Bachelor of Laws - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate, or bachelor, degree in law (or a first professional degree

First professional degree

A professional degree prepares the holder for a particular profession by emphasizing competency skills along with theory and analysis. These professions are typically licensed or otherwise regulated by a governmental or government-approved body...

in law, depending on jurisdiction) originating in England

England

England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...

and offered in most common law

Common law

Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

countries as the primary law degree. In English-speaking Canada it is sometimes referred to as a post-graduate degree because previous university education is usually required for admission. The "LL." of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum (of lex, legis f., law), thus "LL.B." stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin.

The United States is the only common law

Common law

Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

country that no longer offers the LL.B. While the LL.B. was conferred until 1971 at Yale University

Yale University

Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...

, since that time, all universities in the United States have awarded the professional doctorate J.D.

Juris Doctor

Juris Doctor is a professional doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law.The degree was first awarded by Harvard University in the United States in the late 19th century and was created as a modern version of the old European doctor of law degree Juris Doctor (see etymology and...

, which then became the required degree for the practice of law.
It is sometimes erroneously called "Bachelor of Legal Letters" to account for the double "L".
Historically, in Canada, Bachelor of Laws was the name of the first degree in common law, but is also the name of the first degree in Quebec civil law

Bachelor of Civil Law

Bachelor of Civil Law is the name of various degrees in law conferred by English-language universities. Historically, it originated as a postgraduate degree in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, but many universities now offer the BCL as an undergraduate degree...

awarded by a number of Quebec universities. Canadian common-law LL.B. programs are, in practice, second-entry professional degrees

Second entry degree

A second entry degree is a term used for an academic degree that requires at minimum 1-3 years of pre-requisite university courses for admission. It is most commonly used to refer to first professional degree programs in Canada and the United States....

, meaning that the vast majority of those admitted to an LL.B. programme are already holders of one or more degrees, or, at a minimum (with very few exceptions), have completed two years of study in a first-entry, undergraduate degree in another discipline.

Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law

Scots law

Scots law is the legal system of Scotland. It is considered a hybrid or mixed legal system as it traces its roots to a number of different historical sources. With English law and Northern Irish law it forms the legal system of the United Kingdom; it shares with the two other systems some...

and South African law (both being pluralistic legal systems that are based partly on common law and partly on civil law) awarded by a number of universities in Scotland

Scotland

Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...

and South Africa

South Africa

The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...

, respectively.

History of the degree

The first academic degree

Academic degree

An academic degree is a position and title within a college or university that is usually awarded in recognition of the recipient having either satisfactorily completed a prescribed course of study or having conducted a scholarly endeavour deemed worthy of his or her admission to the degree...

s were all law degrees on medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorate

Doctorate

A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...

s. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, which were also schools of law. The first university, that of Bologna

University of Bologna

The Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna is the oldest continually operating university in the world, the word 'universitas' being first used by this institution at its foundation. The true date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088...

, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator

Glossator

The scholars of the 11th and 12th century legal schools in Italy, France and Germany are identified as glossators in a specific sense. They studied Roman Law based on the Digestae, the Codex of Justinian, the Authenticae The scholars of the 11th and 12th century legal schools in Italy, France and...

school in that city. The University of Bologna

University of Bologna

served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age. While it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, such was not the case with England because of the English rejection of Roman law

Roman law

Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, and the legal developments which occurred before the 7th century AD — when the Roman–Byzantine state adopted Greek as the language of government. The development of Roman law comprises more than a thousand years of jurisprudence — from the Twelve...

(except for certain jurisdictions such as the Admiralty Court) and although the University of Oxford

University of Oxford

The University of Oxford is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096...

and University of Cambridge

University of Cambridge

The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...

did teach canon law

Canon law

Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...

until the English Reformation

English Reformation

The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th-century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church....

, its importance was always superior to civil law

Civil law (legal system)

Civil law is a legal system inspired by Roman law and whose primary feature is that laws are codified into collections, as compared to common law systems that gives great precedential weight to common law on the principle that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different...

in those institutions.

The bachelor's degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford and Cambridge. The "arts" designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelor's degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford and Cambridge.

The teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. Professional training for practising common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court

Inns of Court

The Inns of Court in London are the professional associations for barristers in England and Wales. All such barristers must belong to one such association. They have supervisory and disciplinary functions over their members. The Inns also provide libraries, dining facilities and professional...

, but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation. However, because of the lack of standardization of study and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently of importance for the education of lawyers in the English speaking world.

In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court

Inns of Court

system. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court

Moot court

A moot court is an extracurricular activity at many law schools in which participants take part in simulated court proceedings, usually to include drafting briefs and participating in oral argument. The term derives from Anglo Saxon times, when a moot was a gathering of prominent men in a...

-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford

University of Oxford

and the University of Cambridge

University of Cambridge

, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades

Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...

, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.

Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729. William Blackstone

William Blackstone

Sir William Blackstone KC SL was an English jurist, judge and Tory politician of the eighteenth century. He is most noted for writing the Commentaries on the Laws of England. Born into a middle class family in London, Blackstone was educated at Charterhouse School before matriculating at Pembroke...

became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford

University of Oxford

in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature. Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.

The Inns of Court continued but became less effective and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination, therefore in 1846 the Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal education provided in the United States. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, the LL.B. became the uniform degree for lawyers in common law countries.

Structure of LL.B. programmes

Historically, law students studied both civil law

Civil law (legal system)

and common law

Common law

Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

. Today, this is much less common. However, a few institutions, such as Cardiff University

Cardiff University

Cardiff University is a leading research university located in the Cathays Park area of Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom. It received its Royal charter in 1883 and is a member of the Russell Group of Universities. The university is consistently recognised as providing high quality research-based...

's Department of Canon (Ecclesiastical) Law and McGill University

McGill University

Mohammed Fathy is a public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university bears the name of James McGill, a prominent Montreal merchant from Glasgow, Scotland, whose bequest formed the beginning of the university...

's and the University of Ottawa

University of Ottawa

The University of Ottawa is a bilingual, research-intensive, non-denominational, international university in Ottawa, Ontario. It is one of the oldest universities in Canada. It was originally established as the College of Bytown in 1848 by the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate...

's combined programme, continue to offer alternatives to the common law.

Common law nations generally

In most common law countries (with the exception of Canada, and the United States), the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school. In England and Wales it is also possible to study a programme for conversion to the legal profession following completion of a previous undergraduate degree unrelated to law (the Graduate Diploma in Law), which entitles graduates to take the vocational courses for entry into the legal profession. Master's courses are also offered to unversity graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL.M.

Australia

The programme of study for the common law LL.B. can be either a graduate-entry degree programme requiring a previous bachelors degree (the duration of which is usually three years) or can be undertaken directly after high-school either by itself (the duration of which is usually four years) or with another degree (i.e., B.Comm/LL.B., B.A./LL.B., or B.Sc./LL.B., the duration of which can vary between five and seven years, depending on the specific combination).

Additionally, most top universities have started offering the J.D as a graduate entry degree in order for J.D graduates to be competitive in the international legal market not be done in any case.

Bangladesh

Like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL.B. and LL.B. (Hons.) degrees are offered in different Public and Private Universities. Only five Public Universities offer LL.B. (Hons.) degree. These Universities are-the University of Dhaka,Jagannath University, the University of Rajshahi, the University of Chittagong, the Islamic University of Kustia. All these Universities also offer one-year LL.M. course. Private Universities like ASA University Bangladesh, Premier University Chittagong,Stamford University,BRAC University, Bangladesh Islami University(Saydabad,Maniknagar near to motijheel ),Uttara University, Green University of Bangladesh, Eastern University, South East University, University of Asia Pacific,Dhaka International University , Northern University Bangladesh, BGC Trust University Bangladesh,Southern University Chittagong, World University of Bangladesh,University of Information Technology & Sciences (UITS), also offer LL.B. (Hons.) degree (four years) and one-year LL.M. course.Some private universities like Southern University, South East University also offer two years LL.B. degree to the graduates of subjects other than Law . Besides, the National University of Bangladesh also offers two-years LL.B. degree to the graduates of subjects other than Law through some Law Colleges.

Canada

Canada has a dual system of laws. In the province of Quebec, a system of civil law is used. At the federal level, as well as in every province or territory except Quebec, a system of common law is used. Because of this, there are two Canadian law degrees generally in use.

The programme of study for the common law LL.B. is second-entry, undergraduate, professional degree, and now completely replaced by the J.D. by all Canadian common law schools. While the degree awarded is at the first-degree level and admission may be granted to applicants with two or three years of undergraduate studies towards a degree, in practice the programme generally requires completion of a previous undergraduate degree before registration in that programme. In fact, almost all admitted law students hold at least a bachelor level degree, and a significant number hold a graduate level degree as well. As a result, there is an increasing trend for Canadian law schools to switch a Juris Doctor

Juris Doctor

degree in recognition of the profession second-entry nature of Canadian legal studies. (See Juris Doctor in Canada Juris Doctor#Canada)

The common law programme is three years in length. Upon graduation, one holds a Bachelor of Laws degree, but cannot yet practise law. To practise law, the graduate must obtain a license from the Law Society of the province where he/she wishes to practise law, which also requires a year of articling (see Becoming a Lawyer below). Those law graduates wishing to become law professors instead of lawyers often obtain a more advanced academic degree, such as the Master of Laws

Master of Laws

The Master of Laws is an advanced academic degree, pursued by those holding a professional law degree, and is commonly abbreviated LL.M. from its Latin name, Legum Magister. The University of Oxford names its taught masters of laws B.C.L...

(LL.M.) or the Doctor of Laws (LL.D, S.J.D or D.C.L).

The civil law programme in Canada is three years in length. The programme of study for the first degree in Quebec civil law

Bachelor of Civil Law

(called LL.B., B.C.L. or LL.L.) is a first-entry degree programme. Like other first-entry university programmes in Quebec it requires a CEGEP

Cégep

CEGEP is an acronym for , which is literally translated as "College of General and Vocational Education" but commonly called "General and Vocational College" in circles not influenced by Quebec English. It refers to the public post-secondary education collegiate institutions exclusive to the...

diploma for entry.

Law schools that offer civil law B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L. degrees include McGill University, Université de Montréal, Université de Québec à Montréal, Université de Sherbrooke, Université Laval and the University of Ottawa.

Because of Canada's dual system of laws, some law schools offer joint or dual degrees of common law and civil law. McGill University, Université de Montréal and the University of Ottawa are law schools that offer such degrees.

The law degree offered by McGill University is a mandatory joint common law LL.B. / Quebec civil law B.C.L. degree. The programme is four years in length. Admission to that programme is a first-entry programme in the case of Quebec students (as the CEGEP diploma is required) while it is a second-entry programme in the case of students from other provinces (since two years of university studies is required - effectively one extra year of studies more than for a CEGEP diploma). The University of Ottawa offers a civil law degree (LL.L.) on its own.

A number of Canadian law schools offer students the opportunity to earn, besides their three-year first degrees in common law, programmes in common law for holders of baccalaureate degrees in Quebec civil law enabling those individuals to earn the LL.B. in common law in two or three semesters, depending on the offering university's program. Similarly, the University of Ottawa

University of Ottawa

offers, besides its three-year LL.L. program in Quebec civil law, a one-year LL.L. program in Quebec civil law for holders of an LL.B. or J.D. degree in common law from a Canadian law school.

Additionally, some Canadian universities with common law law schools have an arrangement with a Canadian university with a Quebec civil law law school enabling students to obtain the home school's law degree in three years and the exchange school's law degree in the fourth year.

India

See also: Autonomous law schools in India
Autonomous law schools in India
The term Autonomous law schools in India refers to the law schools founded in India pursuant to the second-generation reforms for legal education sought to be implemented by the Bar Council of India. The first such autonomous law school was the National Law School, Bangalore which admitted its...

, Common Law Admission Test
Common Law Admission Test
Common Law Admission Test is a centralised test for admission to prominent National Law Universities in India. The test is taken after the 12th grade for admission to graduation courses in Law. This exam was conducted for the first time on 11 May 2008. A total number of 1037 seats from seven law...

In India

India

India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...

, legal education has been traditionally offered as a three-year graduate degree conferring the title of LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) or B.L. (Bachelor of Law). However the legal education system was revised by the Bar Council of India

Bar Council of India

The Bar Council of India is a statutory body that regulates and represents the Indian bar. It was created by Parliament under the Advocates Act, 1961. It prescribes standards of professional conduct and etiquette and exercises disciplinary jurisdiction...

, the governing body of legal education in India in 1984. Pursuant thereto, various autonomous law schools

Autonomous law schools in India

The term Autonomous law schools in India refers to the law schools founded in India pursuant to the second-generation reforms for legal education sought to be implemented by the Bar Council of India. The first such autonomous law school was the National Law School, Bangalore which admitted its...

were established that administer a five-year undergraduate degree programme and confer an integrated honours degree, such as "B.A., LL.B. (Honours)", "B.B.A, LL.B. (Honours)", "B.Sc., LL.B. (Honours)", etc.

Both the types of degrees (i.e., three-year and five-year integrated honours) are recognized and are also qualifying degrees for practise of legal profession in India. A holder of either type of degree may approach a Bar Council of any States of India and get upon compliance with the necessary standards, be enrolled on the rolls of the said Bar Council. The process of enrollment confers a license to the holder to practise before any court in India and give legal advice. The entire procedure of enrollment and post-enrollment professional conduct is regulated and supervised by the Bar Council of India.

Malaysia

As a commonwealth country, the Malaysian legal education system is rooted from the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

. Legal qualifications offered by the local law faculties require students to have a pre-university qualification higher than the high school Malaysian Certificate of Education

Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia

The Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia , or the Malaysian Certificate of Education, is a national examination taken by all fifth-year secondary school students in Malaysia...

(which is equivalent to the O Level) such as A-Levels, the Malaysian Higher School Certificate

Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia

The Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia is a pre-university examination taken by students in Malaysia. It was formerly known as the Higher School Certificate...

, foundation programme or diploma. Generally, the Bachelor of Laws in Malaysia consists of civil law subjects, but there are institutions such as Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws

Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws

Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah Of Laws is the law faculty of International Islamic University Malaysia. Previously known as the Kulliyyah of Laws, it was renamed in 2000 in honour of its founding father and ex-Dean, Professor Tan Sri Datuk Ahmad Bin Mohamad Ibrahim...

(International Islamic University Malaysia

International Islamic University Malaysia

The International Islamic University Malaysia , also known as IIUM or UIAM, is a public publicly-funded university in Malaysia. Its main campus is located in Gombak, Selangor with its situated in Petaling Jaya / Nilai and its medical-centric branch in Kuantan, Pahang. The university is sponsored...

) and Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin that include Sharia

Sharia

Sharia law, is the moral code and religious law of Islam. Sharia is derived from two primary sources of Islamic law: the precepts set forth in the Quran, and the example set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Sunnah. Fiqh jurisprudence interprets and extends the application of sharia to...

or Islamic law courses as requirements for graduation.

Legal qualifications in Malaysia can be divided into four types. The first type is the Bachelor of Laws (Hons) or LL.B (Hons) programme offered by the universities. All universities which offer the LL.B (Hons) programme, with the exception of Universiti Teknologi MARA

Universiti Teknologi MARA

Universiti Teknologi MARA is a coeducational public university with its main campus located in Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.It is the flagship institution of the Universiti Teknologi MARA...

had their students to undergo a minimum of four (4) years of full time study.

The second type is the programmes offered by the Faculty of Law

UiTM Malaysia Law School

UiTM Malaysia Law School is one of the professional graduate faculty of UiTM and is located in Shah Alam, Malaysia....

, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Universiti Teknologi MARA

Universiti Teknologi MARA is a coeducational public university with its main campus located in Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.It is the flagship institution of the Universiti Teknologi MARA...

(UiTM). UiTM offers a three (3) year degree programme known as the Bachelor of Legal Studies (Hons) or BLS (Hons). The second type is the programmes offered by the Faculty of Law

UiTM Malaysia Law School

UiTM Malaysia Law School is one of the professional graduate faculty of UiTM and is located in Shah Alam, Malaysia....

, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Universiti Teknologi MARA

Universiti Teknologi MARA is a coeducational public university with its main campus located in Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.It is the flagship institution of the Universiti Teknologi MARA...

(UiTM). UiTM offers a three (3) year degree programme known as the Bachelor of Legal Studies (Hons) or BLS (Hons). Upon completion of the BLS (Hons) programme, the students can choose either to work as legal advisors / legal executives but they are not fully qualified to apply to be advocates and solicitors. If they choose to practice as advocates and solicitors, they have to be vetted and short-listed to pursue with a one year LL.B (Hons) programme because the student allocation is limited. Those who are not short-listed may sit for the Certificate in Legal Practice

Certificate in Legal Practice (Malaysia)

The Certificate in Legal Practice is a course and examination taken by law graduates from outside Malaysia in order to become a qualified lawyer in Malaysia. The examination is conducted by the Legal Profession Qualifying Board of Malaysia and is governed by the Legal Profession Act 1976...

examination or re-apply after gaining working experience. The LL.B(Hons) programme from UiTM is unique in the country in which the students are put in a simulated legal office environment in which they are designated in firms and given case studies. The programme is designed after the Inns of Court in England.

The third type is the Bachelor of Jurisprudence (Hons) or B.Juris (Hons) from the University of Malaya (UM). It is a three (3) year degree programme taught externally at private institutions but B.Juris (Hons) may also be awarded to University of Malaya's students who can't or choose not to proceed to the fourth and final year of the LL.B (Hons) programme. B.Juris (Hons) is equivalent to Bachelor of Legal Studies (Hons) from UiTM. It is a popular alternative to LL.B (Hons) from University of London International Programme. Upon completion of the programme, the students need to sit for the Certificate in Legal Practice

Certificate in Legal Practice (Malaysia)

examination in order to practice law.

The fourth type is the LL.B (Hons) from shortlisted universities from the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

, New Zealand and Australia

Australia

Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...

. There are private institutions in Malaysia that offer such LL.B (Hons) programme through twinning arrangements. Students may opt either to do their degree two (2) years in Malaysia and the final one (1) year at the foreign universities (2+1) or one (1) year in Malaysia and two (2) years at the foreign universities (1+2). The LL.B (Hons) from the University of London International Programme is the only recognised foreign degree that can be fully completed at the local private institutions. Upon graduation, the graduates need to sit for the Certificate in Legal Practice

Certificate in Legal Practice (Malaysia)

examination before they are allowed to read in chambers.

In order for the graduates to be eligible as advocates and solicitors, they need to read in chambers

Pupillage

A pupillage, in England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Ireland, is the barrister's equivalent of the training contract that a solicitor undertakes...

for nine months before being called to the Bar.

The Bar

Malaysian Bar

The Malaysian Bar is a professional body which regulates the profession of lawyers in peninsular Malaysia. In Malaysia, there is no distinction between a barrister and a solicitor, in that, it is a fused profession. Membership into the bar is automatic and mandatory. The bar was created under the...

Council has been advocating a Common Bar Course and Examination (CBE) since the 1980s as a single entry point to the legal profession for both local and foreign law graduates.

Pakistan

Pakistan is a common law country and to become a lawyer in Pakistan, one needs law degree usually called LL.B from recognised Pakistani or common law country universities. Lawyers in Pakistan are called advocates. An advocate has to be member of one of the provincial Bar Councils, i.e., Punjab Bar Council

Punjab Bar Council

The Punjab Bar Council is a supreme statutory & Deliberative assembly of lawyers in Punjab for safeguarding the rights, interests and privileges of practicing lawyers, regulating their conduct and helping in the administration of justice and it is also 1st biggest Bar Council of Pakistan...

, Sindh Bar council, Baluchistan Bar Council or the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Bar Council to practice as an advocate.

The following universites are authorised to award law degrees in Pakistan:

Govt SM Law College University Of Karachi
University of Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
University of Malakand, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Swat University, Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Hazara University, Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
University of Punjab, Lahore
University of Sindh, Hyderabad
University of Baluchistan, Quetta
Bahauddin Zakaria University, Multan
Peshawr University, Peshawar
Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan
Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur
Islamia University, Bhawalpur
Hamdard University, Karachi
International Islamic University, Islamabad
Sargodha University, Sargodha
LUMS, Lahore
Islamia College University, Peshawer
Bahria University, Islamabad

Becoming a lawyer

See also: Legal education
Legal education
Legal education is the education of individuals who intend to become legal professionals or those who simply intend to use their law degree to some end, either related to law or business...

and Legal education in the United Kingdom
Legal education in the United Kingdom
Legal education in the United Kingdom is divided between the common law system of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, and that of Scotland, which uses a hybrid of common law and civil law....

Upon completion of the LL.B. degree (or its equivalent), graduates are generally qualified to apply for membership of the bar

Bar (law)

Bar in a legal context has three possible meanings: the division of a courtroom between its working and public areas; the process of qualifying to practice law; and the legal profession.-Courtroom division:...

or law society

Law society

A Law Society in current and former Commonwealth jurisdictions was historically an association of solicitors with a regulatory role that included the right to supervise the training, qualifications and conduct of lawyers/solicitors...

. The membership eligibility bestowed may be subject to completion of professional exams. A student may have to gain a further qualification at postgraduate level, for example a traineeship and the Legal Practice Course

Legal Practice Course

The Legal Practice Course also known as the Postgraduate Diploma in Legal Practiceis the vocational stage for becoming a solicitor in England and Wales. The course is the successor to Law Society Finals and is more vocational in its syllabus. The LPC can be taken in many different formats including...

or Bar Vocational Course in England and Wales or the Postgraduate Certificate in Laws

Postgraduate Certificate in Laws

PCLL redirects here. For the lacrosse league in the northeastern United States, see Pioneer Collegiate Lacrosse League.The Postgraduate Certificate in Laws is an intensive one-year full-time professional legal qualification programme in Hong Kong...

in Hong Kong

Hong Kong

Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...

.

In Australia

Australia

some LL.B. graduates practice as a solicitor

Solicitor

Solicitors are lawyers who traditionally deal with any legal matter including conducting proceedings in courts. In the United Kingdom, a few Australian states and the Republic of Ireland, the legal profession is split between solicitors and barristers , and a lawyer will usually only hold one title...

or barrister, while others work in academia, for the government or for a private company (i.e. not as a practicing solicitor). For LL.B. graduates who do choose to practice law, in some states of Australia

Australia

(namely, Victoria and New South Wales

New South Wales

New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...

), LL.B. graduates are required to undertake a one-year articled clerkship or the Legal Practice Course (Commonly Practical Legal Training or PLT) before applying for registration as a solicitor

Solicitor

. In other states, (namely, South Australia

South Australia

South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories.South Australia shares borders with all of the mainland...

) a LL.B. graduate is required to undertake a six-week PLT course before applying to be admitted to the bar as a barrister and solicitor. Depending on the State to which a practitioner is admitted, membership of the Bar is either restricted to Barristers, or open to both Solicitors and Barristers. In the states that maintain membership of the bar as a separate and distinct role to that of a practicing solicitor, entry is attained through the successful completion of an exam and a nine-month period of tutelage (the reading period) under a senior Barrister.

In Canada

Canada

Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...

, the lawyer licensing process usually requires the law graduate to 1.) take further classroom law courses, taught by the law society itself, and pass a set of written examinations, commonly referred to as bar exams, related to the taken courses and 2.) complete articled clerkship commonly known as articling. Although the vast majority of law graduates fulfill the articled clerkship requirement by articling (i.e. working and learning) in a law firm, a government's legal department, a corporation's (in house) legal department, a community legal clinic or some other type of non-profit organization involved in legal work, a small minority of law graduates (with exceptional academic records) satisfy the articled clerkship requirement by undergoing what is commonly called clerkship with a specific courthouse and under the supervision of a judge instead of working in a more "lawyer-type environment" under the supervision of a lawyer called a "principal". In either articling or clerkship, there is the expectation that the law graduate will work in a variety of legal fields and be exposed to the realities of legal practice that are absent from law school's academic atmosphere.

In the province of Ontario

Ontario

Ontario is a province of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province and second largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa....

, for example, the licensing process for the Law Society of Upper Canada

Law Society of Upper Canada

The Law Society of Upper Canada is responsible for the self-regulation of lawyers and paralegals in the Canadian province of Ontario, Canada. Founded in 1797, it is known in French as "Le Barreau du Haut-Canada"...

(Ontario's governing law society) consists of three mandatory components: The Skills and Professional Responsibility Program with assignments and assessments, Licensing Examinations (a Barrister Licensing Examination and a Solicitor Licensing Examination), and a 10-month Articling term.http://mrc.lsuc.on.ca/jsp/licensingprocess/index.jsp

At the conclusion of the licensing process, the law graduate is "called to the bar" whereby he/she signs his/her name in the Rolls of the Court of Appeal for Ontario and the Superior Court of Justice and swears lawyer-related oaths in a formal ceremony where he/she must appear in a complete barrister's gown and bow before judges of the local superior court and benchers of the licensing law society. After the call ceremony, he/she can designate him/herself as a "Barrister and Solicitor", and can practice law in the province in which they are licensed. In Ontario and other provinces, licensed lawyers may also exercise the powers of a Commissioner of Oaths. In the Province of British Columbia

British Columbia

British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...

, licensed lawyers are automatically permitted to practice the powers of a Notary Public

Notary public

A notary public in the common law world is a public officer constituted by law to serve the public in non-contentious matters usually concerned with estates, deeds, powers-of-attorney, and foreign and international business...

. In Ontario and other provinces, a licensed lawyer must submit a form and pay a one-time fee to the provincial attorney general before he/she is appointed as a Notary Public.

Although not required by the licensing process, many first- and second- year law students work in law firms during the summer off-school season to earn extra money and to guarantee themselves an articling position (with the same law firms) upon their graduation from law school, because there is always fierce competition for articling positions, especially for those in large law firms offering attractive remuneration and prestige, and a law graduate cannot become a licensed lawyer in Canada if he/she has not gone through articled clerkship.

Irish B.C.L. and LL.B

The four universities under the National University of Ireland

National University of Ireland

The National University of Ireland , , is a federal university system of constituent universities, previously called constituent colleges, and recognised colleges set up under the Irish Universities Act, 1908, and significantly amended by the Universities Act, 1997.The constituent universities are...

(NUI

NUI

NUI as an acronym may refer to:*National University of Ireland*Natural User Interface*Normally unmanned installation*No User Interface*New User Interface*Novell Users International*Novell Users International - France*Network Users Institute...

) umbrella, award the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law

Bachelor of Civil Law

(B.C.L.). These are University College Cork, University College Dublin

University College Dublin

University College Dublin ) - formally known as University College Dublin - National University of Ireland, Dublin is the Republic of Ireland's largest, and Ireland's second largest, university, with over 1,300 faculty and 17,000 students...

, NUI Maynooth

National University of Ireland, Maynooth

The National University of Ireland, Maynooth , was founded by the Universities Act, 1997 as a constituent university of the National University of Ireland. It is Ireland's second oldest university, having been formed from St Patrick's College, Maynooth, itself founded in 1795.The university is...

and NUIG.
Six (four in the republic) Irish universities (Trinity College Dublin; NUIG; The Queen's University of Belfast; the University of Limerick

University of Limerick

The University of Limerick is a university in Ireland near the city of Limerick on the island's west coast. It was established in 1972 as the National Institute for Higher Education, Limerick and became a university by statute in 1989 in accordance with the University of Limerick Act 1989...

, National University of Ireland, Maynooth

National University of Ireland, Maynooth

and the University of Ulster

University of Ulster

The University of Ulster is a multi-campus, co-educational university located in Northern Ireland. It is the largest single university in Ireland, discounting the federal National University of Ireland...

) award an LLB.
University College Cork and NUIG offer the LLB as an 1 year postgraduate course for holders of the BCL degree.

Two English universities (University of the West of England

University of the West of England

The University of the West of England is a university based in the English city of Bristol. Its main campus is at Frenchay, about five miles north of the city centre...

and Nottingham Trent University

Nottingham Trent University

Nottingham Trent University is a public teaching and research university in Nottingham, United Kingdom. It was founded as a new university in 1992 from the existing Trent Polytechnic , however it can trace its roots back to 1843 with the establishment of the Nottingham Government School of Design...

) and one Welsh university (University of Wales

University of Wales

The University of Wales was a confederal university founded in 1893. It had accredited institutions throughout Wales, and formerly accredited courses in Britain and abroad, with over 100,000 students, but in October 2011, after a number of scandals, it withdrew all accreditation, and it was...

) award the LL.B. in Ireland as a basic professional degree in law (the latter three are run via local private colleges).
(Independent Colleges

Independent Colleges

Independent College Dublin is a college in Dublin, Ireland which offers courses at Certificate, CPD, Diploma, Degree and Postgraduate levels. The colleges is part of, and supported by, the Independent News & Media plc group.-Academic:...

LL.B(Hons) in Irish Law is conferred by the University of the West of England

University of the West of England

The University of the West of England is a university based in the English city of Bristol. Its main campus is at Frenchay, about five miles north of the city centre...

, LL.B(Hons) in Irish Law at Dublin Business School

Dublin Business School

Dublin Business School incorporating Portobello College is the largest independent college in Ireland. With over 9,000 students, DBS provides a range of full-time and part-time undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, with courses for 2010/2011 in subject areas such as business, law, event...

is jointly validated by HETAC and the University of Wales

University of Wales

and the LL.B. in Griffith College Dublin

Griffith College Dublin

Griffith College Dublin is a private third level college in the Republic of Ireland. It is based in and named after the former Griffith Barracks on the South Circular Road in Dublin. It offers courses accredited by a number of institutions and bodies in Ireland and Britain...

and Griffith College Cork

Griffith College Cork

Griffith College Cork is an independent education institution based in the former Skerry’s College Cork which it merged with Griffith College in 2005, where it runs courses in Business, Law, Secretarial, Media & Journalism, Design as well as evening courses in Psychology, Office Skills, Computing...

is jointly validated by HETAC and Nottingham Trent University

Nottingham Trent University

.)

It should be noted, though, that Ireland is a common law

Common law

Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...

jurisdiction (in fact there are two common law jurisdictions on the island) and the expression "civil law" is used to differentiate common law from ecclesiastical law or Canon Law

Canon law

in the republic.
In the past NUI

NUI

B.C.L. graduates who went to work in Britain sometimes didn't disabuse people of the casual notion that it was a post-graduate degree, similar to the more famous Oxford

Oxford

The city of Oxford is the county town of Oxfordshire, England. The city, made prominent by its medieval university, has a population of just under 165,000, with 153,900 living within the district boundary. It lies about 50 miles north-west of London. The rivers Cherwell and Thames run through...

B.C.L.

In the nineteenth century the University of London

University of London

-20th century:Shortly after 6 Burlington Gardens was vacated, the University went through a period of rapid expansion. Bedford College, Royal Holloway and the London School of Economics all joined in 1900, Regent's Park College, which had affiliated in 1841 became an official divinity school of the...

conferred degrees of LL.B. on clerical and lay students at St. Patrick's College, Carlow from 1840 onwards.
The King's Inns

King's Inns

The Honorable Society of King's Inns , is the institution which controls the entry of barristers-at-law into the justice system of Ireland...

Barrister-at-Law degree BL is a postgraduate degree required to practice as a Barrister

Barrister

A barrister is a member of one of the two classes of lawyer found in many common law jurisdictions with split legal professions. Barristers specialise in courtroom advocacy, drafting legal pleadings and giving expert legal opinions...

in Ireland.

Zimbabwe B.L. and LL.B.

At the University of Zimbabwe

University of Zimbabwe

The University of Zimbabwe in Harare, is the oldest and largest university in Zimbabwe. It was founded through a special relationship with the University of London and it opened its doors to its first students in 1952. The university has ten faculties offering a wide variety of degree programmes...

, the first degree in common law is the Bachelor of Law (B.L.), which is equivalent to the LL.B. in other common law jurisdictions. It is followed by a one-year programme at the university (analogous to post-LL.B. vocational programmes in other common law jurisdictions) at the end of which a second degree, the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), is awarded. The curriculum has since been changed and now only one four-year honours degree is offered abbreviated as LL.Bs http://www.uz.ac.zw/law/history.htm

LL.B. in Pakistan

In Pakistan, to get admission in LL.B. degree course in any state university, one should have a bachelor's degree in any discipline. Before 1992, LL.B degree course was of two years but now it is a three-year programme. Nowadays some colleges offering five years LL.B programme. In Punjab, and Sindh Muslim Govt. Law College Karachi, for example, a five-year joint B.A./LL.B. degree is being offered by Punjab University and Karachi University

University of the Punjab

University of the Punjab , colloquially known as Punjab University, is located in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. The University of the Punjab is the oldest and biggest University of Pakistan. The University of the Punjab was formally established with the convening of the first meeting of its...

. Actually it is a three-year LL.B program that includes two years of graduation studies (Graduation degree is usually awarded after fourteen years of full-time education).
After obtaining an LL.B. degree, a person wishing to practise has to intimate the respective Provincial Bar Council that he is starting a one year training/articleship under the supervision of a senior advocate who has a ten year standing as an advocate. After the completion of the articleship/pupillage, he will be asked to take a Bar admission test that consists one multiple choice questions/written test and a viva-voce (by a panel of Bar Council members).
These days the University of London external programme has widely attracted many potential candidates who wish to pursue a career in Law in Pakistan.

Variations on the LL.B.

Some universities in the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

and New Zealand

New Zealand

New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...

offer variations of this degree, such as the LL.B. (Europe), which generally take four years to complete and include a wider range of topics as well as some degree of specialisation.

Various universities in the United Kingdom and Australia will allow a degree that combines study with a non-law discipline. For example, some universities in the United Kingdom offer a combined study of law and history leading to a B.A. degree that is accepted by the Law Society and Inns of Court as equivalent to an LL.B.

The University of London External Programme in Laws (LL.B.) has been awarding its law degree via distance learning since 1858. The LL.B. awarded by the University of London External Programme is of the same standard and quality irrespective of the mode or manner of learning.

At various universities in the UK such as Oxford

University of Oxford

, Nottingham

University of Nottingham

The University of Nottingham is a public research university based in Nottingham, United Kingdom, with further campuses in Ningbo, China and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia...

and Cambridge

University of Cambridge

the principal law degree is often a B.A.

Bachelor of Arts

A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...

, in either Jurisprudence or Law. The B.C.L and LL.M are second-entry and postgraduate degrees. The University of Cambridge

University of Cambridge

has recently replaced their LL.B. degree with an LL.M.

Some universities in the UK including Bournemouth University

Bournemouth University

Bournemouth University is a university in and around the large south coast town of Bournemouth, UK...

have a four-year LL.B. course, which consists of a 40-week industrial work placement. Staffordshire University

Staffordshire University

Staffordshire University is a university with its main campus based in the city of Stoke-on-Trent, and with other campuses in Stafford, Lichfield and Shrewsbury.- History :...

also offer a two-year full-time LL.B. course.

A unique degree of LL.B.(Hons) Sharia and Law has been introduced by the International Islamic University, Islamabad. The distinctive feature of this course is the comparative study of both Islamic law and Common law.

Eligibility of foreign graduates in the U.S.

For the most part, foreign law graduates seeking admission to the bar in the United States will find their LL.B. law degree does not of itself fulfill the core admission requirements of most states, thereby not allowing them to take the bar exam.

The major exception to this is New York

New York

New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...

, where those foreign graduates who have fulfilled the educational requirements to practice law in another common law country through study at an approved educational institution, similar in both duration and content to the equivalent teaching at an approved U.S. law school, are permitted to sit for the bar exam. Additionally, both New York and Massachusetts

Massachusetts

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...

permit Canadian LL.B. holders to take the bar exam. The requirements of each of the states vary, and in some states sufficient years of practice in one's home country may allow for those otherwise excluded to sit for the bar exam. Interested applicants should check the requirements of each state bar association carefully as requirements vary markedly.

Most states require completion of a law degree from a law school accredited by the American Bar Association

American Bar Association

The American Bar Association , founded August 21, 1878, is a voluntary bar association of lawyers and law students, which is not specific to any jurisdiction in the United States. The ABA's most important stated activities are the setting of academic standards for law schools, and the formulation...

. As a result, American law schools typically offer one-year LL.M.

Master of Laws

programs for foreign attorneys; many such law schools may have no other LL.M. programs. Classes included in these "American Law" "Comparative Law" inter alia LL.M. programmes are selected to introduce foreign attorneys to American-style common law practice, such as first-year J.D.

Juris Doctor

courses on civil procedure, Constitutional law, criminal law, legal research and analysis, and jurisprudence.

Situation within the European Union

European Union law

European Union law is a body of treaties and legislation, such as Regulations and Directives, which have direct effect or indirect effect on the laws of European Union member states. The three sources of European Union law are primary law, secondary law and supplementary law...

permits European Union

European Union

The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...

citizens with LL.B. degrees from Ireland

Ireland

Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...

or the UK, who practise law in one of these countries for three or more years, to practise also in every other member state. The actual procedure to receive the respective national licence is regulated by the member state and therefore differs from country to country, but every EU member has to apply the relevant EU Directives to its own national law.

As a consequence of the Bologna process

Bologna process

The purpose of the Bologna Process is the creation of the European Higher Education Area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe, in particular under the Lisbon Recognition Convention...

, recently many universities of applied sciences

Fachhochschule

A Fachhochschule or University of Applied Sciences is a German type of tertiary education institution, sometimes specialized in certain topical areas . Fachhochschulen were founded in Germany and later adopted by Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Greece...

and few traditional universities in Germany

Germany

Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...

have introduced LL.B. programs, replacing the Diplom-Wirtschaftsjurist degree. The LL.B. is a three- or four-year full-time study law degree. As opposed to courses of study leading to the State Examination

Staatsexamen

The ' is a German government licensing examination that future doctors, teachers, pharmacists, food chemists and jurists have to pass to be allowed to work in their profession. The examination is generally organized by government examination agencies which are under the authority of the...

- the masters-level professional law degree in Germany - most LL.B. degree programs concentrate on private law

Private law

Private law is that part of a civil law legal system which is part of the jus commune that involves relationships between individuals, such as the law of contracts or torts, as it is called in the common law, and the law of obligations as it is called in civilian legal systems...

and can feature a component of education in business administration. Graduates of LL.B. courses can continue LL.M. studies, and in exceptional cases sit for the first State Examination

Staatsexamen

after one or more years of additional law studies in order to qualify for practicing law in Germany.

In Malta, the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree, offered by the University of Malta

University of Malta

The University of Malta is the highest educational institution in Malta Europe and is one of the most respected universities in Europe. The University offers undergraduate Bachelor's Degrees, postgraduate Master's Degrees and postgraduate Doctorates .-History:The University of Malta was founded in...

, is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions.

In Denmark, universities now offer three-year LL.B. programs, although this is not sufficient to practice law. Students wishing to practice law should continue with a Masters in Law program, leading to the cand.jur degree. Alternatively, students may choose to use the LL.B. as a basis for other courses with in the social sciences or humanities.

Alternative degree route in the UK

There are also conversion courses available for non-law graduates, available as an alternative to the full-length LL.B. degree course. One such example of a conversion course in England and Wales is the GDL (Graduate Diploma in Law), which takes one year to complete.

In the UK, as well as in other Common Law jurisdictions, the main approach to this, is the Graduate Entry

Graduate entry

A graduate entry degree is term used for an academic degree that requires at minimum a previous bachelors degree for admission. It is most commonly used to refer to first professional degree programs...

(undergraduate) LL.B. degree, where graduates from another discipline can complete the LL.B. as a second degree, although this may occasionally require taking qualifying law courses within the first degree to meet professional requirements in full. Therefore it is not entirely correct to regard it as an 'accelerated' degree.

This 'double degree' system was, at one time, an alternative route to the former B.L. degree (now obsolete) but students were required to have independent means to complete the second degree. The current Scots LL.B. degree, a direct-entry undergraduate degree, meets all professional requirements when coupled with the Diploma in Legal Practice. The Diploma was introduced circa 1980; prior to this, all professional exams were taken within the degree itself (or as part of an earlier non-law degree), limiting the scope for academic study.

Therefore the pursuit of the double degree nowadays, for school-leavers at least, is mainly to indicate that one can be adept at two disciplines. Unlike Joint Honours, a second degree is undertaken separately, within the prescribed timeframe. The first non-law degree will almost invariably be an arts degree although science or other degrees are not unknown. Rarely, the double degree principle is found in reverse; just as an arts or science degree can provide exemption from the full academic (not professional) requirements of a subsequent law degree, similarly a law degree can provide exemption from the full academic requirements of a subsequent arts or science degree. In this case, it is more likely that the second degree will be taken as a self-funding mature student, possibly on a part-time basis.