Gala Galaction
Encyclopedia
Gala Galaction was a Romania
n Orthodox
clergyman and theologian
, writer, journalist, left-wing activist, as well as a political figure of the People's Republic of Romania
. Contrary to the spirit of the time, he was a promoter of tolerance towards the Jewish minority
.
, Teleorman County
, the son of a wealthy peasant and a priest's daughter. His father had traveled throughout the Balkans
on business, and had settled down as an estate lessee
.
After completing his primary studies in his native village and in Roşiorii de Vede
(1888–1890), he went on to study at the Saint Sava National College
in Bucharest
(1890–1898), and, after a period of studying Philosophy at the University of Bucharest
, took a degree in Theology at Chernivtsi University
. During the period, Galaction began to take an interest in literature, and was briefly influenced by the ideas of Sâr Péladan, a French
occult
ist and poet. He debuted in 1900 with the novella
Moara lui Călifar ("Călifar's Mill"), a sinister story on the subject of demonic temptation; nevertheless, his growing interest in Orthodoxy led him to abandon literature for the following ten years — his 1914 volume of collected stories, comprising La Vulturi! (one of his most famous pieces of writing), was awarded the Romanian Academy
prize.
philosopher Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea
, he was partisan of Poporanism
and, like his close friend N. D. Cocea
, socialism
- tendencies which established him as a leading figure on the left wing of the Romanian political spectrum. According to Vianu's later assessment:
Noted for his criticism of the violent repression of the Romanian Peasants' Revolt
in 1907, he soon became an active journalist. With the help of Tudor Arghezi
, he edited Cronica and Spicul, which appeared during World War I
(between 1915 and 1918). Like his friend Arghezi and others, he displayed his sympathy for the Central Powers
, and remained in Bucharest under German occupation
, collaborating with the new authorities. Eventually, Galaction welcomed the new political mood established by the Russian Revolution
(and first manifested in Romania by the activities of the Socialist Party
and the strikes
of 1918-1919):
At around the same time, he became an enthusiastic advocate of the labor movement. A public meeting of factory workers left a lasting impression on him:
Soon after the war, Galaction befriended Nicolae Tonitza
, a painter and illustrator of socialist newspapers who produced the cover of Galaction's collection of essays (O lume nouă) and painted his portrait under the title "The Man of a New World". In his memoir of the period, the art collector Krikor Zambaccian described the latter as:
priest, and in 1926 he became professor of Theology and New Testament
Studies at the Chişinău
University Theology School. He was dean
of the School between 1928 and 1930.
Together with priest Vasile Radu, he worked on a new translation of the Bible
into modern Romanian
, a work published in 1938, meant as a newer and more accurate version to replace the traditional Cantacuzino Bible. The literary critic Tudor Vianu
wrote:
During the interwar period
, Galaction was also the author of several studies, articles and commentaries on the New Testament, as well as completing a celebrated translation of William Shakespeare
's The Merchant of Venice
. He contributed regularly to Viaţa Românească
and Adevărul
, as well as to Sămănătorul
, but was on exceptionally bad terms with the latter's founder, Nicolae Iorga
.
In 1936, he was the subject of a denunciation for "communist
activities" and alleged links with the Comintern
, which he dismissed as slander. Nevertheless, in 1938-1940, Galaction, like other figures on the Poporanist and socialist Left (among them Armand Călinescu
, Petre Andrei, Mihai Ralea, Ioan Flueraş
, and Mihail Ghelmegeanu), was attracted into collaboration with the fascist
-inspired corporatist
regime created, as a means to combat the influence of the pro-Nazi
Iron Guard
, around King
Carol II
and the National Renaissance Front
. Upon the outbreak of the September Campaign
and World War II
, he wrote:
saw Galaction's retreat from public life, prolonged after the Legionnaires' Rebellion
and the onset of Ion Antonescu
's dictatorship. In 1944, as the August 23 coup overthrew Antonescu, taking Romania out of the Axis camp
and opening the country to Soviet
influence, Galaction expressed his enthusiasm:
Soon after, Galaction began collaborating with the Romanian Communist Party
and its various organizations. In 1947, he replaced the purged Nichifor Crainic
as a member of the Romanian Academy
, and was elected vice-president of the Writers' Union in the same year; Galaction was himself purged from the Academy later in the same year, and readmitted as an honorary member in 1948. Many times decorated, he was also elected to the Parliament of Romania
(1946–1948), and to its successor, the Great National Assembly
(a legislative body of little actual relevance; 1948–1952).
(in the context of the Cold War
), with the intention of helping in the creation of a "supreme areopagus
of peace". He was bedridden for the final years of his life, due to a stroke
; this probably accounted for the scarcity in criticism aimed at him during the Zhdanovist campaign
in Romania.
His Diary was only published, selectively, two decades after his death, under the Nicolae Ceauşescu
regime. The newer edition contains the censored
discourse of an embittered Galaction, who had become heavily critical of Stalinism
, while reviewing his own beliefs in an "Evangelical
and cloud-like" socialism.
Galaction was also noted for the support he gave to Constantin Galeriu, who later became a celebrated priest and theologian. Galeriu, who had been one of Galaction's favourite students, was rescued by the latter in 1952, after he was arrested and imprisoned at the Danube-Black Sea Canal
(Galaction successfully called on Prime Minister Petru Groza
to intervene in his favor).
in 1936; one was the actress Elena Galaction Stănciulescu and the other two, Magdalena and Lucreţia, married Italian
citizens — the husband of Luki Galaction (Galaction Passarelli or Galaction Sciarra), who was a painter and a writer, was Domenico Sciarra, a prominent figure of the Fascist regime
(whom Gala Galaction was visiting in Rome
at the time of his denunciation).
A friend of Communist politician Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu
, Galaction helped his Jewish wife Herta Schwamen avoid anti-Semitic
measures enforced in 1938 by the National Christian Party
government, baptizing
her Romanian Orthodox (she consequently took the Christian name Elena).
Galaction was a lifelong friend of the journalist Vasile Demetrius, whom he first collaborated with during the 1910s. He was also close to Vasile's daughter, the novelist and actress Lucia Demetrius, who expressed her gratitude for the moral support he gave her family after Vasile Demetrius died.
His contributions were later collected in the volume Sionismul la Prieteni ("Zionism
among Friends"), published in 1919. Alongside his praise for Theodor Herzl
, whom he considered "the greatest Israelite
in the modern world", he wrote:
In 1930, he was a pilgrim
to Jerusalem, visiting the British Mandate of Palestine together with his lifelong friend and brother-in-law of his daughter, the painter Ion Ţuculescu, and both their families. Reviewing his travel memoir În pământul făgăduinţei ("In the Promised Land
"), Alexandru A. Philippide, a fellow writer at Viaţa Românească
, thought that Galaction's attitude was linked to both his own theological outlook on tolerance and the branch of Christianity he represented:
In late 1947, Galaction welcomed the more decisive steps taken towards the creation of Israel
. Nowadays, in remembrance of his role, a square in Jerusalem bears his name.
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
n Orthodox
Romanian Orthodox Church
The Romanian Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church. It is in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox churches, and is ranked seventh in order of precedence. The Primate of the church has the title of Patriarch...
clergyman and theologian
Christian theology
- Divisions of Christian theology :There are many methods of categorizing different approaches to Christian theology. For a historical analysis, see the main article on the History of Christian theology.- Sub-disciplines :...
, writer, journalist, left-wing activist, as well as a political figure of the People's Republic of Romania
Communist Romania
Communist Romania was the period in Romanian history when that country was a Soviet-aligned communist state in the Eastern Bloc, with the dominant role of Romanian Communist Party enshrined in its successive constitutions...
. Contrary to the spirit of the time, he was a promoter of tolerance towards the Jewish minority
History of the Jews in Romania
The history of Jews in Romania concerns the Jews of Romania and of Romanian origins, from their first mention on what is nowadays Romanian territory....
.
Early life
He was born in the village of DideştiDidesti
Dideşti is a commune in Teleorman County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Dideşti, Însurăţei and Satu Nou.Famous residents include Gala Galaction , writer and theologian....
, Teleorman County
Teleorman County
Teleorman is a county of Romania, in the historical region Muntenia, with its capital city at Alexandria.The name Teleorman is of Cumanic origin. It literally means crazy forest and, by extension, "thick and shadowy forest" in the Cuman language...
, the son of a wealthy peasant and a priest's daughter. His father had traveled throughout the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
on business, and had settled down as an estate lessee
Leasehold estate
A leasehold estate is an ownership of a temporary right to land or property in which a lessee or a tenant holds rights of real property by some form of title from a lessor or landlord....
.
After completing his primary studies in his native village and in Roşiorii de Vede
Rosiorii de Vede
Roşiorii de Vede is a municipality in Teleorman, Wallachia, one of the oldest cities in Romania. It was first mentioned in a document which dates back to 1385, when the city was visited by two German pilgrims who were returning from Jerusalem and stopped for a few days in a town they called...
(1888–1890), he went on to study at the Saint Sava National College
Saint Sava National College
The Saint Sava National College is the oldest and one of the most prestigious high schools in Bucharest, Romania....
in Bucharest
Bucharest
Bucharest is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at , and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River....
(1890–1898), and, after a period of studying Philosophy at the University of Bucharest
University of Bucharest
The University of Bucharest , in Romania, is a university founded in 1864 by decree of Prince Alexander John Cuza to convert the former Saint Sava Academy into the current University of Bucharest.-Presentation:...
, took a degree in Theology at Chernivtsi University
Chernivtsi University
The Chernivtsi National University is the leading Ukrainian institution for higher education in northern Bukovina, in Chernivtsi, a city in southwest Ukraine....
. During the period, Galaction began to take an interest in literature, and was briefly influenced by the ideas of Sâr Péladan, a French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
occult
Occult
The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus , referring to "knowledge of the hidden". In the medical sense it is used to refer to a structure or process that is hidden, e.g...
ist and poet. He debuted in 1900 with the novella
Novella
A novella is a written, fictional, prose narrative usually longer than a novelette but shorter than a novel. The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Nebula Awards for science fiction define the novella as having a word count between 17,500 and 40,000...
Moara lui Călifar ("Călifar's Mill"), a sinister story on the subject of demonic temptation; nevertheless, his growing interest in Orthodoxy led him to abandon literature for the following ten years — his 1914 volume of collected stories, comprising La Vulturi! (one of his most famous pieces of writing), was awarded the Romanian Academy
Romanian Academy
The Romanian Academy is a cultural forum founded in Bucharest, Romania, in 1866. It covers the scientific, artistic and literary domains. The academy has 181 acting members who are elected for life....
prize.
Early 1900s activism
Having spent his early years a disciple of the MarxistMarxism
Marxism is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a materialist interpretation of history, a dialectical view of social change, and an analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. Marxism was pioneered in the early to mid 19th...
philosopher Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea
Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea
Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea was a Romanian Marxist theorist, politician, sociologist, literary critic, and journalist....
, he was partisan of Poporanism
Poporanism
The word “poporanism” is derived from “popor”, meaning “people” in the Romanian language. The ideology of Romanian Populism and poporanism are interchangeable. Founded by Constantin Stere in the early 1890s, populism is distinguished by its opposition to socialism, promotion of voting rights for...
and, like his close friend N. D. Cocea
N. D. Cocea
N. D. Cocea was a Romanian journalist, novelist, critic and left-wing political activist, known as a major but controversial figure in the field of political satire...
, socialism
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
- tendencies which established him as a leading figure on the left wing of the Romanian political spectrum. According to Vianu's later assessment:
"The attraction towards socialism during Galaction's youth was always confessed and never was disavowed, although the religious outlook on life, formulated through the influence of his family and his immediate environment, led him to see socialists as fellow travellerFellow travellerFellow traveler or fellow traveller is a term referring to a person who sympathizes with the beliefs of an organization or cooperates in its activities without maintaining formal membership in that particular group...
s rather than comrades in battle."
Noted for his criticism of the violent repression of the Romanian Peasants' Revolt
1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt
The 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt took place in March 1907 in Moldavia and it quickly spread, reaching Wallachia. The main cause was the discontent of the peasants about the inequity of land ownership, which was in the hands of just a few large landowners....
in 1907, he soon became an active journalist. With the help of Tudor Arghezi
Tudor Arghezi
Tudor Arghezi was a Romanian writer, best known for his contribution to poetry and children's literature. Born Ion N. Theodorescu in Bucharest , he explained that his pen name was related to Argesis, the Latin name for the Argeş River.-Early life:Along with Mihai Eminescu, Mateiu Caragiale, and...
, he edited Cronica and Spicul, which appeared during World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
(between 1915 and 1918). Like his friend Arghezi and others, he displayed his sympathy for the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
, and remained in Bucharest under German occupation
Romanian Campaign (World War I)
The Romanian Campaign was part of the Balkan theatre of World War I, with Romania and Russia allied against the armies of the Central Powers. Fighting took place from August 1916 to December 1917, across most of present-day Romania, including Transylvania, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian...
, collaborating with the new authorities. Eventually, Galaction welcomed the new political mood established by the Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution of 1917
The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. The Tsar was deposed and replaced by a provisional government in the first revolution of February 1917...
(and first manifested in Romania by the activities of the Socialist Party
Socialist Party of Romania
The Socialist Party of Romania was a Romanian socialist political party, created on December 11, 1918 by members of the Romanian Social Democratic Party , after the latter emerged from clandestinity...
and the strikes
Strike action
Strike action, also called labour strike, on strike, greve , or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became...
of 1918-1919):
"We were given to witness with our own eyes how the old worlds are crumbling and how the new ones are born. And it seems to me that the spectacle is at its most interesting as seen from out little Romanian island. [...] The power of the many, let loose all around us, is rising, is fretting, is roaring and is looking for a new balance. Let us not delude ourselves by thinking we could ever see it return to its previous mould. It would be absurd."
At around the same time, he became an enthusiastic advocate of the labor movement. A public meeting of factory workers left a lasting impression on him:
"Out of the smoldering and mud-covered suburbs, out of the humid and suffocating basements, out of the thousands of only too small cells, where the proletarianProletariatThe proletariat is a term used to identify a lower social class, usually the working class; a member of such a class is proletarian...
bee distills the honey of capitalistCapitalismCapitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
drones, out of all places high and low, the working people had come in black flocks in order to increase, standing shoulder to shoulder, the phalanxPhalanx formationThe phalanx is a rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar weapons...
of socialist demands."
Soon after the war, Galaction befriended Nicolae Tonitza
Nicolae Tonitza
Nicolae Tonitza was a Romanian painter, engraver, lithographer, journalist and art critic. Drawing inspiration from Post-impressionism and Expressionism, he had a major role in introducing modernist guidelines to local art.-Biography:...
, a painter and illustrator of socialist newspapers who produced the cover of Galaction's collection of essays (O lume nouă) and painted his portrait under the title "The Man of a New World". In his memoir of the period, the art collector Krikor Zambaccian described the latter as:
"that hallucinatory portrait [...]. On a background of intense blue is profiled the mageMagiMagi is a term, used since at least the 4th century BC, to denote a follower of Zoroaster, or rather, a follower of what the Hellenistic world associated Zoroaster with, which...
-like figure of the writer Galaction; on the most distant plane emerge the silhouettes of industries and rise up the chimneys of factories."
Interwar
In 1922, he was anointedAnointing
To anoint is to pour or smear with perfumed oil, milk, water, melted butter or other substances, a process employed ritually by many religions. People and things are anointed to symbolize the introduction of a sacramental or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit, power or God...
priest, and in 1926 he became professor of Theology and New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
Studies at the Chişinău
Chisinau
Chișinău is the capital and largest municipality of Moldova. It is also its main industrial and commercial centre and is located in the middle of the country, on the river Bîc...
University Theology School. He was dean
Dean (education)
In academic administration, a dean is a person with significant authority over a specific academic unit, or over a specific area of concern, or both...
of the School between 1928 and 1930.
Together with priest Vasile Radu, he worked on a new translation of the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
into modern Romanian
Romanian language
Romanian Romanian Romanian (or Daco-Romanian; obsolete spellings Rumanian, Roumanian; self-designation: română, limba română ("the Romanian language") or românește (lit. "in Romanian") is a Romance language spoken by around 24 to 28 million people, primarily in Romania and Moldova...
, a work published in 1938, meant as a newer and more accurate version to replace the traditional Cantacuzino Bible. The literary critic Tudor Vianu
Tudor Vianu
Tudor Vianu was a Romanian literary critic, art critic, poet, philosopher, academic, and translator. Known for his left-wing and anti-fascist convictions, he had a major role on the reception and development of Modernism in Romanian literature and art...
wrote:
"[...] the new translation, accomplished through the means created by newer literary evolution and with the talent of a modern poetModernist literatureModernist literature is sub-genre of Modernism, a predominantly European movement beginning in the early 20th century that was characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional aesthetic forms...
, presents a major philologicalPhilologyPhilology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics.Classical philology is the philology of Greek and Classical Latin...
and artistic interest."
During the interwar period
Interwar period
Interwar period can refer to any period between two wars. The Interbellum is understood to be the period between the end of the Great War or First World War and the beginning of the Second World War in Europe....
, Galaction was also the author of several studies, articles and commentaries on the New Testament, as well as completing a celebrated translation of William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon"...
's The Merchant of Venice
The Merchant of Venice
The Merchant of Venice is a tragic comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1596 and 1598. Though classified as a comedy in the First Folio and sharing certain aspects with Shakespeare's other romantic comedies, the play is perhaps most remembered for its dramatic...
. He contributed regularly to Viaţa Românească
Viata Româneasca
Viaţa Românească, originally Viaţa Romînească , is a monthly literary magazine published in Romania...
and Adevărul
Adevarul
Adevărul is a Romanian daily newspaper, based in Bucharest. Founded in 1871 and reestablished in 1888, it was the main left-wing press venue to be published during the Romanian Kingdom's existence, adopting an independent pro-democratic position, advocating land reform and universal suffrage...
, as well as to Sămănătorul
Sămănătorul
Sămănătorul or Semănătorul was a literary and political magazine published in Romania between 1901 and 1910. Founded by poets Alexandru Vlahuţă and George Coşbuc, it is primarily remembered as a tribune for early 20th century traditionalism, neoromanticism and ethnic nationalism...
, but was on exceptionally bad terms with the latter's founder, Nicolae Iorga
Nicolae Iorga
Nicolae Iorga was a Romanian historian, politician, literary critic, memoirist, poet and playwright. Co-founder of the Democratic Nationalist Party , he served as a member of Parliament, President of the Deputies' Assembly and Senate, cabinet minister and briefly as Prime Minister...
.
In 1936, he was the subject of a denunciation for "communist
Communism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
activities" and alleged links with the Comintern
Comintern
The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern, also known as the Third International, was an international communist organization initiated in Moscow during March 1919...
, which he dismissed as slander. Nevertheless, in 1938-1940, Galaction, like other figures on the Poporanist and socialist Left (among them Armand Călinescu
Armand Calinescu
Armand Călinescu was a Romanian economist and politician, who served as Prime Minister between March 1939 and the time of his death.-Early life:...
, Petre Andrei, Mihai Ralea, Ioan Flueraş
Ioan Flueras
Ioan Flueraş was a Romanian social democratic politician and a victim of the communist regime.-Early activities:...
, and Mihail Ghelmegeanu), was attracted into collaboration with the fascist
Fascism
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...
-inspired corporatist
Corporatism
Corporatism, also known as corporativism, is a system of economic, political, or social organization that involves association of the people of society into corporate groups, such as agricultural, business, ethnic, labor, military, patronage, or scientific affiliations, on the basis of common...
regime created, as a means to combat the influence of the pro-Nazi
Nazism
Nazism, the common short form name of National Socialism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany...
Iron Guard
Iron Guard
The Iron Guard is the name most commonly given to a far-right movement and political party in Romania in the period from 1927 into the early part of World War II. The Iron Guard was ultra-nationalist, fascist, anti-communist, and promoted the Orthodox Christian faith...
, around King
King of Romania
King of the Romanians , rather than King of Romania , was the official title of the ruler of the Kingdom of Romania from 1881 until 1947, when Romania was proclaimed a republic....
Carol II
Carol II of Romania
Carol II reigned as King of Romania from 8 June 1930 until 6 September 1940. Eldest son of Ferdinand, King of Romania, and his wife, Queen Marie, a daughter of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, the second eldest son of Queen Victoria...
and the National Renaissance Front
National Renaissance Front
The National Renaissance Front was a fascist Romanian political party created by King Carol II in 1938 as the single monopoly party of government following his decision to ban all other political parties and suspend the 1923 Constitution, and the passing of the 1938 Constitution of Romania...
. Upon the outbreak of the September Campaign
Invasion of Poland (1939)
The Invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign or 1939 Defensive War in Poland and the Poland Campaign in Germany, was an invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, and a small Slovak contingent that marked the start of World War II in Europe...
and World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, he wrote:
"The war has begun. HitlerAdolf HitlerAdolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
the monster or the demigodDemigodThe term "demigod" , meaning "half-god", is commonly used to describe mythological figures whose one parent was a god and whose other parent was human; as such, demigods are human-god hybrids...
, the lever of destiny or the Devil's puppet, has again lifted the banner of death amid the borders of peoples. Is he the forerunner and the prophet of better times, or the strixStrix (mythology)Strix was the Ancient Roman and Greek word for owl. In folklore it was considered a bird of ill omen that fed on human flesh and blood, a product of metamorphosis...
of downfalls and irremediable disasters? Are the Germans fighting for a better future, or for the narthexNarthexThe narthex of a church is the entrance or lobby area, located at the end of the nave, at the far end from the church's main altar. Traditionally the narthex was a part of the church building, but was not considered part of the church proper...
of barbarityBarbarianBarbarian and savage are terms used to refer to a person who is perceived to be uncivilized. The word is often used either in a general reference to a member of a nation or ethnos, typically a tribal society as seen by an urban civilization either viewed as inferior, or admired as a noble savage...
and for the death of Europe? This is yet another pathetic scrutiny! Christian peoplesChristendomChristendom, or the Christian world, has several meanings. In a cultural sense it refers to the worldwide community of Christians, adherents of Christianity...
turn their backs on The CalvaryCalvaryCalvary or Golgotha was the site, outside of ancient Jerusalem’s early first century walls, at which the crucifixion of Jesus is said to have occurred. Calvary and Golgotha are the English names for the site used in Western Christianity...
, disavow the laws of their upbringing and mock the Nine JoysSermon on the MountThe Sermon on the Mount is a collection of sayings and teachings of Jesus, which emphasizes his moral teaching found in the Gospel of Matthew...
! The De-ChristianizedNazism and religionThis article gives an overview about religion in Nazi Germany and the Nazis' complex and shifting policy towards religion."The German census of May 1939 indicates that 54 percent of Germans considered themselves Protestant and 40 percent considered themselves Catholic, with only 3.5 percent...
Germans and the Roman CatholicRoman Catholic ChurchThe Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
PolesSecond Polish RepublicThe Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
are equally vainglorious and lacking in Christian spirit."
1940s
The fall of Carol's rule and the establishment of the Iron Guard's National Legionary StateNational Legionary State
The National Legionary State was the Romanian government from September 6, 1940 to January 23, 1941. It was a single-party regime dictatorship dominated by the overtly fascist Iron Guard in uneasy conjunction with the head of government and Conducător Ion Antonescu, the leader of the Romanian...
saw Galaction's retreat from public life, prolonged after the Legionnaires' Rebellion
Legionnaires' Rebellion and Bucharest Pogrom
The Legionnaires' rebellion and the Bucharest pogrom occurred in Bucharest, Romania, between 21 and 23 January 1941.As the privileges of the Iron Guard were being cut off by Conducător Ion Antonescu, members of the Iron Guard, also known as the Legionnaires, revolted...
and the onset of Ion Antonescu
Ion Antonescu
Ion Victor Antonescu was a Romanian soldier, authoritarian politician and convicted war criminal. The Prime Minister and Conducător during most of World War II, he presided over two successive wartime dictatorships...
's dictatorship. In 1944, as the August 23 coup overthrew Antonescu, taking Romania out of the Axis camp
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
and opening the country to Soviet
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
influence, Galaction expressed his enthusiasm:
"The long-awaited hour has arrived during a night when our hearts were being estinguished with fear and our houses were falling apart... It has arrived after traveling a long way, passing among ruins, tombs, and smoke-covered towers... It is here!... Become an epoch, become a century, you long-awaited hour!"
Soon after, Galaction began collaborating with the Romanian Communist Party
Romanian Communist Party
The Romanian Communist Party was a communist political party in Romania. Successor to the Bolshevik wing of the Socialist Party of Romania, it gave ideological endorsement to communist revolution and the disestablishment of Greater Romania. The PCR was a minor and illegal grouping for much of the...
and its various organizations. In 1947, he replaced the purged Nichifor Crainic
Nichifor Crainic
Nichifor Crainic was a Romanian writer, editor, philosopher, poet and theologian famed for his traditionalist and antisemitic activities...
as a member of the Romanian Academy
Romanian Academy
The Romanian Academy is a cultural forum founded in Bucharest, Romania, in 1866. It covers the scientific, artistic and literary domains. The academy has 181 acting members who are elected for life....
, and was elected vice-president of the Writers' Union in the same year; Galaction was himself purged from the Academy later in the same year, and readmitted as an honorary member in 1948. Many times decorated, he was also elected to the Parliament of Romania
Parliament of Romania
The Parliament of Romania is made up of two chambers:*The Chamber of Deputies*The SenatePrior to the modifications of the Constitution in 2003, the two houses had identical attributes. A text of a law had to be approved by both houses...
(1946–1948), and to its successor, the Great National Assembly
Great National Assembly
The Great National Assembly was the legislature of the Romanian People's Republic and the Socialist Republic Romania. When Communism was overthrown in Romania in December 1989, the National Assembly was replaced by a bicameral parliament, made up of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.The Great...
(a legislative body of little actual relevance; 1948–1952).
Final years
One of the last causes he was involved in was the peace movementPeace movement
A peace movement is a social movement that seeks to achieve ideals such as the ending of a particular war , minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or type of situation, often linked to the goal of achieving world peace...
(in the context of the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
), with the intention of helping in the creation of a "supreme areopagus
Areopagus
The Areopagus or Areios Pagos is the "Rock of Ares", north-west of the Acropolis, which in classical times functioned as the high Court of Appeal for criminal and civil cases in Athens. Ares was supposed to have been tried here by the gods for the murder of Poseidon's son Alirrothios .The origin...
of peace". He was bedridden for the final years of his life, due to a stroke
Stroke
A stroke, previously known medically as a cerebrovascular accident , is the rapidly developing loss of brain function due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can be due to ischemia caused by blockage , or a hemorrhage...
; this probably accounted for the scarcity in criticism aimed at him during the Zhdanovist campaign
Zhdanov Doctrine
The Zhdanov Doctrine was a Soviet cultural doctrine developed by the Central Committee secretary Andrei Zhdanov in 1946. It proposed that the world was divided into two camps: the imperialistic, headed by the United States; and democratic, headed by the Soviet Union...
in Romania.
His Diary was only published, selectively, two decades after his death, under the Nicolae Ceauşescu
Nicolae Ceausescu
Nicolae Ceaușescu was a Romanian Communist politician. He was General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, and as such was the country's second and last Communist leader...
regime. The newer edition contains the censored
Censorship
thumb|[[Book burning]] following the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 coup]] that installed the [[Military government of Chile |Pinochet regime]] in Chile...
discourse of an embittered Galaction, who had become heavily critical of Stalinism
Stalinism
Stalinism refers to the ideology that Joseph Stalin conceived and implemented in the Soviet Union, and is generally considered a branch of Marxist–Leninist ideology but considered by some historians to be a significant deviation from this philosophy...
, while reviewing his own beliefs in an "Evangelical
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
and cloud-like" socialism.
Galaction was also noted for the support he gave to Constantin Galeriu, who later became a celebrated priest and theologian. Galeriu, who had been one of Galaction's favourite students, was rescued by the latter in 1952, after he was arrested and imprisoned at the Danube-Black Sea Canal
Danube-Black Sea Canal
The Danube – Black Sea Canal is a canal in Romania which runs from Cernavodă on the Danube to Agigea and Năvodari on the Black Sea...
(Galaction successfully called on Prime Minister Petru Groza
Petru Groza
Petru Groza was a Romanian politician, best known as the Prime Minister of the first Communist Party-dominated governments under Soviet occupation during the early stages of the Communist regime in Romania....
to intervene in his favor).
Personal life
Galaction had four daughters, one of whom, Maria or Mărioara, was married to Şerban Ţuculescu, the brother of painter Ion ŢuculescuIon Tuculescu
Ion Ţuculescu was a Romanian expressionist and abstract oil painter, although professionally he worked as a biologist and physician. His artwork became well-known posthumously, when, in the spring of 1965, a major retrospective exhibition revealed him as one of the important post-World War II...
in 1936; one was the actress Elena Galaction Stănciulescu and the other two, Magdalena and Lucreţia, married Italian
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
citizens — the husband of Luki Galaction (Galaction Passarelli or Galaction Sciarra), who was a painter and a writer, was Domenico Sciarra, a prominent figure of the Fascist regime
Italian Fascism
Italian Fascism also known as Fascism with a capital "F" refers to the original fascist ideology in Italy. This ideology is associated with the National Fascist Party which under Benito Mussolini ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 until 1943, the Republican Fascist Party which ruled the Italian...
(whom Gala Galaction was visiting in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
at the time of his denunciation).
A friend of Communist politician Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu
Lucretiu Patrascanu
Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu was a Romanian communist politician and leading member of the Communist Party of Romania , also noted for his activities as a lawyer, sociologist and economist. For a while, he was a professor at Bucharest University...
, Galaction helped his Jewish wife Herta Schwamen avoid anti-Semitic
Anti-Semitism
Antisemitism is suspicion of, hatred toward, or discrimination against Jews for reasons connected to their Jewish heritage. According to a 2005 U.S...
measures enforced in 1938 by the National Christian Party
National Christian Party
The National Christian Party was a Romanian political party, the product of a union between Octavian Goga's National Agrarian Party and A. C. Cuza's National-Christian Defense League; a prominent member of the party was the philosopher Nichifor Crainic...
government, baptizing
Baptism
In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
her Romanian Orthodox (she consequently took the Christian name Elena).
Galaction was a lifelong friend of the journalist Vasile Demetrius, whom he first collaborated with during the 1910s. He was also close to Vasile's daughter, the novelist and actress Lucia Demetrius, who expressed her gratitude for the moral support he gave her family after Vasile Demetrius died.
Relationship with the Jewish community
Galaction published articles in several Romanian-Jewish periodicals, such as Mântuirea (1919–1922), Lumea Evree (1919–1920), Ştiri din Lumea Evreiască (1924–1925) and Adam (1929–1939).His contributions were later collected in the volume Sionismul la Prieteni ("Zionism
Zionism
Zionism is a Jewish political movement that, in its broadest sense, has supported the self-determination of the Jewish people in a sovereign Jewish national homeland. Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the Zionist movement continues primarily to advocate on behalf of the Jewish state...
among Friends"), published in 1919. Alongside his praise for Theodor Herzl
Theodor Herzl
Theodor Herzl , born Benjamin Ze’ev Herzl was an Ashkenazi Jew Austro-Hungarian journalist and the father of modern political Zionism and in effect the State of Israel.-Early life:...
, whom he considered "the greatest Israelite
Israelite
According to the Bible the Israelites were a Hebrew-speaking people of the Ancient Near East who inhabited the Land of Canaan during the monarchic period .The word "Israelite" derives from the Biblical Hebrew ישראל...
in the modern world", he wrote:
"Whoever reads and loves the Bible cannot hate IsraelLand of IsraelThe Land of Israel is the Biblical name for the territory roughly corresponding to the area encompassed by the Southern Levant, also known as Canaan and Palestine, Promised Land and Holy Land. The belief that the area is a God-given homeland of the Jewish people is based on the narrative of the...
."
In 1930, he was a pilgrim
Pilgrimage
A pilgrimage is a journey or search of great moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine or other location of importance to a person's beliefs and faith...
to Jerusalem, visiting the British Mandate of Palestine together with his lifelong friend and brother-in-law of his daughter, the painter Ion Ţuculescu, and both their families. Reviewing his travel memoir În pământul făgăduinţei ("In the Promised Land
Promised land
The Promised Land is a term used to describe the land promised or given by God, according to the Hebrew Bible, to the Israelites, the descendants of Jacob. The promise is firstly made to Abraham and then renewed to his son Isaac, and to Isaac's son Jacob , Abraham's grandson...
"), Alexandru A. Philippide, a fellow writer at Viaţa Românească
Viata Româneasca
Viaţa Românească, originally Viaţa Romînească , is a monthly literary magazine published in Romania...
, thought that Galaction's attitude was linked to both his own theological outlook on tolerance and the branch of Christianity he represented:
"[A] tolerant character is, after all, what sets Orthodoxy apart. Father Galaction turns this into his point of honor. On the same ship as him there were many Jewish immigrants, setting for Palestine. «Brave soldiers of such a passionate and sacrifice-eager ideal!» exclaims Father Galaction. That is, indeed, an exclamation that goes beyond faith (or, in any case, stems from plaits of the soul other than faith)."
In late 1947, Galaction welcomed the more decisive steps taken towards the creation of Israel
Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel
The Israeli Declaration of Independence , made on 14 May 1948 , the day before the British Mandate was due to expire, was the announcement by David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, that the new Jewish state named the...
. Nowadays, in remembrance of his role, a square in Jerusalem bears his name.
Selected literary works
- Bisericuţa din Răzoare. Nuvele şi schiţe ("The Small Church in Răzoare. Short Stories and Literary Sketches"), 1914
- Eminescu ("The Life of Mihai EminescuMihai EminescuMihai Eminescu was a Romantic poet, novelist and journalist, often regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Eminescu was an active member of the Junimea literary society and he worked as an editor for the newspaper Timpul , the official newspaper of the Conservative Party...
"), 1914 - Clopotele din mănăstirea Neamţu ("Bells of the Neamţ MonasteryNeamt MonasteryThe Neamţ Monastery is a Romanian Orthodox religious settlement, one of the oldest and most important of its kind in Romania. It was built in 14th century, and it is an example of medieval Moldavian architecture...
"), 1916 - La ţărmul mărei (Reverii. Note) ("On the Seashore. Reveries and Notes"), 1916
- O lume nouă. Articole ("A New World. Articles"), 1919
- Răboj pe bradul verde ("Tally on Green-Wooded Fir"), 1920
- Toamne de odinioară ("Bygone Autumns"), 1924
- De la noi la Cladova ("From Us to Cladova"), 1924
- Caligraful Terţiu. Adevăr şi închipuire ("Terţiu the Calligrapher. Truth and Make-belief"), 1929
- Roxana. Roman ("Roxana. A Novel"), 1930
- Papucii lui Mahmud. Roman ("Mahmud's Slippers. A Novel"), 1931
- Doctorul Taifun. Roman ("Doctor Typhoon. A Novel"), 1933
- La răspântie de veacuri. Roman ("At the Crossroads of Centuries. A Novel"), 2 vol., 1935
- Riţa Crăiţa. Fantezie dramatică în trei acte ("Riţa Crăiţa. Fantasy Drama in Three Acts"), 1942
- În grădinile Sf. Antonie ("In Saint Anthony's Gardens"), 1942
- Vlahuţă ("The Life of Alexandru VlahuţăAlexandru VlahutaAlexandru Vlahuţă was a Romanian writer. His best known work is România pitorească, an overview of Romania's landscape in the form of a travelogue. He was also the main editor of Sămănătorul magazine, alongside George Coşbuc....
"), 1944 - MangaliaMangaliaMangalia , is a city and a port on the coast of the Black Sea in the south-east of Constanţa County, Romania.The municipality of Mangalia also administers several summer time seaside resorts: Cap Aurora, Jupiter, Neptun, Olimp, Saturn, Venus.-History:...
, 1947