-References:...
, etc. Yellow, green or brown enamel is the trademark of Nabeul for example. Shaping, baking and decoration of pottery however, remain primitive.
The ironwork in Tunisia dates back to the Andalusian era when the studded ornamental wrought iron doors become a characteristic. Blue is the tradition with the window shutters, intended to beautify the homes and preserve the privacy of residents and ward off evil spirits. The grids recall the lattices of the Arab-Andalusian tradition, and carved wood panels, which enabled women to watch the street without being seen.
Jebba
Jebba is a Yoruba city in Kwara State, Nigeria. It sits on the south bank of the River Niger and as of 2007 had an estimated population of 22,411.- Transport :...
has become traditional dress, a wide coat covering the whole body, which differs depending on the quality of its fabric, its colors and its trimmings. The men's slippers are usually the natural color of the leather
Leather
Leather is a durable and flexible material created via the tanning of putrescible animal rawhide and skin, primarily cattlehide. It can be produced through different manufacturing processes, ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry.-Forms:...
,
while women's are generally of embroidered silk
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...
, cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
, gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
and silver
Silver
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
with floral patterns. Although the workshops in each city and some villages produce textiles typical of the region such as Gabes, the quantity sold is low compared to centers such as Kairouan which is still the national center of carpet production. The kilim
Kilim
Kilims are flat tapestry-woven carpets or rugs produced from the Balkans to Pakistan. Kilims can be purely decorative or can function as prayer rugs. Recently-made kilims are popular floor-coverings in Western households.-Etymology:...
, an embroidered rug is a legacy of Ottoman rule in Tunisia.
Finally, Tunisia has a rich tradition of mosaics dating back to ancient times. Punic mosaics were found at sites around Kerkouane or Byrsa hill at Carthage dating to Roman times, a mosacis with pictorial representation, combined with high quality marble, has been found, especially on the site of Chemtou
Chemtou
Chemtou or Chimtou is an ancient site in northwestern Tunisia, located 20 km from the city of Jendouba, near the Algerian border.Ancient Simitthu is known for its important marble quarries which were exploited from the 2nd century BC.The Chemtou Museum displays artifacts discovered in the...
.
Masculine clothing
The rural areas, the jebbaJebba
Jebba is a Yoruba city in Kwara State, Nigeria. It sits on the south bank of the River Niger and as of 2007 had an estimated population of 22,411.- Transport :...
is considered a ceremonial garment. White in summer and gray in winter, it is a sleeveless tunic that a man wears over a shirt, vest and baggy trousers (called seroual). On ordinary days, the men merely simple trousers and shirts, or/and a woolen tunic of a more slimmer fit than the jebba and fitted with long sleeves. In winter, they wear a heavy wool cloak which is often hooded, or in the north a kachabiya, which differs from the latter by its brown and white stripes.
In urban areas, the ceremonial dress consists of a linen shirt with collar and long sleeves. The seroual is adorned at the bottom of the legs with decorative pockets. A wide belt, cut from the same material keeps the seroual in shape. A jebba, a wool and silk full dress is worn in winter. The shoes, leather slippers, leave the heel exposed. Finally, the headdress is a fez or Qaboos, a red felt hat which is sometimes adorned with a tassel of black thread. For a casual ceremony, during leisure hours, often just a jebba is worn.
Feminine clothing
The festive ceremonial costumes differ somewhat across regions. In the Sahel, the centerpiece of the ceremonial dress is a dress draped in wool or cotton, drawn to a bodice embroidered with silk and silver, a velvet jacket decorated with gold, lace pants and a silk belt. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the brides of the wealthy aristocracy of Tunis often wore a Kaftan
Kaftan
A kaftan is a man's coat usually reaching to the ankles with long sleeves, and which buttons down the front. It can be made of wool, cashmere, silk, or cotton. It is often worn with a sash....
cut in velvet
Velvet
Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed,with a short dense pile, giving it a distinctive feel.The word 'velvety' is used as an adjective to mean -"smooth like velvet".-Composition:...
, brocade
Brocade
Brocade is a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in colored silks and with or without gold and silver threads. The name, related to the same root as the word "broccoli," comes from Italian broccato meaning "embossed cloth," originally past participle of the verb broccare...
or silk
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...
and richly embroidered with gold and enriched with precious stones. Nowadays, some marrying in Sousse and Hammamet
Hammamet
Hammamet is a town in Tunisia. Due to its beaches it is a popular destination for swimming and water sports. It was the first tourist destination in Tunisia...
still wear a kaftan with elbow-length sleeves, an open front, and varying in length from the knee to the mid calf. The richness and originality of the costumes are typically based less on the cut or the fabric as they are on woven patterns or embroidery.
Wearing the hijab
Hijab
The word "hijab" or "'" refers to both the head covering traditionally worn by Muslim women and modest Muslim styles of dress in general....
is not widespread in Tunisia although the country has seen a relative increase since the early 2000s. Indeed, the state prohibited it in schools and in the government offices.
Oral traditions
Until the beginning of twentieth century, Tunisia was characterized by the existence of a popular culture of oral narratives and puppet shows (marionettes). The narrator, known under the terms of Rawi, or fdaoui meddah was highly respected and appreciated by both the Islamic elite and by the popular classes. Often itinerant, traveling from city to city on foot, they used a bendirBendir
The bendir is a frame drum used as a traditional instrument throughout North Africa. Unlike the tambourine, it has no jingles but most often has a snare stretched across its head, which when the drum is struck with the fingers or palm gives the tone a buzzing quality.The bendir is a frame drum...
, flute
Flute
The flute is a musical instrument of the woodwind family. Unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute is an aerophone or reedless wind instrument that produces its sound from the flow of air across an opening...
and some doll
Doll
A doll is a model of a human being, often used as a toy for children. Dolls have traditionally been used in magic and religious rituals throughout the world, and traditional dolls made of materials like clay and wood are found in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Europe. The earliest documented dolls...
s as an accompaniment. The performance would often include the technique of imitating various characters in the context of Halqa, when two or three other narrators are involved and invite the public to participate. Other forms of narrative are the stories told by the cyclic meddah, the character of boussadia and Stambali shows, both of which are linked to communities from sub-Saharan Africa.
The narratives are institutionalized into different types: Nadira, the Hikaye, the Qissa and Khurafi. The Nadira (story), as well as recitations of the Koran was considered the oral genre par excellence by the Tunisian elite and working classes. It consists of cycles, relating a vast repertoire of stories based on vulgar but intelligent and witty character named Jha. Other narrators specialize in Hikaye or Hikayat, a Tunisian term to describe the epic sagas that recall the history of Tunisian towns and villages, particularly from the eleventh century. The latter emphasize the female characters, in which the character of Zazi represents the archetype of Tunisian women, and are a fundamental part of oral tradition as they include elements of local Arab epics. As for the Qissa, it can be defined in terms of classical Koranic stories. Didactic in nature, it is considered part of Arab-Islamic religious literature Finally, the Khurafi is the most imaginative and popular oral tradition of Tunisia. Functioning as a kind of collective memory, it results from an interaction between the narrators and the public.
The puppet called karakouz, has been present in North Africa from the fourteenth century, and the Teatro dei Pupi (originating in Sicily), enjoyed popularity until the early twentieth century. The performances took place during the month of Ramadan
Ramadan
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, which lasts 29 or 30 days. It is the Islamic month of fasting, in which participating Muslims refrain from eating, drinking, smoking and sex during daylight hours and is intended to teach Muslims about patience, spirituality, humility and...
in Halfaouine, a district of Tunis. Karakouz was once played in Turkish until the beginning of the nineteenth century before moving to the Tunisian dialect. The main characters are lively and include officials, a smoker of hashish, the French Madama, Salbi, Nina and ethnic Albanians amongst others. This type of show relies heavily on double entendres, puns, satire
Satire
Satire is primarily a literary genre or form, although in practice it can also be found in the graphic and performing arts. In satire, vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, and society itself, into improvement...
, black comedy
Black comedy
A black comedy, or dark comedy, is a comic work that employs black humor or gallows humor. The definition of black humor is problematic; it has been argued that it corresponds to the earlier concept of gallows humor; and that, as humor has been defined since Freud as a comedic act that anesthetizes...
and caricature
Caricature
A caricature is a portrait that exaggerates or distorts the essence of a person or thing to create an easily identifiable visual likeness. In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics and oversimplification of others.Caricatures can be...
. Among the themes addressed are superstition, sexuality or women. The Teatro dei Pupi, executed in Tunisian dialect, account for its three main characters: Nina the Jew, Nekula the Maltese
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
and Ismail Pasha, a valiant warrior who fought against the Christian kings.
Gender roles
This code establishes in particular the principle of equality between man and woman in terms of citizenship, forbade polygamy, allows women to divorce, established the minimum age for marriage at 15 for women and 18 for men and requires the consent of both spouses as a rule of validity of any marriage. Later, in 1964, the minimum age for marriage was advanced to 17 years for women and 20 years for men. Later, on the 50th anniversary of the CSP, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali decided to unify this age for young men and women in 2007.
Today, the position of women in Tunisia is among the most privileged in North Africa, and can be compared to that of European women. In 2002, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women commended Tunisia for "its great strides forward in promoting equality between men and women". Nevertheless, in rural places where life to some degree remains traditional, Tunisian women still have a long way to go to reach genuine equality. The man is still considered the head of family and inheritance is completely unequal.
The official government policies and programs for decades has strongly emphasized on gender equality and on promoting social development, translating into concrete results. According to latest figures, women make up 26% of the working population and more than 10,000 women are heads of businesses. At the same time, over one third of the approximately 56.000 graduates emerging annually from Tunisian universities are girls. On 1 November 1983, President Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba
Habib Bourguiba was a Tunisian statesman, the Founder and the first President of the Republic of Tunisia from July 25, 1957 until 7 November 1987...
appointed the first two women ministers: Fethia Mzali (Family and Promotion of Women) and Souad Yaacoubi (Public Health) as leaders. Today the proportions of female representation in legislative and advisory bodies are: 22.7% in the Chamber of Deputies, over 15% in the Chamber of Advisors, over 27% in municipal councils, 18% in the Economic and Social Council, 13.3% in the Higher Council of the Judiciary, 12% among ministry departmental staff. In some areas, women outnumber men, for instance in the pharmaceutical sector women represent more than 72% of all Tunisian Pharmacists. In addition, Tunisian Women are present in key national domains such Education where they constitute half of the educational body and 40% of university professors.
Family life
In the field of marriage, partners may be selected by agreement between the family or an individual selection. Mothers often go in search of a bride for their son. Once a commitment is made it usually follows a series of visits between the two families, but disputes can lead to a rupture of the agreement. The wedding ceremony itself involves the passage of the bride to the house of her husband who waits outside. After consummation of the marriage it is followed by a period of isolation of the couple.The Tunisian household is based on the patriarchal model where the man is placed in the dominant role. Most households are based upon the model of the nuclear family
Nuclear family
Nuclear family is a term used to define a family group consisting of a father and mother and their children. This is in contrast to the smaller single-parent family, and to the larger extended family. Nuclear families typically center on a married couple, but not always; the nuclear family may have...
within which the tasks are assigned according to age and sex and personal skills. Developments in education and employment, however, somewhat alleviated this situation.
A study published by the National Family and Population on June 19, 2007, shows that 1 in 10 women accept intercourse before marriage and for boys, this statistic is 4 to 10. The study also shows a sharp decline in the average age at marriage with 33 years for men and 29.2 years for women.
Gastronomy
Tunisian cuisine is a blend of Mediterranean cuisine and desert dweller's culinary traditions. Its distinctive spicy fieriness comes from neighbouring Mediterranean countries and the many civilizations who have ruled Tunisian land: PhoeniciaPhoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
n, Roman
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
, Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
, Turkish
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and the native Berber people
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
. Tunisian food uses a variety of ingredients and in different ways. The main dish that is served in Tunisia is Couscous
Couscous
Couscous is a Berber dish of semolina traditionally served with a meat or vegetable stew spooned over it. Couscous is a staple food throughout Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.-Etymology:...
, made of minuscule grains that are cooked and usually served with meat and vegetables. In cooking they also use a variety of flavors such as: olive oil
Olive oil
Olive oil is an oil obtained from the olive , a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. It is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps...
, aniseed, coriander
Coriander
Coriander is an annual herb in the family Apiaceae. Coriander is native to southern Europe and North Africa to southwestern Asia. It is a soft, hairless plant growing to tall. The leaves are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant, and slender and feathery higher on the...
, cumin
Cumin
Cumin is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to India. Its seeds are used in the cuisines of many different cultures, in both whole and ground form.-Etymology:...
, caraway
Caraway
Caraway also known as meridian fennel, or Persian cumin is a biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to western Asia, Europe and Northern Africa....
, cinnamon
Cinnamon
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several trees from the genus Cinnamomum that is used in both sweet and savoury foods...
, saffron
Saffron
Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Crocus is a genus in the family Iridaceae. Each saffron crocus grows to and bears up to four flowers, each with three vivid crimson stigmas, which are each the distal end of a carpel...
, mint
Mentha
Mentha is a genus of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae . The species are not clearly distinct and estimates of the number of species varies from 13 to 18. Hybridization between some of the species occurs naturally...
, orange
Orange (fruit)
An orange—specifically, the sweet orange—is the citrus Citrus × sinensis and its fruit. It is the most commonly grown tree fruit in the world....
, blossom
Blossom
In botany, blossom is a term given to the flowers of stone fruit trees and of some other plants with a similar appearance that flower profusely for a period of time in spring...
, and rose water.
Many of the cooking styles and utensils began to take shape when the ancient tribes were nomads. Nomadic people were limited in their cooking by what locally made pots and pans they could carry with them. A tagine is really the name of a conical-lidded pot, although today the same word is applied to what is cooked in it.
Like all countries in the Mediterranean basin, Tunisia offers a "sun cuisine", based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood (a wide range of fish) and meat from rearing (lamb).
Ingredients
Harissa
Harissa is a Tunisian hot chili sauce commonly eaten in North Africa whose main ingredients are piri piri , serrano peppers and other hot chili peppers and spices such as garlic paste, coriander, red chili powder, caraway as well as some vegetable or olive oil...
is a hot red pepper sauce made of red chili peppers and garlic
Garlic
Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, and rakkyo. Dating back over 6,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia, and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region, as well as a frequent...
, flavoured with coriander
Coriander
Coriander is an annual herb in the family Apiaceae. Coriander is native to southern Europe and North Africa to southwestern Asia. It is a soft, hairless plant growing to tall. The leaves are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant, and slender and feathery higher on the...
, cumin
Cumin
Cumin is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to India. Its seeds are used in the cuisines of many different cultures, in both whole and ground form.-Etymology:...
, olive oil
Olive oil
Olive oil is an oil obtained from the olive , a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. It is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps...
and often tomatoes. There is an old wive's tale that says a husband can judge his wife's affections by the amount of hot peppers she uses when preparing his food. If the food becomes bland then a man may believe that his wife no longer loves him. However when the food is prepared for guests the hot peppers are often toned down to suit the possibly more delicate palate of the visitor. Like harissa or chili peppers, the tomato is also an ingredient which cannot be separated from the cuisine of Tunisia. Tuna
Tuna
Tuna is a salt water fish from the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus Thunnus. Tuna are fast swimmers, and some species are capable of speeds of . Unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red coloration derives from myoglobin, an...
, eggs
Egg (food)
Eggs are laid by females of many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, and have probably been eaten by mankind for millennia. Bird and reptile eggs consist of a protective eggshell, albumen , and vitellus , contained within various thin membranes...
, olives and various varieties of pasta
Pasta
Pasta is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine, now of worldwide renown. It takes the form of unleavened dough, made in Italy, mostly of durum wheat , water and sometimes eggs. Pasta comes in a variety of different shapes that serve for both decoration and to act as a carrier for the...
, cereals, herbs and spices are also ingredients which are featured prominently in Tunisian cooking.
Tabil
Tabil
Tabil is a Tunisian spice mixture consisting of ground coriander seed, caraway seed, garlic powder, and chili powder. The term can also refer to coriander by itself....
, pronounced "table", is a word in Tunisian Arabic meaning "seasoning" and refers to a particular Tunisian spice mix, although earlier it meant ground coriander. Paula Wolfert makes the plausible claim that tabil is one of the spice mixes brought to Tunisia by Muslims expelled from Andalusia
Andalusia
Andalusia is the most populous and the second largest in area of the autonomous communities of Spain. The Andalusian autonomous community is officially recognised as a nationality of Spain. The territory is divided into eight provinces: Huelva, Seville, Cádiz, Córdoba, Málaga, Jaén, Granada and...
in 1492 after the fall of Granada
Granada
Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of three rivers, the Beiro, the Darro and the Genil. It sits at an elevation of 738 metres above sea...
. Today tabil, closely associated with the cooking of Tunisia, features garlic, cayenne pepper, caraway and coriander seeds pounded in a mortar and then dried in the sun and is often used in cooking beef or veal.
Thanks to its long coastline and numerous fishing ports, Tunisia can serve an abundant, varied and exceptionally fresh supply of fish in its restaurants. Many diners will be content to have their fish simply grilled and served filleted or sliced with lemon juice and a little olive oil. Fish can also be baked, fried in olive oil, stuffed, seasoned with cumin
Cumin
Cumin is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to India. Its seeds are used in the cuisines of many different cultures, in both whole and ground form.-Etymology:...
(kamoun). Squid, cuttle fish, and octopus are often served in hot crispy batter with slices of lemon, as a cooked salad or stuffed and served with couscous.
Main dishes
Couscous
Couscous is a Berber dish of semolina traditionally served with a meat or vegetable stew spooned over it. Couscous is a staple food throughout Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.-Etymology:...
is the national dish of Tunisia and can be prepared in many ways, Its also known as the best couscous of North Africa. It is cooked in a special kind of double boiler called a kiska:s in Arabic or couscoussière in French. Meat and vegetables are boiled in the lower half. The top half has holes in the bottom through which the steam rises to cook the grain which is put in this part. Cooked this way the grain acquires the flavour of whatever is below. The usual grain is semolina
Semolina
Semolina is the coarse, purified wheat middlings of durum wheat used in making pasta, and also used for breakfast cereals and puddings. Semolina is also used to designate coarse middlings from other varieties of wheat, and from other grains such as rice and corn.-Name:The term semolina derives from...
. To serve, the grain is piled in the middle of a dish, and the meat and vegetables put on top. A sauce can be then poured over before serving.
Like in the rest of North Africa, couscous is served on all occasions. It is traditionally eaten with lamb, the semolina must be very fine, and the vegetables (carrots, little white cabbages, turnips, chick peas) only lightly cooked. Depending on the season, the vegetables change: there may also be cardoons, cold broad beans, or pumpkin. Unlike Moroccan tajines, a tajine in Tunisia usually refers to a kind of "quiche
Quiche
Quiche is a savory, open-faced pie of vegetables, cheese, or meat in custard, baked in a pastry crust.The quiche is sometimes regarded as the savoury equivalent ofegg custard tart.- Etymology:...
" made from beaten eggs and grated cheese consisting of meat and/or various vegetable fillings, prepared like a large cake and cooked in the oven.
The most sought-after seafood speciality is poisson complet: the fish is prepared, fried, grilled or sautéed, accompanied by potato chips and either normal or spicy tastira, depending on the kind of peppers used in the dish. The peppers are grilled with a little tomato, a lot of onion and a little garlic, all of which is finely chopped and served with a poached egg.
Sports
Sport in Tunisia is marked by the dominance of football, both in terms of media coverage in terms of popular success. The Ligue Professionelle 1Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1
The CLP-1 or "Championnat de la Ligue Professionnelle 1" is the top division of the Fédération Tunisienne de Football. It was created in 1921.-History:...
has 14 teams that complete against one another for a trophy, also a chance to qualify for the Champions league of the African Nations. The Tunisian national team won the African Nations Cup in the year 2004.
However, sports like volleyball (eight national team championship wins in Africa) and handball (seven national team championship wins in Africa) are also among the sports most represented. Handball is considered the country's second most popular sport and in 2005, Tunisia held the 2005 World Handball Championships
World Men's Handball Championship
The World Championship in team handball for men has been organized by the International Handball Federation since 1938.- History :In 1938, the first indoor handball world championship was played in the Deutschlandhalle in Berlin, Germany on 5 February and 6 February...
and won 4th place in the competition. Other notable sports include the martial arts (taekwondo
Taekwondo
Taekwondo is a Korean martial art and the national sport of South Korea. In Korean, tae means "to strike or break with foot"; kwon means "to strike or break with fist"; and do means "way", "method", or "path"...
, judo
Judo
is a modern martial art and combat sport created in Japan in 1882 by Jigoro Kano. Its most prominent feature is its competitive element, where the object is to either throw or takedown one's opponent to the ground, immobilize or otherwise subdue one's opponent with a grappling maneuver, or force an...
and karate
Karate
is a martial art developed in the Ryukyu Islands in what is now Okinawa, Japan. It was developed from indigenous fighting methods called and Chinese kenpō. Karate is a striking art using punching, kicking, knee and elbow strikes, and open-handed techniques such as knife-hands. Grappling, locks,...
), athletics and tennis
Tennis
Tennis is a sport usually played between two players or between two teams of two players each . Each player uses a racket that is strung to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over a net into the opponent's court. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society at all...
. Other major sports like cycling are less represented in contrast, because of lack of infrastructure and equipment but competitors still compete in the Tour of Tunisia.
The Tunisian sports year is punctuated by major competitions such as the championships in football, handball, volleyball and basketball. The country also organizes international competitions. Thus, the first edition of the FIFA World Cup Under-20 was held in Tunisia in 1977,
the final stages of the African Cup of Nations in 1965,
1994 and 2004, and the last edition was won by the national team.
In May 2007, the country had 1,673 registered sports clubs whose main assets are in football (250) and taekwondo (206). Then come karate and its derivatives (166), wheelchair sports (140), handball (85), athletics (80), judo (66) kung fu (60), kick boxing (59), basketball (48), bowls (47), table tennis (45), volleyball (40) boxing (37), swimming (31) and tennis (30).
Cultural policy
The political culture of Tunisia is governed by the Ministry of Culture and Heritage Preservation, directed by Abderraouf El BastiAbderraouf El Basti
Abderraouf El Basti is a Tunisian politician. He is the former Minister of Culture and Protection of National Heritage.-Biography:Abderraouf El Basti was born on August 19, 1947. He received a Masters in Arabic literature from the University of Tunis....
. This department, created on December 11, 1961, is, according to the decree n ° 2005-1707 of June 6, 2005, "responsible, under the general policy of the state to run national choices in the fields of culture and heritage preservation and establish plans and programs to promote these areas ".
In 1999, the budget allocated to 0.6% to culture and reached 1.25% in 2009 and is set to reach 1.5% in 2010. 50% of this increase is linked to a policy of decentralization of culture through the promotion in the areas of cultural institutions such as houses of culture, cultural committees and associations. During 2007, seven libraries were established and 30 public libraries managed. Ten houses of culture were under construction, half completed in 2008, and another 40 houses are under maintenance. The year 2008 was also proclaimed "national year of translation".
On November 7, 2007, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali announced the creation of a Higher Council for Culture, made up of celebrities and those belonging to various fields of culture and arts, which will be invited to discuss proposed ideas and approaches to promote their areas and strengthen the influence of Tunisia abroad.
In practice, the average number of performances has increased from 1,863 in 2000 to 3,560 in 2007. Special rates not exceeding 35% of the normal price is set for students, teachers and members of the touring theatre. Moreover, to enter the House of Culture in Tunis, the entrance is often free or not under any circumstances exceeds 100 millimes.
However, while Kairouan's ambition is to become the "capital of Islamic culture" in 2009, MPs criticize some of the poor quality of artistic productions. Some regret the delay in the excavation of sites such as Salakta or El Haouaria and criticize the dilapidated state of some buildings, particularly that of Borj Zouara and Bab Saadoun. Moreover, the Tunisian museums should, according to some, be the subject of more attention, notably by addressing the problem of low attendance caused by the high cost of tickets.
External links
- Arfaoui, Jamel. "Tunisia Celebrates Muslim New Year." Magharebia. 8 January 2008. 28 February 2008
- Gordon, Raymond G. "Languages of Tunisia." Ethnologue. 2005. 28 February 2008
- Keating, Michael J. "On the Oasis of Douz: Tunisia’S International Sahara Festival." Washington Report. Mar. 2005. 28 February 2008
- "A Passion for Creativity." Middle East 304 (2000): 2. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. University of Minnesota, Duluth. 21 February 2008
- "Tunisia Demographics Profile 2007." Index Mundi. 15 May 2007. 4 March 2008
- Kjeilen, Tore. "Tunisia: Religions & Peoples." LookLex Encyclopedia. 1996. LookLex Ltd. 27 February 2008
- "Tunisia: Location, Population, Religion, Membership, Currency." Arabic German Consulting. Arabic German Consulting. 3 March 2008