Academic degree
Encyclopedia
An academic degree is a position and title within a college
or university
that is usually awarded in recognition of the recipient having either satisfactorily completed a prescribed course of study or having conducted a scholarly endeavour deemed worthy of his or her admission to the degree. The most common degrees awarded today are Bachelor's
, Master's
, and doctoral
degrees.
, spreading everywhere across the globe as the institution did:
The doctorate (Latin
: doceo, I teach) appeared in medieval Europe
as a license to teach (Latin
: licentia docendi) at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers
and other Christian
authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible
. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran
of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope
to the University of Paris
in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi). However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.
At the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship
to a guild
. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master degree.
In the medieval European universities
, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the quadrivium
(mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts
, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts
, from the Latin , a term previously usually used of a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight. Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of disputation
s would earn one the Master of Arts
degree, from the Latin magister
, teacher, entitling one to teach these subjects. Master of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin ("step").
Today the terms "master", "doctor" (from the Latin - meaning literally: "teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred the Master of Arts but, for instance, the highest degree was variously termed Master of Theology/ Divinity or Doctor of Theology/ Divinity depending on the place).
The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D.Phil., Ph.D.) and medicine - Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time the D.D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy).
The University of Bologna
in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine
.
The University of Paris
used the term master for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford
and Cambridge
, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews
, Glasgow
, Aberdeen
, and Edinburgh
.
The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of art
s or grammar
became known as "master", but those in theology
, medicine, and law
were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts
(M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for Ph.Ds developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.
The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat
(cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education
and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval
teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had a similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-years degree was "Licenciado", (although there were a few 3-years associate degrees called "diplomaturas", from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura). The highest level was "Doctor".
In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Britain, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
In most countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress
particular to the awarding institution. Academic dress is like a uniform or insignia identifying the status of the individual wearing them.
For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities
, there is a standard list of abbreviations, but in practice many variations are used. Most notable is the use of the Latin abbreviations 'Oxon.' and 'Cantab.' for the Universities of Oxford
and Cambridge
, in spite of these having been superseded by (little used) English 'Oxf.' and 'Camb.' Other Latin abbreviations include St And. for the University of St Andrews
, Exon. for the University of Exeter
, Dunelm. for Durham University
, Ebor. for the University of York
and Cantuar. for the University of Kent
(formerly the "University of Kent at Canterbury"). Confusion results from the widespread use of 'SA' for the University of South Australia (instead of S.Aust.) because 'SA' was officially assigned to the University of South Africa. For universities of different commonwealth countries sharing the same name, such as York University in Canada and the University of York in the UK, a convention has been adopted where a country abbreviation is included with the letters and university name. In this example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' is commonly used to denote degrees conferred by their respective universities.
The doubling of letters in LL.B., LL.M., LL.D. is because these degrees are in laws, not law. The doubled letter indicates the Latin plural (genitive case) legum as opposed to the singular (genitive case) legis. Abbreviations for the degrees in surgery Ch. B. and Ch. M. are from Latin chiruguriae and often indicate a university system patterned after Scottish models. The combination of M.B. with Ch. B. arose from a need to graduate the students at the time of year allocated to graduation rituals, but the legal inability to confer the M.B. before they had been properly approved by professional regulatory bodies. Thus the Ch. B. was conferred first, and the M.B. was conferred later, after registration, and without ceremony. In recent times the two have come to be conferred together and are widely (mis)understood to constitute a single degree.
Some degrees are awarded jure dignitatis. That is, a person who has demonstrated the appropriate qualities to be given a particular office may be awarded the degree by virtue of the office held. It is another kind of earned—but not strictly academic—degree.
to a guild
. The term of study before new teachers were admitted to the 'guild' of "Master of Arts", was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but eventually the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master degree.
The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects read. Scholars in the faculties of art
s or grammar
became known as "master", but those in theology
, medicine, and law
were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology
, medicine
and law
, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than that of master. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts
(M.A.). The practice of 'doctor' being the highest degree in virtually all faculties developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.
Traditionally more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States according to results of the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master degrees, for the first time. The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor’s degrees was in 1996.
The Medical Degree - Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS), Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS).
.
elaborated by the UNESCO
and the Council of Europe
, degrees in Europe are being harmonised through the Bologna process
, based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor
(Licence
in France, Poland and Portugal), Master and Doctor
. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system in use in some countries.
The Bologna Process currently has 47 participating countries. Although a country is a Bologna Process member state, this does not necessarily mean that the Bologna Accords have been implemented yet in that country.
Status Implementation Bologna Accords
Implemented
Not Implemented
With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010. Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.
.
In spite of the fact that the degrees awarded by the two institutions are at par by law, the UAS degrees are not directly comparable to nor similar in content as the university degrees. In popular culture, degrees awarded by Universities of Applied Sciences are not traditionally held as academic degrees (yliopistotutkinto) but as higher education degrees (korkeakoulututkinto). This is reflected by the fact most Master's degree holders from Universities of Applied Sciences have to complete additional studies in order to apply to doctoral programmes at Universities.
, the academic degree system was quite complicated: the first degree was the baccalauréat
(completed in fact after high school), then the two-year diplôme d'études universitaires générales (DEUG General Academic Studies Degree) or premier cycle (undergraduate education) or diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT Technologic Academic Studies Degree) or Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS Higher Technician national Certificate), then the one-year licence, the one-year maîtrise (master's degree
), the two forming the second cycle (graduate education), the 1–2 years Diplôme d'Études Approfondies
, Special Studies Degree and the three-year doctorate
, the two forming the troisième cycle (postgraduate education). With the Bologna process
, the system is now much simpler: baccalauréat (A-level degree), licence or licence professionnelle (= Bachelor), master (a new two-year degree merging maîtrise and DEA
), and doctorate. This system is called "LMD" system in France, which means licence-master-doctorat.
, Humanities
, Linguistics
and the Arts
or with a Diplom
degree in Natural Sciences, Economics
, Business Administration, Political Science
, Sociology
, Theology
and Engineering
. Those degrees were the first and at the same time highest non-PhD
/Doctorate
-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other, Anglo-Saxon-inspired degrees. In Germany, a Magister or Diplom awarded by universities, which both require a final thesis, is popularly considered equivalent to a master's degree from countries following an Anglo-American model; the Diplom awarded at a Fachhochschule
are equivalated to the Bachelor
degree.
However, degree equivalencies are highly contentious, and this is not the general opinion outside of Germany. For example, these traditional German first degrees are regarded by the University of California, the top-ranked public university system in the United States, as equivalent to an American bachelor's degree for purposes of graduate school admission. In fact, bachelor's degrees vary widely throughout the United States and the world, and even British bachelor's degrees, with the exception of Honours degrees from select universities, are not considered by the University of California to meet their graduate school admission requirements.
A special kind of examination is the Staatsexamen
. It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers, lawyers (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys, and pharmacists have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for 4–6 years before they take the first Staatsexamen. Afterwards teachers and jurists go through a form of pupillage
for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. The first Staatsexamen is at a level which is equivalent to a M.Sc. or M.A.
Since 1999, the traditional degrees are gradually being replaced by Bachelor
's (Bakkalaureus) and Master
's (Master) degrees (see Bologna process). The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically take five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities are still resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. Universities must fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. In the future, the Diplom
or Magister
degree will no longer be awarded.
Doctorates are issued under a variety of names, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom (from a Universität), Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. The doctoral promotion (e.g. to Dr.rer. nat., Dr.phil. and others) is the highest academic degree in Germany and regarded there as equivalent to a Ph.D. degree, although, again, this is a matter of dispute, with Americans, for example, claiming that their Ph.D. is a significantly higher standard closer to the Habilitation (see below). The degree Dr.med. for medical doctors has to be viewed differently, however; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previous conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis.
Sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation
is an academic qualification in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (Lecturer) in an academic professorship (now called W2 and W3). Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields.
At the end of a students term in secondary school, they sit the Leaving Certificate exams to gain entry to college. This is considered a Level 4-5.
If a student studies on a Higher Certificate Course, National Diploma Course, Post Leaving Cert Course or Apprenticeship, this is considered a Level 6 qualification.
An Ordinary Degree is a Level 7.
A Bachelors Degree or Honours Bachelor Degree is a Level 8.
A Master's Degree, Postgraduate Certificate or Postgraduate Diploma is a Level 9.
A Doctorate is a level 10.
, obtained at 19 years of age, after 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. liceo classico focused on classical subjects, including ancient Greek and Latin;, liceo scientifico focused on scientific subjects such as Maths, Chemistry
and Physics
but also including ancient Latin and Italian Literature; liceo linguistico focused on Foreign Languages; istituto tecnico focused on practical subjects such as Mechanics
and Electronics
).
After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests.
Italy too uses the three levels degree system. The first level degree, called "laurea triennale
" (Bachelor's degree) is obtained after 3 years of study and a short thesis on a specific subject. The second level degree, called "laurea magistrale
" (Master's degree) is obtained after two additional years of study, specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e.g. particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc.). This degree requires a more complex thesis work, usually involving some academic research or an internship in a private company.
Not a lot of students continue their university career (after succeeding another admission test) with 3 more years of Dottorato di ricerca (equivalent to a Ph. D). A degree mainly devoted to research, its final thesis will be about the results of the research done.
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea triennale or the laurea magistrale one can attend a Master (first-level Master after the laurea triennale; second-level Master after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and costs and usually including a final internship in a private company.
The title for Masters of Art Graduate students is, regardless from the field of study, Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev. Dott./Dott.ssa or Dr., meaning Doctor
), not to be confused with the title for the PhD
level graduate, which is Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca. Graduates from the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called Dr. Prof. (or simply Professore) or Maestro.
, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982. In this year the "tweefasestructuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Minister Wim Deetman. With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and structure them to an identical timetable. Additional effect was that students would be persuaded stringently to produce results within a preset time-frame, or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the Bologna process
.
In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, he/she has to complete a six year pre-university secondary education called "voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs
" (vwo). There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the vwo levels access to university education is granted. For some studies specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without physics, biology, and chemistry will make it impossible to follow an academic medicine study. People 21 years old or older who do not have the required entrance diplomas may opt for an entrance exam for being admitted to a higher education curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After September 1, 2002 they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum.
For some studies in the Netherlands, a governmental determined limited access
is in place (although under political review for abolishment, February 2011). This is a limitation of the number of applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates. The most renowned studies for their numerus clausus
are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus
study and who can not.
Almost all Dutch universities are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in business
, and all others in theology
). Leiden University
is the oldest, founded in 1575.
Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and existed out of two phases:
For medical students the "doctorandus" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine of MD (Medical Doctor). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title arts (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process, and can be compared with the MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir or MBChBa in the UK degree system, and the North American, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who did complete his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctor (PhD
-like) study is "drs." (e.g. drs. Jansen, arts) and not "dr." in medicine, as often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the Netherlands there is the informal title dokter for physicians, but not doctor (dr.), unless they also earn such degree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the "doctorandus" degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years additional study (~internships) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board Registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgeon training/positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. Since a couple of years, the six years (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three years (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three years (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already began their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six years study (nominal time).
A doctorandus in law uses the title "meester" (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen) instead of drs., and some studies like for example technique and agriculture grant the title "ingenieur" (engineer, noted as ir. Jansen) instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to a LLM (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.), and if got before September 1, 2002 from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch shortcuts before one's name. Since September 1, 2002 Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into and merging with the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars, or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names, MA graduates may use drs. before their name and LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities.
Not uncommon, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a PhD
in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree MPhil is not legally recognised.
After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir.", "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a promotion study (informally called PhD
) to eventually obtain a doctorate, and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are structured ideally according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one professor
. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the Board of the Faculty with guest professors from other faculties and/or universities added. More and more common, and in some disciplines even mandatory, is that the student writes and submits scientific publications to peer-reviewed journals, which eventually need to be accepted for publication. The number of publications is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation/ thesis in book form.
All current Dutch academic education programmes is offered in the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelors degree and another one or two years the earn your masters degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc and LLB) and four official master titles (MA, MSc and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government.
After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D behind their name, but not both simultaneously. There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained.
Stacking of the titles as seen in countries like for example Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctor titles may, but in practice seldom use dr.mult. before their name. The honoris cause doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name. Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed however (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a HBO, vocational (or professional) engineering degree together with an academic engineering degree. What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead.
A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles. Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch titles, or use the shortcut provided by the law behind one's name (since September 1, 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names). Hence, formal use of the Anglo-Saxon PhD
behind ones name is not legal, as it is not a Dutch degree, but often seen on for example English publications for clarity towards international readers; the law provides the option of using the shortcut D behind one's name instead of dr. before one's name.
"Doctors" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "Universitair Docent" (UD – assistant professor). With time, experience, and/ or achievement, this can evolve to a position as "Universitair Hoofd Docent" (UHD – associate professor). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "hoogleraar", the head of the department and commonly a professor
. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement, and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university, and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch professor
's title, noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen, is connected to ones employment. This means that, should the professor
leave the university
, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of professor
. Exception here are retired professors, who can still note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job loose their professor title, and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation.
Contrary to some other European countries like for example Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in every day life, and are for example not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles however are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and subject to legal prosecution. Holders of foreign degrees therefore need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated). In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (in the Netherlands applies the principle of opportunity
, so some known crimes are not prosecuted).
For example, many degrees had titles that included the Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. These degrees were all retired in 2003.
The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the Storting, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles master and bachelor (baccalaureus).
The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology
. The latter corresponds to the former sivilingeniør degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering
, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingeniør, which is still in use for new graduates who can chose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written philosophiæ doctor (instead of the traditional doctor philosophiæ). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD, and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.
the system is similar to the German one.
, Ukraine
and some other former USSR republics educational degrees are awarded after finishing college education. There are several levels of education one must choose between 2nd and 3rd year usually on the 3rd year of study.
Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporates Bachelor degree in them, but only high level degree is stated in final diploma.
Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and written work on practical application of studied skills
or research thesis (usually 70-100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to Master's degree
.
The first level academic degree is called "candidate of ... sciences" (say, candidate of physical-mathematical sciences, or candidate of engineering sciences, candidate of historical sciences, etc.). This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually 3 publications suffice), taking 3 exams (one in their speciality, one in a foreign language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth thesis (80-200 pages) called a "dissertation".
Finally, there is a "doctor of ... sciences
" (Doktor nauk) degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environment. This degree is sought granted for contributions into certain field (formally - who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon, or development of new theory, or essential development of new direction, etc. There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to Habilitation
in Germany, France, Austria, and some other European countries.
, there were the "Diplomaturas" (bachelor's degrees for 3 years) and "Licenciaturas" (for 5 years) but after it has changed to Grado for all universities (except for medical and architecture, which will be master's "still under discussion" if they can certify a minimum of 5 years' professional experience) and Master to the ones who make the post-grade master courses (60 to 120 ECTS credits in one or two years) and Doctor if you continue studies.
Students must look to make an official Master with ETCS credit because some university are making their own Master's without the ECTS credits from the Bologna Process
, but these are only like the Diploma
.
, because there are four official languages in Switzerland
, the Universities' degrees were different, depending on the three languages French, German and Italian. In French-speaking universities, the first academic degree was the Licence
: 4 to 5 years of study, equivalent to the Master's degree
in the UK
or the USA. The postgraduate degree was the diplôme d'études approfondies DEA or DESS
: 1–2 years of study, equivalent to the Master of Advanced Studies degree. In the Swiss-German Universities, the first degree was called Lizentiat
, a 4-year degree, and the second was the Diplom nach dem ersten akademischen Grad
. In the Italian-speaking University, the first degree was called licenza
, a 4-year degree; the second was the post laurea
, which took 1–2 years. The Doctoral's degree
is the last stage at all the universities; it requires 3–5 years, depending on the field.
The standard first degree
in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the Bachelor's degree
conferred with honours. It usually takes three years to read for this degree.
The honours are usually categorised into four classes:
Graduands who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the degree of bachelor; this is popularly referred to as an 'ordinary degree' or 'pass degree'.
The Graduateship (post-nominal GCGI) of the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped to the standard required to be admitted to a British honours degree.
The 'Level 6 Graduate Diploma in Engineering' awarded by the Engineering Council via the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped at the same level as that required to become a Bachelor of Engineering at a British university.
Some universities admit graduands to Master's degrees as a first degree following an integrated programme of study. These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as Master of Engineering
for engineering, Master of Physics
for physics, Master of Mathematics
for mathematics, and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours, see above for the classes of honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering.
The 'Level 7 Postgraduate Diploma in Engineering' awarded by the Engineering Council via the City & Guilds of London Institute, is mapped at the same level as that required to become a Bachelor of Engineering at a British university.
Unlike the case in the United States, due to earlier specialisation, to read for a master's degree
s may take only one year of full-time study, and the usual amount of time spent working towards a Ph.D. is three years full-time. Therefore, whilst the usual amount of time spent studying from first-year undergraduate through to being admitted to a doctorate in the United States is nine years, it is in most cases only seven in the United Kingdom, and may be just six, since being a master is not always a precondition for embarking on a PhD.
Recently, there has been a significant rise in the number of courses offering "postgraduate diplomas", often in very specific, vocationally-related subjects. Many institutions (for example, The Open University) offer these courses over one year, with an additional year or two required for the award of a master's degree. The popularity of these courses is in part due to legislative requirements to demonstrate managerial competence in public-sector related functions.
A foundation degree
can be awarded for having completed two years of study in what is usually a vocational discipline. The foundation degree is comparable to an associate's degree in the United States, and can be awarded by a university, or college of higher education.
The standard first degree
in Scotland
is either a Master of Arts
which is only awarded by the Ancient Universities of Scotland
(whereas a Bachelor of Arts
is awarded by all other modern institutions), for arts and humanities subjects, or a Bachelor of Science
, for natural and social science subjects. These can either be studied at general or honours levels. A general or ordinary degree (MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years to complete. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and, sometimes, beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree; if a third year/junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied, and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.).
This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education
, where traditionally five Highers
are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh A-Levels. The Higher is a one year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. Advanced Highers
add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts - students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities.
Honours for MA or BSc are classified into three classes:
Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a Special Degree
Postgraduate Master's Degrees may be offered in some subjects; however, unlike England and Wales, these are not designated Master of Arts, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters
(MLitt); in natural and social sciences, as Master of Science
(MSc). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy
(MPhil) or Master of Research
(MRes). First doctoral research degrees in arts, science and humanities subjects are usually designated Doctor of Philosophy
(PhD).
In the United States and Canada, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often Bachelor of Arts
, B.A., or Bachelor of Science
, B.S., (B.Sc., in Canada), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts
, M.A., or Master of Science
, M.S./M.Sc.; either of these programs might be as much as three years in length) and a further one or two years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy
, Ph.D. or other types such as Ed.D., Psy.D., Th.D.) for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.
Some schools—mostly junior college
s and community college
s, but some four-year schools as well—offer an associate's degree
for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. This may stand alone, or sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree.
In Canada and the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree
". These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission, and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight. Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity call their first professional degree a "master's degree" (e.g., M.F.A.
, M.B.A.) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a doctorate in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago, however, this would also require increasing the length of their education.
In 21 US jurisdictions religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt. etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight. Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.
In Canada, professional degrees in medicine
(the M.D.
) and law (the J.D.
) are considered to be undergraduate degrees whereas MD, JD or D.O. are doctorates in the United States.
follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. After high school, students progress to university, where they study for a licenciatura, then a maestría, then a doctorado.
The minimum acceptable academic level is the bachillerato (also called preparatoria), similar to high school
. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area.
Once in university, students begin the carrera, the study of a precise academic branch like economics, business administration, sciences, law or medicine. Students will be in university for 8-9 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4-4.5 years. Upon graduation, students receive a licenciatura in their chosen subject area, which is equivalent to an American Bachelor's degree
.
After receiving the licenciatura, students may take extra courses called diplomados. These courses last 4-12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the maestría, equivalent to the Master's degree
. Study at the maestría level takes 2–3 years and mandates completion of a thesis
. Similar to students in the US, students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying.
Students who have completed the maestria may continue on to the doctorado, or the doctorate
. Doctoral study typically lasts 2–3 years.
or B.A.
) or with a professional degree (roughly modeled on the old German Diplom
).
Bacharel degrees are awarded in most fields of study in the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, or natural sciences and normally take four years to complete (some degrees, as in Law and Engineering, require an extra fifth year to be obtained). Professional degrees are awarded in state-regulated professions such as architecture, engineering, psychology, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, or human medicine and are named after the profession itself, i.e. one graduates with a degree of Engenheiro (engineer), Arquiteto (architect), or Médico (physician/surgeon) for example. A typical course of study leading to a first professional degree in Brazil normally takes five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years.
In addition to the standard Bacharel and professional degrees, Brazilian universities also offer the Licenciatura degree, generally four-years length degrees, available for students who want to qualify as school
teachers. Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural sciences. Tecnólogo (Technologist) is also available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years only.
Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular
. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as transferência interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major.
Individuals who hold either a Bacharel degree, a professional diploma or Licenciatura are eligible for admission into graduate
courses leading to advanced master
's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the Natural Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects (sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview), preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies.
Master's degrees usually take two years to obtain and are classified into academic master's degrees or professional master's degrees. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight)and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to the academic knowledge, but not necessarily in being original. Professional master's degrees on the other hand normally involve taking a larger number of classes, and, in the case of engineering programs in particular, often completing a project as an intern in an engineering company and submitting a final project report. Different to that, Academic Programs of Master's in Business Administration are full time MBAs, and demand a much larger number of subjects (760 hours), and are equivalent to USA programs, although they also demand defending a thesis at the end of the course. The Executive MBA comprehend 480 hours of study and it also requires a thesis at the end. This happens because both Academic or Executive MBAs are eligible to giving classes at Bachelor degrees' program.
The Master degree is a pre-requisite for the admission in a Doctorate program in Brazil.
Master's titles in Brazil normally include an explicit reference to the field of study in which they were awarded, e.g. one graduates with a degree of Mestre em Engenharia (Master of Engineering), Mestre em Economia (Master of Economics
), and so on. The generic title Mestre em Ciências (Master of Sciences) is used sometimes though, especially in the natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, etc.). The word profissional is normally added to the title to distinguish it from an academic master's degree, e.g. Mestre Profissional em Engenharia Aeronáutica (Professional Master in Aeronautical Engineering).
Doctor's degrees on the other hand normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete and are of a higher standing than a master's degree; With very few exceptions (namely, people with outstanding accomplishments in research), a Master degree or equivalent is required for admission in a Doctorate Program. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's theses, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute.
Conventions for naming doctoral degrees follow similar rules to those used for master's degree, i.e. an explicit reference to the field of study is normally included in the title itself, e.g. Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), etc., although a generic title like Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) may be occasionally used.
Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo
still award the title of Livre-Docente (free docent
), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation
, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docência examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors.
See also Universities and Higher Education in Brazil
After this, students, now called "" (professionals), Tecnólogos (associates) or "" (technicians), can opt for higher degrees.
Formal education after the Bachelor's degree is the Master's degree with the title of "", and Doctorate's degree known as "" (doctorate). The Master's degree normally consists of two years.
Commonly students prefer to take an specialization course, "", after their bachelor's degree rather than the more formal Master and Doctorate paths. This program is very popular in the country, because it requires only one year to complete and because the student only acquires the technical knowledge, without the bulk of the theoretical subjects.
A similar situation in Colombia, when compared to the U.S. system, is that the students may go directly to the "" without having to take the "Master" or "".
Quite similar to the case described for Colombia, students may opt to be ""(Professionals) or ""(Technicians).
After completion of high school, students may follow professional or technical studies at Universities or Technical schools. Only Universities and the Academies of the Armed Forces can give Academic Degrees. In general, traditional professions require an Academic Degree, but there are many professions that not require the degree because they were conceived as strictly "professional" not academic. The degrees are as follows:
"" it is similar to the Bachelor, but to get it is necessary to complete at least eight semesters of study on the subjects which are part of the Mayor. This degree is enough to continue developing an academic career, however, to get a professional title -which is not academic, but allows you to get a professional practice, you have to continue one or two additional years of study. (For example to be an engineer it is necessary to study four years to get a Licentiate in Engineering Sciences, and two additional years to get a Professional Title and become an engineer. Sometimes it is possible to take additional subjects and get a "" degree besides the professional title.)
"" is the equivalent to the Master degree in English speaking countries.
"" is the equivalent to the Doctorate or Phd. There is no separate classification for Professional Doctorates.
In particular, the engineering profession may be complicated for the foreigner since there are two types of engineers: those who got an Academic Degree such as Civil Engineers or Armed Forced Politechnical Engineers, and those who are "" (Professional Engineers) which are considered technicians more focused to apply the engineering, and completed only four years of study. They are not able, by law, to authorise plans or drawings like engineers with a degree or architects.
Titles at the higher education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the tile of Técnico Superior Universitario (literally, University Higher Technician, to distinguish from Technicians of the Sciences). Universities award the student with the title of Ingeniero (literally, Engineer) or with the title Licenciado (literally, Licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The Engineer have more physics subjects than the Licenciate, but both are five-year careers. Some higher education institutions may award Diplomados (literally, Diploma) but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical Doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6 year-career.
Post-graduate education follows conventions of the United States (being named "Master's" and "Doctorate" after the programes there)
College
A college is an educational institution or a constituent part of an educational institution. Usage varies in English-speaking nations...
or university
University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
that is usually awarded in recognition of the recipient having either satisfactorily completed a prescribed course of study or having conducted a scholarly endeavour deemed worthy of his or her admission to the degree. The most common degrees awarded today are Bachelor's
Bachelor's degree
A bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...
, Master's
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
, and doctoral
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
degrees.
Overview
The modern academic system of academic degrees evolved and expanded in the medieval universityMedieval university
Medieval university is an institution of higher learning which was established during High Middle Ages period and is a corporation.The first institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of...
, spreading everywhere across the globe as the institution did:
The doctorate (Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
: doceo, I teach) appeared in medieval Europe
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
as a license to teach (Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
: licentia docendi) at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
and other Christian
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
. The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran
Third Council of the Lateran
The Third Council of the Lateran met in March 1179 as the eleventh ecumenical council. Pope Alexander III presided and 302 bishops attended.By agreement reached at the Peace of Venice in 1177 the bitter conflict between Alexander III and Emperor Frederick I was brought to an end...
of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
to the University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubique docendi). However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.
At the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship
Apprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a skill. Apprentices or protégés build their careers from apprenticeships...
to a guild
Guild
A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of workers. They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel, and a secret society...
. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master degree.
In the medieval European universities
Medieval university
Medieval university is an institution of higher learning which was established during High Middle Ages period and is a corporation.The first institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of...
, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the quadrivium
Quadrivium
The quadrivium comprised the four subjects, or arts, taught in medieval universities, after teaching the trivium. The word is Latin, meaning "the four ways" , and its use for the 4 subjects has been attributed to Boethius or Cassiodorus in the 6th century...
(mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts
Liberal arts
The term liberal arts refers to those subjects which in classical antiquity were considered essential for a free citizen to study. Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic were the core liberal arts. In medieval times these subjects were extended to include mathematics, geometry, music and astronomy...
, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts
Bachelor of Arts
A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...
, from the Latin , a term previously usually used of a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight. Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of disputation
Disputation
In the scholastic system of education of the Middle Ages, disputations offered a formalized method of debate designed to uncover and establish truths in theology and in sciences...
s would earn one the Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
degree, from the Latin magister
Magister (degree)
Magister is an academic degree used in various systems of higher education.-Argentina:...
, teacher, entitling one to teach these subjects. Master of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin ("step").
Today the terms "master", "doctor" (from the Latin - meaning literally: "teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred the Master of Arts but, for instance, the highest degree was variously termed Master of Theology/ Divinity or Doctor of Theology/ Divinity depending on the place).
The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D.Phil., Ph.D.) and medicine - Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time the D.D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy).
The University of Bologna
University of Bologna
The Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna is the oldest continually operating university in the world, the word 'universitas' being first used by this institution at its foundation. The true date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088...
in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine
Medicine
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
.
The University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
used the term master for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford
University of Oxford
The University of Oxford is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096...
and Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews
University of St Andrews
The University of St Andrews, informally referred to as "St Andrews", is the oldest university in Scotland and the third oldest in the English-speaking world after Oxford and Cambridge. The university is situated in the town of St Andrews, Fife, on the east coast of Scotland. It was founded between...
, Glasgow
University of Glasgow
The University of Glasgow is the fourth-oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotland's four ancient universities. Located in Glasgow, the university was founded in 1451 and is presently one of seventeen British higher education institutions ranked amongst the top 100 of the...
, Aberdeen
University of Aberdeen
The University of Aberdeen, an ancient university founded in 1495, in Aberdeen, Scotland, is a British university. It is the third oldest university in Scotland, and the fifth oldest in the United Kingdom and wider English-speaking world...
, and Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1583, is a public research university located in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city, with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university...
.
The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of art
The arts
The arts are a vast subdivision of culture, composed of many creative endeavors and disciplines. It is a broader term than "art", which as a description of a field usually means only the visual arts. The arts encompass visual arts, literary arts and the performing arts – music, theatre, dance and...
s or grammar
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
became known as "master", but those in theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
, medicine, and law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
(Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
(M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for Ph.Ds developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.
The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat
Baccalauréat
The baccalauréat , often known in France colloquially as le bac, is an academic qualification which French and international students take at the end of the lycée . It was introduced by Napoleon I in 1808. It is the main diploma required to pursue university studies...
(cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education
Secondary education
Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. Secondary education includes the final stage of compulsory education and in many countries it is entirely compulsory. The next stage of education is usually college or university...
and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had a similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato". The standard Spanish university 5-years degree was "Licenciado", (although there were a few 3-years associate degrees called "diplomaturas", from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura). The highest level was "Doctor".
In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Britain, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
In most countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress
Academic dress
Academic dress or academical dress is a traditional form of clothing for academic settings, primarily tertiary education, worn mainly by those that have been admitted to a university degree or hold a status that entitles them to assume them...
particular to the awarding institution. Academic dress is like a uniform or insignia identifying the status of the individual wearing them.
Indicating earned degrees
There are various conventions for indicating degrees and diplomas after one's name. In some cultures it is usual to give only the highest degree. In others, it is usual to give the full sequence, in some cases giving abbreviations also for the discipline, the institution, and (where it applies) the level of honours. In another variation, a 'rule of subsumption' often shortens the list and may obscure the chronology evident from a full listing. Thus 'MSc BA' means that the degrees conferred were - in chronological order - BSc, BA, MSc. The subsumption rule reflects the principle that a person of a given high status does not separately belong to the lower status.For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities
Association of Commonwealth Universities
The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents over 480 universities from Commonwealth countries.- History :In 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire...
, there is a standard list of abbreviations, but in practice many variations are used. Most notable is the use of the Latin abbreviations 'Oxon.' and 'Cantab.' for the Universities of Oxford
University of Oxford
The University of Oxford is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096...
and Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
, in spite of these having been superseded by (little used) English 'Oxf.' and 'Camb.' Other Latin abbreviations include St And. for the University of St Andrews
University of St Andrews
The University of St Andrews, informally referred to as "St Andrews", is the oldest university in Scotland and the third oldest in the English-speaking world after Oxford and Cambridge. The university is situated in the town of St Andrews, Fife, on the east coast of Scotland. It was founded between...
, Exon. for the University of Exeter
University of Exeter
The University of Exeter is a public university in South West England. It belongs to the 1994 Group, an association of 19 of the United Kingdom's smaller research-intensive universities....
, Dunelm. for Durham University
Durham University
The University of Durham, commonly known as Durham University, is a university in Durham, England. It was founded by Act of Parliament in 1832 and granted a Royal Charter in 1837...
, Ebor. for the University of York
University of York
The University of York , is an academic institution located in the city of York, England. Established in 1963, the campus university has expanded to more than thirty departments and centres, covering a wide range of subjects...
and Cantuar. for the University of Kent
University of Kent
The University of Kent, previously the University of Kent at Canterbury, is a public research university based in Kent, United Kingdom...
(formerly the "University of Kent at Canterbury"). Confusion results from the widespread use of 'SA' for the University of South Australia (instead of S.Aust.) because 'SA' was officially assigned to the University of South Africa. For universities of different commonwealth countries sharing the same name, such as York University in Canada and the University of York in the UK, a convention has been adopted where a country abbreviation is included with the letters and university name. In this example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' is commonly used to denote degrees conferred by their respective universities.
The doubling of letters in LL.B., LL.M., LL.D. is because these degrees are in laws, not law. The doubled letter indicates the Latin plural (genitive case) legum as opposed to the singular (genitive case) legis. Abbreviations for the degrees in surgery Ch. B. and Ch. M. are from Latin chiruguriae and often indicate a university system patterned after Scottish models. The combination of M.B. with Ch. B. arose from a need to graduate the students at the time of year allocated to graduation rituals, but the legal inability to confer the M.B. before they had been properly approved by professional regulatory bodies. Thus the Ch. B. was conferred first, and the M.B. was conferred later, after registration, and without ceremony. In recent times the two have come to be conferred together and are widely (mis)understood to constitute a single degree.
Some degrees are awarded jure dignitatis. That is, a person who has demonstrated the appropriate qualities to be given a particular office may be awarded the degree by virtue of the office held. It is another kind of earned—but not strictly academic—degree.
Background
Academic degrees were first introduced during the Middle Ages and there was little differentiation between them. Scholarly training could be viewed as analogous to apprenticeshipApprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a skill. Apprentices or protégés build their careers from apprenticeships...
to a guild
Guild
A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of workers. They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel, and a secret society...
. The term of study before new teachers were admitted to the 'guild' of "Master of Arts", was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but eventually the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master degree.
The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects read. Scholars in the faculties of art
The arts
The arts are a vast subdivision of culture, composed of many creative endeavors and disciplines. It is a broader term than "art", which as a description of a field usually means only the visual arts. The arts encompass visual arts, literary arts and the performing arts – music, theatre, dance and...
s or grammar
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
became known as "master", but those in theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
, medicine, and law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
were known as "doctor". As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
, medicine
Medicine
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
and law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than that of master. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
(Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
(M.A.). The practice of 'doctor' being the highest degree in virtually all faculties developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.
Traditionally more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States according to results of the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master degrees, for the first time. The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor’s degrees was in 1996.
India
India mostly follow the colonial era British System for classification of degrees. Arts referring to the performing arts and literature the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Arts(BA) and its master is called Master of Arts(MA). Management degrees are also classified under Arts but is nowadays considered a major new stream, Bachelor of Business Administration BBA and Master Of Business Administration MBA. Science referring to the basic sciences and natural science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry etc.) the corresponding degree are Bachelor of Science(BSc) and its master is called Master of Science(MSc). Another new set of Information Technology degree conferred specially in the field of computer science, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology BScIT and Master of Science in Information Technology MScIT. The engineering degrees in India follow two common patterns. Bachelor of Engineering(BE) and Bachelor of Technology(B.Tech) both representing a bachelors degree in engineering.The Medical Degree - Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS), Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS).
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka as many other commonwealth countries follow the British system with it own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants CommissionUniversity Grants Commission (Sri Lanka)
The University Grants Commission is the body responsible for funding most of the State Universities in Sri Lanka, and operates within the frame work of the Universities Act No. 16 of 1978, itself established in 1979. A public organization, established under the Parliament Act No 16 of 1978...
.
Europe
Since the Lisbon Recognition ConventionLisbon Recognition Convention
The Lisbon Recognition Convention is an international convention of the Council of Europe elaborated together with the UNESCO. The Convention has been signed by all 47 member states of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg except for Greece, Monaco, and San Marino. It has been signed, but not...
elaborated by the UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
and the Council of Europe
Council of Europe
The Council of Europe is an international organisation promoting co-operation between all countries of Europe in the areas of legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural co-operation...
, degrees in Europe are being harmonised through the Bologna process
Bologna process
The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
, based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor
Bachelor's degree
A bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...
(Licence
Licentiate
Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a licence. The term may derive from the Latin licentia docendi, meaning permission to teach. The term may also derive from the Latin licentia ad practicandum, which signified someone who held a certificate of competence to...
in France, Poland and Portugal), Master and Doctor
Doctor (title)
Doctor, as a title, originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb docēre . It has been used as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the university. This use spread...
. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system in use in some countries.
The Bologna Process currently has 47 participating countries. Although a country is a Bologna Process member state, this does not necessarily mean that the Bologna Accords have been implemented yet in that country.
Status Implementation Bologna Accords
Implemented
- Belgium
- Croatia
- Czech Republic
- Denmark
- Finland
- Georgia
- Greece
- Hungary
- Italy
- Moldova
- Montenegro
- The Netherlands
- Norway
- Portugal
- Romania
- Serbia
- Slovenia
- Spain
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Ukraine
- United Kingdom
- Republic of Macedonia
Not Implemented
- Austria
- France
- Germany
- Poland
- Russia
- Turkey
Austria
In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:- the traditional two-cycle system of MagisterMagister (degree)Magister is an academic degree used in various systems of higher education.-Argentina:...
/DiplomDiplomA Diplom is an academic degree in the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and a similarly named degree in some other European countries including Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Finland , Greece, Hungary, Russia, Serbia, Macedonia, Slovenia, and Ukraine...
followed by the DoctorateDoctorateA doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
, and - the three-cycle system of BachelorBachelor's degreeA bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...
, Master and DoctorateDoctorateA doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
as defined by the Bologna processBologna processThe purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
.
With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010. Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.
Czech Republic
The qualification structure recognises Bachelor's, Master' and doctoral levels as defined by the Bologna processBologna process
The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
.
- A Bachelor's degree programme aims at providing qualifications for entering a profession or a Master's degree programme. It takes from 3 to 4 years. Graduates receive the academic title BcA. (Bachelor of Fine Arts, Bakalář umění) in field of arts and Bc. (Bachelor, Bakalář) in other fields. The degree programme must be completed in due form with a final state examination, which usually includes the presentation and defence of a Bachelor's thesis. Abbreviations are written before the name.
- A Master's degree programme follows a Bachelor's degree programme. The length is 1 to 3 years. In selected fields, where the nature of the degree programme so requires, a Master's degree programme need not to follow on from a Bachelor's programme. In this case, the programme lasts 4 to 6 years (i.e. law - 5, medicine - 6). Graduates in a Master's degree programme must take a final state examination and publicly present and defend a Master's thesis. Studies in the fields of medicine, veterinary medicine and hygiene are completed by passing an advanced Master's ("rigorous") state examination including the presentation and defence of an advanced Master's ("rigorous") thesis. The studies in a Master's programme lead to the following academic degrees:
- Ing. - Engineer (Inženýr) in the area of economics, technical sciences and technologies, agriculture and forestry and in military fields of study
- Ing. arch. - Engineer Architect (inženýr architekt) in the field of architecture
- MUDr. - Doctor of Medicince (doktor medicíny) in the field of medicine
- MDDr. - Doctor of Dental Medicine (doktor zubního lékařství) in the field of dental sicence (since 2004)
- MVDr. - Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (doktor veterinární medicíny) in the field of veterinary medicine and hygiene
- MgA. - Master of Fine Arts (magistr umění) in the field of fine arts
- Mgr. - Master (magistr) in other areas of study
- Holders of the academic degree magistr are entitled to take an advanced Master's ("rigorous") state examination in the same area of study and defend an advanced Master's ("rigorous") thesis. If completed successfully, the following academic degrees are awarded:
- JUDr. - Doctor of Laws (doktor práv) in the field of law
- PhDr. - Doctor of Philosophy (doktor filosofie) in the area of the humanities, teacher education and social sciences
- RNDr. - Doctor of Natural Sciences (doktor přírodních věd) in the field of natural sciences
- PharmDr. - Doctor of Pharmacy (doktor farmacie) in the field of pharmacy
- ThLic. - Licentiate of Theology (licenciát teologie) in the field of Catholic theology
- ThLic. - Licentiate of Theology or ThDr. - Doctor of Theology (doktor teologie) in the field of non-Catholic theology
- Holders of the academic degree magistr are entitled to take an advanced Master's ("rigorous") state examination in the same area of study and defend an advanced Master's ("rigorous") thesis. If completed successfully, the following academic degrees are awarded:
- All above mentioned academic titles are at Master's level and their abbreviations are written in front of the name.
- The standard length of a doctoral degree programme is either 3 or 4 years. Doctoral studies are completed by the state doctoral thesis (dissertation), based on original results, which must be published. Graduates of a doctoral degree programme are awarded the academic degree of:
- Ph.D. - Doctor (doktor)
- Th.D. - Doctor of Theology (doktor teologie) in the field of theology
- The abbreviations of these academic titles are written after the name.
Finland
Historically, the Finnish higher education system has been similar to the German system, which includes Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences (UAS). With the exception of few fields, Universities are in compliance with the Bologna process, thus awarding Bachelor's (kandidaatti), Master's (maisteri) and Doctoral degrees (tohtori). The traditional degree of Licenciate is subject to being phased out in the near future. The Universities of Applied sciences have the right to award only Bachelor's and Master's degrees, although they do not have the right to use the titles kandidaatti or maisteri in Finnish. While nearly all university students are granted the right to study a Master's degree, UAS students have to apply to a Master's programme separately. The overwhelming majority of all Master's degree holders have a University background.In spite of the fact that the degrees awarded by the two institutions are at par by law, the UAS degrees are not directly comparable to nor similar in content as the university degrees. In popular culture, degrees awarded by Universities of Applied Sciences are not traditionally held as academic degrees (yliopistotutkinto) but as higher education degrees (korkeakoulututkinto). This is reflected by the fact most Master's degree holders from Universities of Applied Sciences have to complete additional studies in order to apply to doctoral programmes at Universities.
France
In French universitiesEducation in France
The French educational system is highly centralized, organized, and ramified. It is divided into three different stages:* the primary education ;* secondary education ;...
, the academic degree system was quite complicated: the first degree was the baccalauréat
Baccalauréat
The baccalauréat , often known in France colloquially as le bac, is an academic qualification which French and international students take at the end of the lycée . It was introduced by Napoleon I in 1808. It is the main diploma required to pursue university studies...
(completed in fact after high school), then the two-year diplôme d'études universitaires générales (DEUG General Academic Studies Degree) or premier cycle (undergraduate education) or diplôme universitaire de technologie (DUT Technologic Academic Studies Degree) or Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS Higher Technician national Certificate), then the one-year licence, the one-year maîtrise (master's degree
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
), the two forming the second cycle (graduate education), the 1–2 years Diplôme d'Études Approfondies
DEA (former French degree)
A Master of Advanced Studies is a non-consecutive postgraduate degree awarded predominantly in European countries. A MAS program offers comprehensive training in a specific field and can either give access to higher qualification in one's profession or lead to a new profession...
, Special Studies Degree and the three-year doctorate
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
, the two forming the troisième cycle (postgraduate education). With the Bologna process
Bologna process
The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
, the system is now much simpler: baccalauréat (A-level degree), licence or licence professionnelle (= Bachelor), master (a new two-year degree merging maîtrise and DEA
DEA (former French degree)
A Master of Advanced Studies is a non-consecutive postgraduate degree awarded predominantly in European countries. A MAS program offers comprehensive training in a specific field and can either give access to higher qualification in one's profession or lead to a new profession...
), and doctorate. This system is called "LMD" system in France, which means licence-master-doctorat.
Germany
Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four to six years either with a Magister Artium (abbreviated M.A.) degree in Social SciencesSocial sciences
Social science is the field of study concerned with society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences usually exclusive of the administrative or managerial sciences...
, Humanities
Humanities
The humanities are academic disciplines that study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytical, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences....
, Linguistics
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
and the Arts
ARts
aRts, which stands for analog Real time synthesizer, is an audio framework that is no longer under development. It is best known for previously being used in KDE to simulate an analog synthesizer....
or with a Diplom
Diplom
A Diplom is an academic degree in the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and a similarly named degree in some other European countries including Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Finland , Greece, Hungary, Russia, Serbia, Macedonia, Slovenia, and Ukraine...
degree in Natural Sciences, Economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, Business Administration, Political Science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
, Sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, Theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
and Engineering
Engineering
Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...
. Those degrees were the first and at the same time highest non-PhD
PHD
PHD may refer to:*Ph.D., a doctorate of philosophy*Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*PHD finger, a protein sequence*PHD Mountain Software, an outdoor clothing and equipment company*PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...
/Doctorate
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other, Anglo-Saxon-inspired degrees. In Germany, a Magister or Diplom awarded by universities, which both require a final thesis, is popularly considered equivalent to a master's degree from countries following an Anglo-American model; the Diplom awarded at a Fachhochschule
Fachhochschule
A Fachhochschule or University of Applied Sciences is a German type of tertiary education institution, sometimes specialized in certain topical areas . Fachhochschulen were founded in Germany and later adopted by Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Greece...
are equivalated to the Bachelor
Bachelor
A bachelor is a man above the age of majority who has never been married . Unlike his female counterpart, the spinster, a bachelor may have had children...
degree.
However, degree equivalencies are highly contentious, and this is not the general opinion outside of Germany. For example, these traditional German first degrees are regarded by the University of California, the top-ranked public university system in the United States, as equivalent to an American bachelor's degree for purposes of graduate school admission. In fact, bachelor's degrees vary widely throughout the United States and the world, and even British bachelor's degrees, with the exception of Honours degrees from select universities, are not considered by the University of California to meet their graduate school admission requirements.
A special kind of examination is the Staatsexamen
Staatsexamen
The ' is a German government licensing examination that future doctors, teachers, pharmacists, food chemists and jurists have to pass to be allowed to work in their profession. The examination is generally organized by government examination agencies which are under the authority of the...
. It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers, lawyers (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys, and pharmacists have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for 4–6 years before they take the first Staatsexamen. Afterwards teachers and jurists go through a form of pupillage
Pupillage
A pupillage, in England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Ireland, is the barrister's equivalent of the training contract that a solicitor undertakes...
for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. The first Staatsexamen is at a level which is equivalent to a M.Sc. or M.A.
Since 1999, the traditional degrees are gradually being replaced by Bachelor
Bachelor's degree
A bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...
's (Bakkalaureus) and Master
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
's (Master) degrees (see Bologna process). The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically take five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities are still resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. Universities must fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. In the future, the Diplom
Diplom
A Diplom is an academic degree in the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and a similarly named degree in some other European countries including Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Finland , Greece, Hungary, Russia, Serbia, Macedonia, Slovenia, and Ukraine...
or Magister
Magister (degree)
Magister is an academic degree used in various systems of higher education.-Argentina:...
degree will no longer be awarded.
Doctorates are issued under a variety of names, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom (from a Universität), Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. The doctoral promotion (e.g. to Dr.rer. nat., Dr.phil. and others) is the highest academic degree in Germany and regarded there as equivalent to a Ph.D. degree, although, again, this is a matter of dispute, with Americans, for example, claiming that their Ph.D. is a significantly higher standard closer to the Habilitation (see below). The degree Dr.med. for medical doctors has to be viewed differently, however; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previous conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis.
Sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation
Habilitation
Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a scholar can achieve by his or her own pursuit in several European and Asian countries. Earned after obtaining a research doctorate, such as a PhD, habilitation requires the candidate to write a professorial thesis based on independent...
is an academic qualification in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (Lecturer) in an academic professorship (now called W2 and W3). Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields.
Ireland
Ireland operates under the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ).At the end of a students term in secondary school, they sit the Leaving Certificate exams to gain entry to college. This is considered a Level 4-5.
If a student studies on a Higher Certificate Course, National Diploma Course, Post Leaving Cert Course or Apprenticeship, this is considered a Level 6 qualification.
An Ordinary Degree is a Level 7.
A Bachelors Degree or Honours Bachelor Degree is a Level 8.
A Master's Degree, Postgraduate Certificate or Postgraduate Diploma is a Level 9.
A Doctorate is a level 10.
Italy
In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the high school degree, called diplomaDiploma
A diploma is a certificate or deed issued by an educational institution, such as a university, that testifies that the recipient has successfully completed a particular course of study or confers an academic degree. In countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the word diploma refers to...
, obtained at 19 years of age, after 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. liceo classico focused on classical subjects, including ancient Greek and Latin;, liceo scientifico focused on scientific subjects such as Maths, Chemistry
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
and Physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
but also including ancient Latin and Italian Literature; liceo linguistico focused on Foreign Languages; istituto tecnico focused on practical subjects such as Mechanics
Mechanics
Mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment....
and Electronics
Electronics
Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals with electrical circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies...
).
After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests.
Italy too uses the three levels degree system. The first level degree, called "laurea triennale
Laurea
In Italy, the laurea is the main post-secondary academic degree.-Reforms due to the Bologna process:Spurred by the Bologna process, a major reform was instituted in 1999 to introduce easier university degrees comparable to the bachelors...
" (Bachelor's degree) is obtained after 3 years of study and a short thesis on a specific subject. The second level degree, called "laurea magistrale
Laurea
In Italy, the laurea is the main post-secondary academic degree.-Reforms due to the Bologna process:Spurred by the Bologna process, a major reform was instituted in 1999 to introduce easier university degrees comparable to the bachelors...
" (Master's degree) is obtained after two additional years of study, specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e.g. particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc.). This degree requires a more complex thesis work, usually involving some academic research or an internship in a private company.
Not a lot of students continue their university career (after succeeding another admission test) with 3 more years of Dottorato di ricerca (equivalent to a Ph. D). A degree mainly devoted to research, its final thesis will be about the results of the research done.
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea triennale or the laurea magistrale one can attend a Master (first-level Master after the laurea triennale; second-level Master after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and costs and usually including a final internship in a private company.
The title for Masters of Art Graduate students is, regardless from the field of study, Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev. Dott./Dott.ssa or Dr., meaning Doctor
Doctor (title)
Doctor, as a title, originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb docēre . It has been used as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the university. This use spread...
), not to be confused with the title for the PhD
PHD
PHD may refer to:*Ph.D., a doctorate of philosophy*Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*PHD finger, a protein sequence*PHD Mountain Software, an outdoor clothing and equipment company*PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...
level graduate, which is Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca. Graduates from the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called Dr. Prof. (or simply Professore) or Maestro.
Netherlands
In the NetherlandsNetherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982. In this year the "tweefasestructuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Minister Wim Deetman. With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and structure them to an identical timetable. Additional effect was that students would be persuaded stringently to produce results within a preset time-frame, or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the Bologna process
Bologna process
The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
.
Admission
In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, he/she has to complete a six year pre-university secondary education called "voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs
Voorbereidend Wetenschappelijk Onderwijs
Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs or pre-university secondary education is the highest variant in the secondary educational system of the Netherlands. After leaving elementary school students are enrolled in different types of secondary schools, according to their academic ability...
" (vwo). There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the vwo levels access to university education is granted. For some studies specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without physics, biology, and chemistry will make it impossible to follow an academic medicine study. People 21 years old or older who do not have the required entrance diplomas may opt for an entrance exam for being admitted to a higher education curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After September 1, 2002 they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum.
For some studies in the Netherlands, a governmental determined limited access
Numerus clausus
Numerus clausus is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the numerus clausus is simply to limit the number of students to the maximum feasible in some particularly sought-after areas of studies.However, in some cases,...
is in place (although under political review for abolishment, February 2011). This is a limitation of the number of applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates. The most renowned studies for their numerus clausus
Numerus clausus
Numerus clausus is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the numerus clausus is simply to limit the number of students to the maximum feasible in some particularly sought-after areas of studies.However, in some cases,...
are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus
Numerus clausus
Numerus clausus is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the numerus clausus is simply to limit the number of students to the maximum feasible in some particularly sought-after areas of studies.However, in some cases,...
study and who can not.
Almost all Dutch universities are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in business
Nyenrode Business Universiteit
Nyenrode Business Universiteit, also spelled as Nijenrode, is a Dutch business school and the only private university in the Netherlands. Founded in 1946, it is located on a large estate in the town of Breukelen, between Amsterdam and Utrecht.-History:...
, and all others in theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
). Leiden University
Leiden University
Leiden University , located in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, leader of the Dutch Revolt in the Eighty Years' War. The royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau and Leiden University still have a close...
is the oldest, founded in 1575.
Pre-Bologna phases
Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and existed out of two phases:
- The "propedeutischePropaedeuticsPropaedeutics or propedeutics is a historical term for an introductory course into a discipline: art, science, etc. Etymology: pro- + Greek: paideutikós, "pertaining to teaching"....
fase" (1–2 years): Should the student not be able to finish this phase in the given time frame of 2 years, than he or she has to abandon the study and will not be allowed to continue this or another study. Alternatively, after finishing this phase a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc (Bachelor of ScienceBachelor of ScienceA Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years .-Australia:In Australia, the BSc is a 3 year degree, offered from 1st year on...
), BA (Bachelor of ArtsBachelor of ArtsA Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...
) or LLB (Bachelor of LawsBachelor of LawsThe Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate, or bachelor, degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law countries as the primary law degree...
). - The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "doctoraal examen" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of PhDDoctor of PhilosophyDoctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
title. Successful completion however does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "doctorandusDoctorandusDoctorandus is a Dutch academic title according to the pre-bachelor-master system. The title is acquired by passing the doctoraalexamen, traditionally a matriculation exam for admission to study at doctoral level....
", ir. ("ingenieur" - engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" - master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc (Master of ScienceMaster of ScienceA Master of Science is a postgraduate academic master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is typically studied for in the sciences including the social sciences.-Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay:...
), MA (Master of ArtsMaster of Arts (postgraduate)A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
), and LLM (Master of Laws), depending on the area of study.
For medical students the "doctorandus" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine of MD (Medical Doctor). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title arts (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process, and can be compared with the MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir or MBChBa in the UK degree system, and the North American, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who did complete his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctor (PhD
PHD
PHD may refer to:*Ph.D., a doctorate of philosophy*Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*PHD finger, a protein sequence*PHD Mountain Software, an outdoor clothing and equipment company*PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...
-like) study is "drs." (e.g. drs. Jansen, arts) and not "dr." in medicine, as often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy. In the Netherlands there is the informal title dokter for physicians, but not doctor (dr.), unless they also earn such degree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the "doctorandus" degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years additional study (~internships) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board Registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgeon training/positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. Since a couple of years, the six years (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three years (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three years (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already began their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six years study (nominal time).
A doctorandus in law uses the title "meester" (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen) instead of drs., and some studies like for example technique and agriculture grant the title "ingenieur" (engineer, noted as ir. Jansen) instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to a LLM (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.), and if got before September 1, 2002 from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch shortcuts before one's name. Since September 1, 2002 Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into and merging with the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars, or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names, MA graduates may use drs. before their name and LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities.
Not uncommon, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a PhD
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree MPhil is not legally recognised.
After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir.", "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a promotion study (informally called PhD
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
) to eventually obtain a doctorate, and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are structured ideally according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the Board of the Faculty with guest professors from other faculties and/or universities added. More and more common, and in some disciplines even mandatory, is that the student writes and submits scientific publications to peer-reviewed journals, which eventually need to be accepted for publication. The number of publications is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation/ thesis in book form.
Bachelor/master structure
All current Dutch academic education programmes is offered in the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelors degree and another one or two years the earn your masters degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc and LLB) and four official master titles (MA, MSc and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government.
Academic title bearing
After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D behind their name, but not both simultaneously. There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained.
Stacking of the titles as seen in countries like for example Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctor titles may, but in practice seldom use dr.mult. before their name. The honoris cause doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name. Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed however (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a HBO, vocational (or professional) engineering degree together with an academic engineering degree. What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead.
A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles. Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch titles, or use the shortcut provided by the law behind one's name (since September 1, 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names). Hence, formal use of the Anglo-Saxon PhD
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
behind ones name is not legal, as it is not a Dutch degree, but often seen on for example English publications for clarity towards international readers; the law provides the option of using the shortcut D behind one's name instead of dr. before one's name.
"Doctors" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "Universitair Docent" (UD – assistant professor). With time, experience, and/ or achievement, this can evolve to a position as "Universitair Hoofd Docent" (UHD – associate professor). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "hoogleraar", the head of the department and commonly a professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement, and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university, and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
's title, noted as prof. Jansen or professor Jansen, is connected to ones employment. This means that, should the professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
leave the university
University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
, he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
. Exception here are retired professors, who can still note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job loose their professor title, and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation.
Contrary to some other European countries like for example Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in every day life, and are for example not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles however are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and subject to legal prosecution. Holders of foreign degrees therefore need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated). In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (in the Netherlands applies the principle of opportunity
Principle of opportunity
The principle of opportunity is a principle in Dutch law, which says that a crime will be punished only if its prosecution is considered opportune. This means that public prosecutors have the arbitrary decision power to cancel the prosecution of a crime. Cancelling the prosecution of a crime is...
, so some known crimes are not prosecuted).
Norway
Prior to 2003, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the Norwegian higher education system. In 2003, a reform was instituted to replace this older system with an "international system."For example, many degrees had titles that included the Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. These degrees were all retired in 2003.
The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the Storting, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles master and bachelor (baccalaureus).
The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
. The latter corresponds to the former sivilingeniør degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering
Civil engineering
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings...
, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingeniør, which is still in use for new graduates who can chose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written philosophiæ doctor (instead of the traditional doctor philosophiæ). The title dr. philos. is a substantially higher degree than the PhD, and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.
Poland
In PolandPoland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
the system is similar to the German one.
- title - given by a universityUniversityA university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
; the equivalent of Bachelor of Art degree or Bachelor of ScienceBachelor of ScienceA Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years .-Australia:In Australia, the BSc is a 3 year degree, offered from 1st year on...
degree (depending on academic majorAcademic majorIn the United States and Canada, an academic major or major concentration is the academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits....
); granted after at least 3 years of study. - title - Engineer's degree given by a technical university; granted after at least 3,5 years of study.
- or title - the equivalent of an Master of ArtsMaster of Arts (postgraduate)A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
or Master of ScienceMaster of ScienceA Master of Science is a postgraduate academic master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is typically studied for in the sciences including the social sciences.-Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay:...
degree, granted after 5–6 years of study, or 1.5–2 years of additional study by holders of a bachelor degree with classification of Honours Degree. - degree - the equivalent of Doctor of PhilosophyDoctor of PhilosophyDoctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
. - degree - Polish HabilitationHabilitationHabilitation is the highest academic qualification a scholar can achieve by his or her own pursuit in several European and Asian countries. Earned after obtaining a research doctorate, such as a PhD, habilitation requires the candidate to write a professorial thesis based on independent...
degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body. - degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the President of Poland.
Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics
In RussiaRussia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
and some other former USSR republics educational degrees are awarded after finishing college education. There are several levels of education one must choose between 2nd and 3rd year usually on the 3rd year of study.
- Bachelor degreeBachelor's degreeA bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...
- usually takes 4 years of college. (minimum level to be recognized as having Higher Education) - Specialist degreeSpecialist degree-The Specialist degree in the Commonwealth of Independent States:The specialist degree was the only first degree in the former Soviet Union and currently is being phased out by the bakalvr's - magister's degrees....
is awarded after 5 years of college. (4 + 1) - Magister degree is awarded after 6 years of college. (4 + 2)
Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporates Bachelor degree in them, but only high level degree is stated in final diploma.
Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and written work on practical application of studied skills
or research thesis (usually 70-100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to Master's degree
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
.
The first level academic degree is called "candidate of ... sciences" (say, candidate of physical-mathematical sciences, or candidate of engineering sciences, candidate of historical sciences, etc.). This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually 3 publications suffice), taking 3 exams (one in their speciality, one in a foreign language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth thesis (80-200 pages) called a "dissertation".
Finally, there is a "doctor of ... sciences
Doktor nauk
Doktor nauk is a higher doctoral degree, the second and the highest post-graduate academic degree in the Soviet Union, Russia and in many post-Soviet states. Sometimes referred to as Dr. Hab. The prerequisite is the first degree, Kandidat nauk which is informally regarded equivalent to Ph.D....
" (Doktor nauk) degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environment. This degree is sought granted for contributions into certain field (formally - who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon, or development of new theory, or essential development of new direction, etc. There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to Habilitation
Habilitation
Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a scholar can achieve by his or her own pursuit in several European and Asian countries. Earned after obtaining a research doctorate, such as a PhD, habilitation requires the candidate to write a professorial thesis based on independent...
in Germany, France, Austria, and some other European countries.
Spain
Before the Bologna ProcessBologna process
The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
, there were the "Diplomaturas" (bachelor's degrees for 3 years) and "Licenciaturas" (for 5 years) but after it has changed to Grado for all universities (except for medical and architecture, which will be master's "still under discussion" if they can certify a minimum of 5 years' professional experience) and Master to the ones who make the post-grade master courses (60 to 120 ECTS credits in one or two years) and Doctor if you continue studies.
Students must look to make an official Master with ETCS credit because some university are making their own Master's without the ECTS credits from the Bologna Process
Bologna process
The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
, but these are only like the Diploma
Diploma
A diploma is a certificate or deed issued by an educational institution, such as a university, that testifies that the recipient has successfully completed a particular course of study or confers an academic degree. In countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the word diploma refers to...
.
Switzerland
Before the Bologna ProcessBologna process
The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...
, because there are four official languages in Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
, the Universities' degrees were different, depending on the three languages French, German and Italian. In French-speaking universities, the first academic degree was the Licence
Licentiate
Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a licence. The term may derive from the Latin licentia docendi, meaning permission to teach. The term may also derive from the Latin licentia ad practicandum, which signified someone who held a certificate of competence to...
: 4 to 5 years of study, equivalent to the Master's degree
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
in the UK
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
or the USA. The postgraduate degree was the diplôme d'études approfondies DEA or DESS
DEA (former French degree)
A Master of Advanced Studies is a non-consecutive postgraduate degree awarded predominantly in European countries. A MAS program offers comprehensive training in a specific field and can either give access to higher qualification in one's profession or lead to a new profession...
: 1–2 years of study, equivalent to the Master of Advanced Studies degree. In the Swiss-German Universities, the first degree was called Lizentiat
Licentiate
Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a licence. The term may derive from the Latin licentia docendi, meaning permission to teach. The term may also derive from the Latin licentia ad practicandum, which signified someone who held a certificate of competence to...
, a 4-year degree, and the second was the Diplom nach dem ersten akademischen Grad
Postgraduate diploma
A postgraduate diploma is a postgraduate qualification awarded typically after a bachelor's degree. It can be contrasted with a graduate diploma...
. In the Italian-speaking University, the first degree was called licenza
Licentiate
Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a licence. The term may derive from the Latin licentia docendi, meaning permission to teach. The term may also derive from the Latin licentia ad practicandum, which signified someone who held a certificate of competence to...
, a 4-year degree; the second was the post laurea
Postgraduate diploma
A postgraduate diploma is a postgraduate qualification awarded typically after a bachelor's degree. It can be contrasted with a graduate diploma...
, which took 1–2 years. The Doctoral's degree
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
is the last stage at all the universities; it requires 3–5 years, depending on the field.
England, Northern Ireland and Wales
The standard first degree
Undergraduate degree
An undergraduate degree is a colloquial term for an academic degree taken by a person who has completed undergraduate courses. It is usually offered at an institution of higher education, such as a university...
in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the Bachelor's degree
Bachelor's degree
A bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...
conferred with honours. It usually takes three years to read for this degree.
The honours are usually categorised into four classes:
- First class honours (1st)
- Second class honours, divided into:
- Upper division, or upper second (2:1)
- Lower division, or lower second (2:2)
- Third class honours (3rd)
Graduands who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the degree of bachelor; this is popularly referred to as an 'ordinary degree' or 'pass degree'.
The Graduateship (post-nominal GCGI) of the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped to the standard required to be admitted to a British honours degree.
The 'Level 6 Graduate Diploma in Engineering' awarded by the Engineering Council via the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped at the same level as that required to become a Bachelor of Engineering at a British university.
Some universities admit graduands to Master's degrees as a first degree following an integrated programme of study. These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as Master of Engineering
Master of Engineering
A Master of Engineering or Master of Technology or Master of Science in Engineering A Master of Engineering (Magister in Ingeniaria) (abbreviated M.Eng., ME or MEng) or Master of Technology (abbreviated M.Tech. or MTech) or Master of Science in Engineering A Master of Engineering (Magister in...
for engineering, Master of Physics
Master of Physics
A Master of Physics honours degree is a specific master's degree for courses in the field of physics.-United Kingdom:...
for physics, Master of Mathematics
Master of Mathematics
A Master of Mathematics degree is a specific Integrated master's degree for courses in the field of mathematics.-United Kingdom:...
for mathematics, and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours, see above for the classes of honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering.
The 'Level 7 Postgraduate Diploma in Engineering' awarded by the Engineering Council via the City & Guilds of London Institute, is mapped at the same level as that required to become a Bachelor of Engineering at a British university.
Unlike the case in the United States, due to earlier specialisation, to read for a master's degree
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
s may take only one year of full-time study, and the usual amount of time spent working towards a Ph.D. is three years full-time. Therefore, whilst the usual amount of time spent studying from first-year undergraduate through to being admitted to a doctorate in the United States is nine years, it is in most cases only seven in the United Kingdom, and may be just six, since being a master is not always a precondition for embarking on a PhD.
Recently, there has been a significant rise in the number of courses offering "postgraduate diplomas", often in very specific, vocationally-related subjects. Many institutions (for example, The Open University) offer these courses over one year, with an additional year or two required for the award of a master's degree. The popularity of these courses is in part due to legislative requirements to demonstrate managerial competence in public-sector related functions.
A foundation degree
Foundation degree
The Foundation Degree is a vocational qualification introduced by the government of the United Kingdom in September 2001, which is available in England, Wales and Northern Ireland...
can be awarded for having completed two years of study in what is usually a vocational discipline. The foundation degree is comparable to an associate's degree in the United States, and can be awarded by a university, or college of higher education.
Scotland
The standard first degree
Undergraduate degree
An undergraduate degree is a colloquial term for an academic degree taken by a person who has completed undergraduate courses. It is usually offered at an institution of higher education, such as a university...
in Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
is either a Master of Arts
Master of Arts (Scotland)
A Master of Arts in Scotland can refer to an undergraduate academic degree in humanities and social sciences awarded by the ancient universities of Scotland – the University of St Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Aberdeen and the University of Edinburgh, while the University of...
which is only awarded by the Ancient Universities of Scotland
Ancient universities of Scotland
The ancient universities of Scotland are medieval and renaissance universities which continue to exist until the present day. The majority of the ancient universities of the British Isles are located within Scotland, and have a number of distinctive features in common, being governed by a series of...
(whereas a Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Arts
A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...
is awarded by all other modern institutions), for arts and humanities subjects, or a Bachelor of Science
Bachelor of Science
A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years .-Australia:In Australia, the BSc is a 3 year degree, offered from 1st year on...
, for natural and social science subjects. These can either be studied at general or honours levels. A general or ordinary degree (MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years to complete. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and, sometimes, beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree; if a third year/junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied, and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.).
This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of Scottish secondary education
Education in Scotland
Scotland has a long history of universal provision of public education, and the Scottish education system is distinctly different from the other countries of the United Kingdom...
, where traditionally five Highers
Higher (Scottish)
In Scotland the Higher is one of the national school-leaving certificate exams and university entrance qualifications of the Scottish Qualifications Certificate offered by the Scottish Qualifications Authority. It superseded the old Higher Grade on the Scottish Certificate of Education...
are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh A-Levels. The Higher is a one year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. Advanced Highers
Advanced Higher (Scottish)
The Advanced Higher is an optional qualification which forms part of the Scottish secondary education system. It is normally taken by students aged around 16-18 after they have completed Highers, which in turn are the main university entrance qualification...
add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts - students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities.
Honours for MA or BSc are classified into three classes:
- First class honours
- Second class honours, divided into
- Division one (2:1)
- Division two (2:2)
- Third class honours
Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a Special Degree
Postgraduate Master's Degrees may be offered in some subjects; however, unlike England and Wales, these are not designated Master of Arts, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters
Master of Letters
The Master of Letters is a postgraduate degree.- United Kingdom :The MLitt is a postgraduate degree awarded by a select few British and Irish universities, predominantly within the ancient English and Scottish universities.- England :Within the English University system MLitts are not universally...
(MLitt); in natural and social sciences, as Master of Science
Master of Science
A Master of Science is a postgraduate academic master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is typically studied for in the sciences including the social sciences.-Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay:...
(MSc). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy
Master of Philosophy
The Master of Philosophy is a postgraduate research degree.An M.Phil. is a lesser degree than a Doctor of Philosophy , but in many cases it is considered to be a more senior degree than a taught Master's degree, as it is often a thesis-only degree. In some instances, an M.Phil...
(MPhil) or Master of Research
Master of Research
In the UK and Ireland, the Master of Research degree is an advanced postgraduate degree available in a range of academic disciplines. Although a relatively new degree, the MRes is becoming increasingly popular with a number of the Russell Group Universities such as Imperial College London,...
(MRes). First doctoral research degrees in arts, science and humanities subjects are usually designated Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
(PhD).
Canada and United States
In the United States and Canada, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study from the European equivalents.In the United States and Canada, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Arts
A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...
, B.A., or Bachelor of Science
Bachelor of Science
A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years .-Australia:In Australia, the BSc is a 3 year degree, offered from 1st year on...
, B.S., (B.Sc., in Canada), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
, M.A., or Master of Science
Master of Science
A Master of Science is a postgraduate academic master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is typically studied for in the sciences including the social sciences.-Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay:...
, M.S./M.Sc.; either of these programs might be as much as three years in length) and a further one or two years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...
, Ph.D. or other types such as Ed.D., Psy.D., Th.D.) for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level, or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time-limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.
Some schools—mostly junior college
Junior college
The term junior college refers to different educational institutions in different countries.-India:In India, most states provide schooling through 12th grade...
s and community college
Community college
A community college is a type of educational institution. The term can have different meanings in different countries.-Australia:Community colleges carry on the tradition of adult education, which was established in Australia around mid 19th century when evening classes were held to help adults...
s, but some four-year schools as well—offer an associate's degree
Associate's degree
An associate degree is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by community colleges, junior colleges, technical colleges, and bachelor's degree-granting colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study usually lasting two years...
for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. This may stand alone, or sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree.
In Canada and the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree
First professional degree
A professional degree prepares the holder for a particular profession by emphasizing competency skills along with theory and analysis. These professions are typically licensed or otherwise regulated by a governmental or government-approved body...
". These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission, and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight. Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity call their first professional degree a "master's degree" (e.g., M.F.A.
Master of Fine Arts
A Master of Fine Arts is a graduate degree typically requiring 2–3 years of postgraduate study beyond the bachelor's degree , although the term of study will vary by country or by university. The MFA is usually awarded in visual arts, creative writing, filmmaking, dance, or theatre/performing arts...
, M.B.A.) because most of these degrees require at least the completion of a bachelor's degree. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a doctorate in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago, however, this would also require increasing the length of their education.
In 21 US jurisdictions religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt. etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight. Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.
In Canada, professional degrees in medicine
Medicine
Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....
(the M.D.
Doctor of Medicine
Doctor of Medicine is a doctoral degree for physicians. The degree is granted by medical schools...
) and law (the J.D.
Juris Doctor
Juris Doctor is a professional doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law.The degree was first awarded by Harvard University in the United States in the late 19th century and was created as a modern version of the old European doctor of law degree Juris Doctor (see etymology and...
) are considered to be undergraduate degrees whereas MD, JD or D.O. are doctorates in the United States.
Mexico
Education in MexicoMexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. After high school, students progress to university, where they study for a licenciatura, then a maestría, then a doctorado.
The minimum acceptable academic level is the bachillerato (also called preparatoria), similar to high school
High school
High school is a term used in parts of the English speaking world to describe institutions which provide all or part of secondary education. The term is often incorporated into the name of such institutions....
. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area.
Once in university, students begin the carrera, the study of a precise academic branch like economics, business administration, sciences, law or medicine. Students will be in university for 8-9 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4-4.5 years. Upon graduation, students receive a licenciatura in their chosen subject area, which is equivalent to an American Bachelor's degree
Bachelor's degree
A bachelor's degree is usually an academic degree awarded for an undergraduate course or major that generally lasts for three or four years, but can range anywhere from two to six years depending on the region of the world...
.
After receiving the licenciatura, students may take extra courses called diplomados. These courses last 4-12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the maestría, equivalent to the Master's degree
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
. Study at the maestría level takes 2–3 years and mandates completion of a thesis
Thesis
A dissertation or thesis is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings...
. Similar to students in the US, students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying.
Students who have completed the maestria may continue on to the doctorado, or the doctorate
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
. Doctoral study typically lasts 2–3 years.
Australia & New Zealand
The Australian and New Zealand academic degrees are diplomas (1–2 years), advanced diplomas (1–2 years), bachelors degrees (3 years), bachelor's degrees with honours (4 years) or postgraduate diplomas (bachelors + 1 year), graduate diplomas (bachelors+1 year), master's degrees (bachelors + 1–2 years) and doctorates (high Honours or Masters + 3–4 years). In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelors degrees with honours being the exception. In New Zealand, both Masters and Bachelors with Honours are awarded graded. (e.g. - A Master of Science with First Class Honours) The bachelors degree is the standard university qualification. In both Australia and New Zealand, unlike some other countries, honours degrees require an additional year of research and study on top of a bachelors degree, and are undertaken by invitation only. Masters degrees may be by coursework or research. Doctorates are typically by research only (i.e. PhDs), although some Australian universities have introduced undergraduate-level doctorate degrees. (Nevertheless, professionals in some fields use the title "doctor" in spite of possessing only Bachelors or Masters degrees.) Some bachelors degrees (e.g. Bachelors of Engineering or Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) may take longer than three years to complete, and double bachelors degrees (i.e. completing two bachelors degrees simultaneously in four to five years) are common.Brazil
Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities normally graduate either with a Bacharel degree, a Licentiate degree (both equivalent to an American B.S.Bachelor of Science
A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years .-Australia:In Australia, the BSc is a 3 year degree, offered from 1st year on...
or B.A.
Bachelor of Arts
A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...
) or with a professional degree (roughly modeled on the old German Diplom
Diplom
A Diplom is an academic degree in the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, and Switzerland and a similarly named degree in some other European countries including Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Finland , Greece, Hungary, Russia, Serbia, Macedonia, Slovenia, and Ukraine...
).
Bacharel degrees are awarded in most fields of study in the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, or natural sciences and normally take four years to complete (some degrees, as in Law and Engineering, require an extra fifth year to be obtained). Professional degrees are awarded in state-regulated professions such as architecture, engineering, psychology, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, or human medicine and are named after the profession itself, i.e. one graduates with a degree of Engenheiro (engineer), Arquiteto (architect), or Médico (physician/surgeon) for example. A typical course of study leading to a first professional degree in Brazil normally takes five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years.
In addition to the standard Bacharel and professional degrees, Brazilian universities also offer the Licenciatura degree, generally four-years length degrees, available for students who want to qualify as school
Secondary school
Secondary school is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of schooling, known as secondary education and usually compulsory up to a specified age, takes place...
teachers. Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural sciences. Tecnólogo (Technologist) is also available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years only.
Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular
Vestibular
The Vestibular is a competitive examination and is the primary and widespread system used by Brazilian universities to select their students. The Vestibular usually takes place from November to January, right before the start of school year in February or March, although certain universities hold...
. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as transferência interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major.
Individuals who hold either a Bacharel degree, a professional diploma or Licenciatura are eligible for admission into graduate
Graduate school
A graduate school is a school that awards advanced academic degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate degree...
courses leading to advanced master
Master's degree
A master's is an academic degree granted to individuals who have undergone study demonstrating a mastery or high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice...
's or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the Natural Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects (sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview), preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies.
Master's degrees usually take two years to obtain and are classified into academic master's degrees or professional master's degrees. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight)and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to the academic knowledge, but not necessarily in being original. Professional master's degrees on the other hand normally involve taking a larger number of classes, and, in the case of engineering programs in particular, often completing a project as an intern in an engineering company and submitting a final project report. Different to that, Academic Programs of Master's in Business Administration are full time MBAs, and demand a much larger number of subjects (760 hours), and are equivalent to USA programs, although they also demand defending a thesis at the end of the course. The Executive MBA comprehend 480 hours of study and it also requires a thesis at the end. This happens because both Academic or Executive MBAs are eligible to giving classes at Bachelor degrees' program.
The Master degree is a pre-requisite for the admission in a Doctorate program in Brazil.
Master's titles in Brazil normally include an explicit reference to the field of study in which they were awarded, e.g. one graduates with a degree of Mestre em Engenharia (Master of Engineering), Mestre em Economia (Master of Economics
Master of Economics
A Master's Degree in Economics is a postgraduate academic program, offering training in economic theory, econometrics and / or applied economics. The degree may be offered as a terminal degree or as additional preparation for doctoral study, and is sometimes offered as a professional degree...
), and so on. The generic title Mestre em Ciências (Master of Sciences) is used sometimes though, especially in the natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, etc.). The word profissional is normally added to the title to distinguish it from an academic master's degree, e.g. Mestre Profissional em Engenharia Aeronáutica (Professional Master in Aeronautical Engineering).
Doctor's degrees on the other hand normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete and are of a higher standing than a master's degree; With very few exceptions (namely, people with outstanding accomplishments in research), a Master degree or equivalent is required for admission in a Doctorate Program. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's theses, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute.
Conventions for naming doctoral degrees follow similar rules to those used for master's degree, i.e. an explicit reference to the field of study is normally included in the title itself, e.g. Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), etc., although a generic title like Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) may be occasionally used.
Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo
São Paulo (state)
São Paulo is a state in Brazil. It is the major industrial and economic powerhouse of the Brazilian economy. Named after Saint Paul, São Paulo has the largest population, industrial complex, and economic production in the country. It is the richest state in Brazil...
still award the title of Livre-Docente (free docent
Docent
Docent is a title at some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks below professor . Docent is also used at some universities generically for a person who has the right to teach...
), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation
Habilitation
Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a scholar can achieve by his or her own pursuit in several European and Asian countries. Earned after obtaining a research doctorate, such as a PhD, habilitation requires the candidate to write a professorial thesis based on independent...
, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docência examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors.
See also Universities and Higher Education in Brazil
Universities and higher education in Brazil
Brazil adopts a mixed system of public and private funded universities. Usually public funded universities offer the best quality education, and they are 100% financed by the government...
Colombia
In Colombia the system of academic degrees is similar to the U.S. model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a "" (professional career), which is similar to a Bachelor's Degree requiring from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a "Técnico" (technician); this degree consists of only two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a ¨Tecnólogo¨ (equivalent to Associate degree), and consist of 3 years of study.After this, students, now called "" (professionals), Tecnólogos (associates) or "" (technicians), can opt for higher degrees.
Formal education after the Bachelor's degree is the Master's degree with the title of "", and Doctorate's degree known as "" (doctorate). The Master's degree normally consists of two years.
Commonly students prefer to take an specialization course, "", after their bachelor's degree rather than the more formal Master and Doctorate paths. This program is very popular in the country, because it requires only one year to complete and because the student only acquires the technical knowledge, without the bulk of the theoretical subjects.
A similar situation in Colombia, when compared to the U.S. system, is that the students may go directly to the "" without having to take the "Master" or "".
Chile
In Chile, the system in a nutshell is as follows:Quite similar to the case described for Colombia, students may opt to be ""(Professionals) or ""(Technicians).
After completion of high school, students may follow professional or technical studies at Universities or Technical schools. Only Universities and the Academies of the Armed Forces can give Academic Degrees. In general, traditional professions require an Academic Degree, but there are many professions that not require the degree because they were conceived as strictly "professional" not academic. The degrees are as follows:
"" it is similar to the Bachelor, but to get it is necessary to complete at least eight semesters of study on the subjects which are part of the Mayor. This degree is enough to continue developing an academic career, however, to get a professional title -which is not academic, but allows you to get a professional practice, you have to continue one or two additional years of study. (For example to be an engineer it is necessary to study four years to get a Licentiate in Engineering Sciences, and two additional years to get a Professional Title and become an engineer. Sometimes it is possible to take additional subjects and get a "" degree besides the professional title.)
"" is the equivalent to the Master degree in English speaking countries.
"" is the equivalent to the Doctorate or Phd. There is no separate classification for Professional Doctorates.
In particular, the engineering profession may be complicated for the foreigner since there are two types of engineers: those who got an Academic Degree such as Civil Engineers or Armed Forced Politechnical Engineers, and those who are "" (Professional Engineers) which are considered technicians more focused to apply the engineering, and completed only four years of study. They are not able, by law, to authorise plans or drawings like engineers with a degree or architects.
Venezuela
Titles in Venezuela start with the Certificado de Educación Básica (literally, Certificate of Basic Education), awarded upon completing 9th grade. The next title is earned upon completing 11th grade, and may be Bachiller en Ciencias (literally, Bachelor of the Sciences), Bachiller en Humanidades (literally, Bachelor of Humanities), or Técnico en Ciencias (literally, Technician of the Sciences). The reason for this diversity is because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby allowing them to hand out "Technician" titles) while elsewhere, the student is required to decide whether to study Sciences or Humanities for the last two years of secondary school.Titles at the higher education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the tile of Técnico Superior Universitario (literally, University Higher Technician, to distinguish from Technicians of the Sciences). Universities award the student with the title of Ingeniero (literally, Engineer) or with the title Licenciado (literally, Licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The Engineer have more physics subjects than the Licenciate, but both are five-year careers. Some higher education institutions may award Diplomados (literally, Diploma) but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical Doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6 year-career.
Post-graduate education follows conventions of the United States (being named "Master's" and "Doctorate" after the programes there)
See also
- Academic Awards in SpainAcademic Awards in SpainThere are three official Academic Awards in Spain.At the end of each Academic year, students of Spain who attained the highest overall grades during their Graduate studies may be honored by the National Government, the Regional Government or the University, provided they pass a number of exams...
- Academic InflationAcademic InflationAcademic inflation is the process of inflation of the minimum job requirement, resulting in an excess of college-educated individuals with lower degrees competing for too few jobs that require these degrees and even higher, preferred qualifications...
- Academic stoleAcademic stoleAn academic stole is a vestment used by various organizations to denote academic achievement. Its use includes membership of a professional organization, a high school valedictorian award, and adorns the academic regalia representing some university and college courses.A stole takes the form of a...
- Ad eundem degreeAd eundem degreeAn ad eundem degree is a courtesy degree awarded by one university or college to an alumnus of another. The recipient of the ad eundem degree is often a faculty member at the institution where he or she is receiving the honor....
- Degrees of the University of Oxford
- Educational devaluationEducational devaluationEducational devaluation is the process whereby educational degrees, for sociological and occupational purposes, become less valuable over time....
- External degreeExternal degreeAn external degree is a degree offered by a university to students who have not been required to be physically present within the geographic territory of the institution. These undergraduates may be called external students and may study at classes unconnected with the university, or independently,...
- Higher educationHigher educationHigher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
- Honorary degreeHonorary degreeAn honorary degree or a degree honoris causa is an academic degree for which a university has waived the usual requirements, such as matriculation, residence, study, and the passing of examinations...
- Lambeth degreeLambeth degreeA Lambeth degree is an academic degree conferred by the Archbishop of Canterbury under the authority of the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 as successor of the papal legate in England...
- Lisbon Recognition ConventionLisbon Recognition ConventionThe Lisbon Recognition Convention is an international convention of the Council of Europe elaborated together with the UNESCO. The Convention has been signed by all 47 member states of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg except for Greece, Monaco, and San Marino. It has been signed, but not...
- List of fields of doctoral studies
- Pontifical universityPontifical universityA pontifical university is a Catholic University established by and directly under the authority of the Holy See. It is licensed to grant academic degrees in sacred faculties, the most important of which are Sacred Theology, Canon Law, Sacred Scripture and...
- Postgraduate educationPostgraduate educationPostgraduate education involves learning and studying for degrees or other qualifications for which a first or Bachelor's degree generally is required, and is normally considered to be part of higher education...
- Validation of foreign studies and degreesValidation of foreign studies and degreesValidation can be total or partial validation of foreign university and non-university studies and degrees.- Mutual recognition of professional qualifications:...