Dominium mundi
Encyclopedia
Dominium mundi is an idea of universal dominion developed in the Middle Ages
. Inspired by the memory of the Roman Empire
, dominium mundi implied the recognition of one supreme authority, which generated a prolonged political and spiritual struggle between imperial and ecclesiastical power. This struggle can be said to have begun with the Investiture Controversy
, and was mainly embodied by the Holy Roman Empire
and Catholic Church, who elevated the emperor
and Pope
, respectively, to the status of supreme ruler. The idea of universal dominion divided Italy
into the warring faction of Guelphs and Ghibellines
. Guelphs supported the Church, while Ghibellines supported the Empire. After two hundred years of division during the 12th and 13th centuries, neither of the powers had prevailed, due to their mutual dependency and the rise of the powerful and practically independent reigns of Church and the State
. The idea of dominium mundi did not reappear in its original form, despite the fact that both universal power
s subsisted.
(1152-1190), the imperial idea had already reached maturity. Its continuity was emphasized in Europe
from the Roman times, through the Carolingian Empire
link. In fact, Frederick I spoke about Charlemagne
as the model of emperors and had him canonized in 1165 without the requirements. The thesis on the public sovereignty that Roman law
(rediscovered by the European jurists and politicians in the twelfth century) contains were also used in favor of the imperial ideas. It was of them that it was deduced the unicity and the universal character of the Holy Roman Empire
, considered "a project of worldwide dominion" that symbolizes the whole period. Given these premises, it was believed in the court of Frederick I that the Empire, established directly by divine will as a form of political organization of humanity
, was sacred. The expression Sacrum Imperium appears for the first time in a document of 1157.
In a different plane, it cannot be forgotten that the 12th century saw the beginning of the revitalization of the monarchic power over feudalism
, after several centuries of deep decay of the royal authority. The Empire did not stay at the margin of this evolution, recovering strongly its prestige. Nevertheless it was badly managed, causing important consequences for the political future of the territories of Germany
and Italy
. The reconstruction of the monarchies also went against the projected Dominium Mundi. Because of this, Frederick I, as well as his son and successor Henry VI
, tried to conciliate both events imagining a universal temporal empire, at whose front was an emperor with supreme authority, superior to the power of various kings, called "régulos" or "local kings". This supreme authority seemed necessary, because it was believed that the Empire was the way to maintain unity in Christianity in preparation for the end times
. Without considering this eschatological
and messianic
element, one cannot correctly understand what the Empire meant for the men of the time, in particular for emperor Frederick I.
The foundations of the ecclesiastical vision can be exemplified by these sources:
sparked a new era for the legal ordering of the western world
. This deeply influenced the politics of the time, especially in the course of the struggle of the Dominium Mundi between the Empire and the Pontificate.
The Roman law known by the medieval Europe was exclusively the compilation made by the emperor Justinian in the 6th century, which consists of several differentiated parts:
Of all these, the one of greatest influence in the medieval rediscovery was the Digest. The Justinian work would, starting in the 16th century, be known as Corpus Iuris Civilis, but at the time it lacked diffusion and was known through compendiums that deformed it.
The renaissance in Roman studies during the 12th and 13th centuries that would influence all of Europe, occurred in Bologna
, a city in the Italian Romagna
. It wasn't small, in this diffusion, the role of the romano-Germanic emperors, who were moved by their political interests as much as by their supposed condition of successors to the old Roman Empire
. The teachers of this most famous "school of Bologna" acted according to a method of medieval study, the one of glosses or commentary of the content and meaning of justinian texts. They are not critical commentaries, but rather, analytical. The bolognian professors accept justinian law as something superior, even supreme; they are limited to comment on it, without too much critical baggage, because for that they needed philological
command of Greek language
and study of original texts and historical knowledge, in which they were lacking. But from their commentary fundamental consequences for the Europe of the time are deduced, by the creation of a rich casuistry
that covered a field of superior and more ample legal hypothesis from what was widely known until then. The foundation of this school of bolognian professors is due to Irnerius
at the beginning of the 12th century. Disciples of his were Hugo de Porta Ravennate, Bulgarus
, Jacobus de Boragine and Martinus Gosia
, called "the four doctors" because of their wisdom and influences. All of them were Ghibellines (supported the idea of the Empire
being over the pontificate) and in favor of Federick I
, of whom they were contemporary.
Around the same time, with some decades of difference, a systematization of the ecclesiastical law took place, which was going to give birth to the canon law in all its fullness. Romanists and canon lawyers were brothers of mentality and duties, although the later defended the pontifical rights. The first one to compile and systematize the previous universal council canons was Graciano
, a bolognian theology
teacher, who wrote ca. 1140 his Concordance of the Discordances of the Canons, commonly called Decree. The work of Graciano did not have official status, but it reached great prestige and caused in the following decades a height in legal consultations formulated to the pontiff
s, something to be expected at a time of insufficient organization of the civil power. These answered by means of litteras decretals or "decretal
s", whose compilation became necessary, as the only way to use and preserve the jurisprudential wealth they contained, since they not only affected ecclesiastical matters, but also those of civilians and seculars.
The first compilation was made by Raymond of Peñafort
, a Dominican
Catalan
, and is named Gregory IX Decretals; it reunites the decretals appeared between 1154 and 1234 and is divided in five books, this being the reason the following compilation, which includes material up until 1298, was known Liber sextus ("Sixth book"). In the 14th century new compilations were made, Clementines, and the Extravagantes
, of John XXII and Comunas. From the 16th century on, all canon law in its recognized compendiums will take the official name of Corpus iuris canonici. Tee Decree of pontifical Graciano and the Decretals were commented by the same procedure of glosses as was applied to the Roman law. Some of the main glossists played a decisive role in the struggle against the Empire: Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III) and Sinibaldo Fieschi (Pope Innocent IV
). The synthesis of the glosses was made, mainly, by Bartholomew de Brescia, in the 12th century, and also by Juan the Teutónico, in the 13th century, of Hugh of Pisa and Henry of Segusio
.
, after having gone in aid of the Pontiff Eugene III, Federick I summoned a diet in Besançon
(1157), with object to reform the political statute of his kingdom in Arles
. In that diet the first differences between the high civil employees of the emperor, in special took place the chancellor Rainaldo de Dassel, and the pontifical legacy, and future Pope Alexander III
, Rolando Bandinelli. The complaint between theocrats and avivava, being the pretext the interpretation of a papal document in which it was alluded to the "benefits" that Pontiff
granted to emperor
. The word "benefit", in that then, had a very specific meaning, because vassals were the ones who received benefits or fiefs
from their lord. To thus Rainaldo de Dassel understood it and, put forth the argument that, Rolando Bandinelli did not gain a disadvantage in accepting the thesis of its rival: in effect, for him, the emperor received the Empire as a "benefit" of the Pope
. Adrian IV, the Pope of English origin that crowned emperor Federick I, clarified later that the word had a more general sense: the Pope granted spiritual benefits, not fiefdom
s. But the complaint had been revived, and when Rolando Bandinelli was raised to the pontifical seat as Alexander III
, it was as a true restorer of papal authority
(in the spirit of Pope Gregory VII
). Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the Gregorian times. In first half of the 12th century, mainly, some authors continued the theses of Gregory VII
, like Hugo of San Victor, John of Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the predominant theories assimilate in some form the new realities: rediscovery of the Roman Law
, affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the "trinitarian society" (politicians, the military and agriculturists).
In 1158 took place the second travels imperial to Italy
. Shortly after, the death of Adrian IV opened a successory crisis in the pontificate. Around both facts the first propitious conjuncture
for the confrontation between emperor
and Pope
takes place. Frederick tried to subjugate the Lombard cities. Milan
was raised at the top of this new urban world. The emperor besieged it and forced it to capitulate, preserving its internal autonomy but accepting totally the imperial authority. Next, Frederick reunited to one magna assembly in Roncaglia with the purpose of reorganizing the administration of the kingdom of Italy
and recovering in him all his authority. It seemed to obtain it, but the resistance against its measures would raise to the cities and would renew its old "entente" with the Pontiff, for whom the constitution of an imperial power hard in the north and center of Italy was more serious the immediate danger against its political independence.
, while the three that preferred to reconcile gave their vote to cardinal Octavian, who was titled Victor IV. The split allowed Federick to attempt a conciliation in Pavia
(January of 1160), where Pope Victor IV was recognized, while Alexander III looked for support in the Norman kingdom of the south of Italy, whose kings were vassals of The Holy See, and in other European countries, to foment opposition against the emperor. Milan
again revolted in 1161, but it was conquered by force of arms and devastated; shortly after, Alexander III was forced to divide for France
. Federick won, but Alexander was the Pope
recognized by Europe
, except for the Empire, and, even so, he counted within this one frightful allies, in particular in Italy
, where the emperor and his chancellors, Rainaldo de Dassel and Christian de Bach, organized authoritarian government
to counter the old local autonomies, that were not resigned to accept their new lot without resistance.
s that made choose to happen to him (Paschal III
, Callixtus III
) did not have possible justification nor were recognized willingly by his own German clergy, since the Emperor
took advantage of the circumstances to intervene himself in the ecclesiastical life like at the worse moments of "Investiture Controversy
": In 1165, synod of Würzburg
and Canonization
of Charlemagne
was the culmination of imperial interventionism. In addition, the dispute with Alexander III forced him to make concessions and to obtain alliances in Germany
as well as in other countries. Great German nobles made Frederick pay dearly for their fidelity and, in the outside, Federick looked for so much the French alliance, never obtained, like the English, taking advantage of the existing fight between the king Henry II of England
and the Archbishop of Canterbury
, Thomas Becket
.
. First conflict with the Pope
. The Scandinavian churches are separated from Hamburg
.
1153: Treaty of Constance between Frederick and Eugene III.
1154: Frederick in Italy
; decree of Roncaglia. Violence against the Italian communes. Adrian IV, the Pope.
1156: Imperial coronation of Frederick. Revolt of Rome
and retreat of the emperor, who restitutes Bavaria
to Henry the Lion
. Alliance between Adrian IV and William I of Sicily
. Concordato de Benevento. Austria
, independent countship.
1157 : Assembly of Besançon. Rupture between emperor
and the Pope.
1158 : Shaken and punishment of Milan
. Diet of Roncaglia.
1159 : New revolt of Milan. Siege of Crema, Italy
. Death of Adrian IV. Alexander III, Pope, and Victor IV, antipope
.
1160 : Storming and destruction of Crema. Beginning of the siege of Milan. Assembly of Pavia.
1162 : Taking and destruction of Milan. Alliance of Frederick with Pisa
and Genoa
against William I of Sicily
. Project of interview between Federick and Louis VII of France
to end the schism. Thomas Becket
, archbishop of Canterbury.
1162 - 1165 : The German clergy happens to the party of Alexander III.
1163 : Concil of Tours.
1164 : Venice
forms the so called League of Verona against Federick. Death of the antipope Victor IV, happening Paschal III to him.
1165 : Diet of Würzburg. Persecution against those in favor of Alexander III. Henry II of England
breaks with Alexander III and recognizes Paschal III.
1167 : Federick seizes Rome. Formation of Lombard League
, that is allied to the one of Verona.
1168 : Foundation of Alexandria
in Piedmont by the cities lombardas in honor of Alexander III. Death of Paschal III.
1170 : Lombard League
is put under the protection of Alexander III. Negotiations of Veroli between the Pope and the emperor.
1174 - 1175 : Siege of Alexandria by Federick.
1175 : Truce of Montebello.
1176 : Frederick is defeated at the Battle of Legnano
by the Italian communes. Conversations of Agnani with Pope Alexander III.
1177 : Peace of Venice
.
1179 : Rupture between the emperor and Henry the Lion
. I conciliate of Letrán: reorganization of the papal election.
1180 : War against Henry the Lion.
1181 : Reconciliation between Federick and Henry the Lion. Death of Alexander III.
1183 : Preliminaries of Plasencia and peace of Constanza.
1184 : Diet of Mainz
: wedding of Henry
and Constance of Sicily
. Diet of Verona.
1185 : Alliance between Federick and Milan.
1186 : Rupture between Urban and Frederick. Assembly of Gelnhausen.
1188 : Reconciliation of the Pope with the Roman commune.
1189 : Reconciliation between Pope and emperor. Death of William II of Sicily
; it happens the son of the emperor and future to him Enrique IV.
1190 : Third Crusade
: death of Federick in Asia Minor
.
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
. Inspired by the memory of the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
, dominium mundi implied the recognition of one supreme authority, which generated a prolonged political and spiritual struggle between imperial and ecclesiastical power. This struggle can be said to have begun with the Investiture Controversy
Investiture Controversy
The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of Popes challenged the authority of European monarchies over control of appointments, or investitures, of church officials such...
, and was mainly embodied by the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
and Catholic Church, who elevated the emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
and Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
, respectively, to the status of supreme ruler. The idea of universal dominion divided Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
into the warring faction of Guelphs and Ghibellines
Guelphs and Ghibellines
The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, respectively, in central and northern Italy. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the split between these two parties was a particularly important aspect of the internal policy of the Italian city-states...
. Guelphs supported the Church, while Ghibellines supported the Empire. After two hundred years of division during the 12th and 13th centuries, neither of the powers had prevailed, due to their mutual dependency and the rise of the powerful and practically independent reigns of Church and the State
Separation of church and state (medieval)
The relationship between the Church and the feudal states during the medieval period went through a number of developments, roughly from the end of the Roman Empire through to the beginning of the Reformation...
. The idea of dominium mundi did not reappear in its original form, despite the fact that both universal power
Universal power
In the Middle Ages, the term universal powers referred to the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope. Both were struggling for the so-called Dominium mundi, or world dominium, in terms of political and spiritual supremacy...
s subsisted.
The imperial idea
Height and sustenance
At the time of the reign of Frederick IFrederick I, Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa was a German Holy Roman Emperor. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March, crowned King of Italy in Pavia in 1155, and finally crowned Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV, on 18 June 1155, and two years later in 1157 the term...
(1152-1190), the imperial idea had already reached maturity. Its continuity was emphasized in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
from the Roman times, through the Carolingian Empire
Carolingian Empire
Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term which has been used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty in the Early Middle Ages. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany, and its beginning date is based on the crowning of Charlemagne, or Charles the...
link. In fact, Frederick I spoke about Charlemagne
Charlemagne
Charlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans from 800 to his death in 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800...
as the model of emperors and had him canonized in 1165 without the requirements. The thesis on the public sovereignty that Roman law
Roman law
Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, and the legal developments which occurred before the 7th century AD — when the Roman–Byzantine state adopted Greek as the language of government. The development of Roman law comprises more than a thousand years of jurisprudence — from the Twelve...
(rediscovered by the European jurists and politicians in the twelfth century) contains were also used in favor of the imperial ideas. It was of them that it was deduced the unicity and the universal character of the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
, considered "a project of worldwide dominion" that symbolizes the whole period. Given these premises, it was believed in the court of Frederick I that the Empire, established directly by divine will as a form of political organization of humanity
Human Race
Human Race refers to the Human species.Human race may also refer to:*The Human Race, 79th episode of YuYu Hakusho* Human Race Theatre Company of Dayton Ohio* Human Race Machine, a computer graphics device...
, was sacred. The expression Sacrum Imperium appears for the first time in a document of 1157.
Feudalism
Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.Although derived from the...
, after several centuries of deep decay of the royal authority. The Empire did not stay at the margin of this evolution, recovering strongly its prestige. Nevertheless it was badly managed, causing important consequences for the political future of the territories of Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
. The reconstruction of the monarchies also went against the projected Dominium Mundi. Because of this, Frederick I, as well as his son and successor Henry VI
Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor
Henry VI was King of Germany from 1190 to 1197, Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 to 1197 and King of Sicily from 1194 to 1197.-Early years:Born in Nijmegen,...
, tried to conciliate both events imagining a universal temporal empire, at whose front was an emperor with supreme authority, superior to the power of various kings, called "régulos" or "local kings". This supreme authority seemed necessary, because it was believed that the Empire was the way to maintain unity in Christianity in preparation for the end times
End times
The end time, end times, or end of days is a time period described in the eschatological writings in the three Abrahamic religions and in doomsday scenarios in various other non-Abrahamic religions...
. Without considering this eschatological
Eschatology
Eschatology is a part of theology, philosophy, and futurology concerned with what are believed to be the final events in history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world or the World to Come...
and messianic
Messiah
A messiah is a redeemer figure expected or foretold in one form or another by a religion. Slightly more widely, a messiah is any redeemer figure. Messianic beliefs or theories generally relate to eschatological improvement of the state of humanity or the world, in other words the World to...
element, one cannot correctly understand what the Empire meant for the men of the time, in particular for emperor Frederick I.
The vision of the Church
- According to Pope Alexander IIIPope Alexander IIIPope Alexander III , born Rolando of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.-Church career:...
: "The unicity of the creation also implies the unicity of the supreme authority on all the creatures. This had to belong to the PopePopeThe Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
because of the superiority of his spiritual power and because the eternal salvation, that he promoted, was the prime social aim. " - According to Summa Coloniensis (1170 text): "The Pope is the true emperor, the emperor being his effective vicar." (imperator Papa verus est, imperator est vicarius eius).
- According to Geroh de Reichersberg and the great canon lawyers like GracianoGracianoGraciano is a Spanish red wine grape that is grown primarily in Rioja. The vine produces a low yield that are normally harvested in late October. The wine produces is characterized by its deep red color, strong aroma and ability to age well...
and HuguccioHuguccioHuguccio was an Italian canon lawyer . His major non-legal work is the Magnae Derivationes or Liber derivationum, dealing with etymologies, based on the earlier Derivationes of Osbernus of Gloucester.He studied at Bologna, probably under Gandolphus, and taught canon law in the same city, perhaps...
: "The lay temporary power had independent operation, being able to choose those who exerted it either by means of election or inheritance, as well as to develop its own administrative means without interferences. The Pope conserved, nevertheless, a supreme authority, but he could only exert it to sanction or to authenticate the political acts, not to stop or modify them nor to directly act, except for moral or religious reasons (ratione peccati: "because of sinSinIn religion, sin is the violation or deviation of an eternal divine law or standard. The term sin may also refer to the state of having committed such a violation. Christians believe the moral code of conduct is decreed by God In religion, sin (also called peccancy) is the violation or deviation...
s") or when it was necessary to dissolve an issue for which no other power of the world was authorized."
Roman law
In the 12th and 13th centuries the rediscovery of old Roman law and the ordenación of the canon lawCanon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
sparked a new era for the legal ordering of the western world
Western world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
. This deeply influenced the politics of the time, especially in the course of the struggle of the Dominium Mundi between the Empire and the Pontificate.
The Roman law known by the medieval Europe was exclusively the compilation made by the emperor Justinian in the 6th century, which consists of several differentiated parts:
- The Digest or Pandectas, compendium of jurisprudence.
- The Institutions or a manual of study which, in part, summarizes the previous one.
- The "Justinian Code", that reunites all the constitutions by the emperors starting from the times of HadrianHadrianHadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
. - The Novels, or imperial constitutions after the year 53.
The renaissance in Roman studies during the 12th and 13th centuries that would influence all of Europe, occurred in Bologna
Bologna
Bologna is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna, in the Po Valley of Northern Italy. The city lies between the Po River and the Apennine Mountains, more specifically, between the Reno River and the Savena River. Bologna is a lively and cosmopolitan Italian college city, with spectacular history,...
, a city in the Italian Romagna
Romagna
Romagna is an Italian historical region that approximately corresponds to the south-eastern portion of present-day Emilia-Romagna. Traditionally, it is limited by the Apennines to the south-west, the Adriatic to the east, and the rivers Reno and Sillaro to the north and west...
. It wasn't small, in this diffusion, the role of the romano-Germanic emperors, who were moved by their political interests as much as by their supposed condition of successors to the old Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. The teachers of this most famous "school of Bologna" acted according to a method of medieval study, the one of glosses or commentary of the content and meaning of justinian texts. They are not critical commentaries, but rather, analytical. The bolognian professors accept justinian law as something superior, even supreme; they are limited to comment on it, without too much critical baggage, because for that they needed philological
Philology
Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics.Classical philology is the philology of Greek and Classical Latin...
command of Greek language
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
and study of original texts and historical knowledge, in which they were lacking. But from their commentary fundamental consequences for the Europe of the time are deduced, by the creation of a rich casuistry
Casuistry
In applied ethics, casuistry is case-based reasoning. Casuistry is used in juridical and ethical discussions of law and ethics, and often is a critique of principle- or rule-based reasoning...
that covered a field of superior and more ample legal hypothesis from what was widely known until then. The foundation of this school of bolognian professors is due to Irnerius
Irnerius
Irnerius , sometimes referred to as lucerna juris , was an Italian jurist, and founder of the School of Glossators and thus of the tradition of Medieval Roman Law....
at the beginning of the 12th century. Disciples of his were Hugo de Porta Ravennate, Bulgarus
Bulgarus
Bulgarus was a twelfth century Italian jurist, born at Bologna. He is sometimes erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of the 15th century....
, Jacobus de Boragine and Martinus Gosia
Martinus Gosia
Martinus Gosia was one of the glossators and a 12th century Italian jurist, counted among the Four Doctors of Bologna, the others being Bulgarus, Hugo de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine....
, called "the four doctors" because of their wisdom and influences. All of them were Ghibellines (supported the idea of the Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
being over the pontificate) and in favor of Federick I
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa was a German Holy Roman Emperor. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March, crowned King of Italy in Pavia in 1155, and finally crowned Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV, on 18 June 1155, and two years later in 1157 the term...
, of whom they were contemporary.
Canon law
Graciano
Graciano is a Spanish red wine grape that is grown primarily in Rioja. The vine produces a low yield that are normally harvested in late October. The wine produces is characterized by its deep red color, strong aroma and ability to age well...
, a bolognian theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
teacher, who wrote ca. 1140 his Concordance of the Discordances of the Canons, commonly called Decree. The work of Graciano did not have official status, but it reached great prestige and caused in the following decades a height in legal consultations formulated to the pontiff
Pontiff
A pontiff was, in Roman antiquity, a member of the principal college of priests . The term "pontiff" was later applied to any high or chief priest and, in ecclesiastical usage, to a bishop and more particularly to the Bishop of Rome, the Pope or "Roman Pontiff".-Etymology:The English term derives...
s, something to be expected at a time of insufficient organization of the civil power. These answered by means of litteras decretals or "decretal
Decretal
Decretals is the name that is given in Canon law to those letters of the pope which formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law.They are generally given in answer to consultations, but are sometimes due to the initiative of the popes...
s", whose compilation became necessary, as the only way to use and preserve the jurisprudential wealth they contained, since they not only affected ecclesiastical matters, but also those of civilians and seculars.
The first compilation was made by Raymond of Peñafort
Raymond of Peñafort
Saint Raymond of Penyafort, O.P. is a Dominican friar who compiled the Decretals of Gregory IX, a collection of canon laws that remained part of church law until the Code of Canon Law was promulgated in 1917...
, a Dominican
Dominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
Catalan
Catalan people
The Catalans or Catalonians are the people from, or with origins in, Catalonia that form a historical nationality in Spain. The inhabitants of the adjacent portion of southern France are sometimes included in this definition...
, and is named Gregory IX Decretals; it reunites the decretals appeared between 1154 and 1234 and is divided in five books, this being the reason the following compilation, which includes material up until 1298, was known Liber sextus ("Sixth book"). In the 14th century new compilations were made, Clementines, and the Extravagantes
Extravagantes
The term Extravagantes is applied to the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church, to designate some papal decretals not contained in certain canonical collections which possess a special authority...
, of John XXII and Comunas. From the 16th century on, all canon law in its recognized compendiums will take the official name of Corpus iuris canonici. Tee Decree of pontifical Graciano and the Decretals were commented by the same procedure of glosses as was applied to the Roman law. Some of the main glossists played a decisive role in the struggle against the Empire: Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III) and Sinibaldo Fieschi (Pope Innocent IV
Pope Innocent IV
Pope Innocent IV , born Sinibaldo Fieschi, was pope from June 25, 1243 until his death in 1254.-Early life:...
). The synthesis of the glosses was made, mainly, by Bartholomew de Brescia, in the 12th century, and also by Juan the Teutónico, in the 13th century, of Hugh of Pisa and Henry of Segusio
Henry of Segusio
Henry of Segusio, usually called Hostiensis, 1 was an Italian canonist of the thirteenth century, born at Susa , in the ancient Diocese of Turin. He died at Lyon.-Life:...
.
Development of the conflict
The diet of Besançon and the first differences
On his return from ItalyItaly
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, after having gone in aid of the Pontiff Eugene III, Federick I summoned a diet in Besançon
Besançon
Besançon , is the capital and principal city of the Franche-Comté region in eastern France. It had a population of about 237,000 inhabitants in the metropolitan area in 2008...
(1157), with object to reform the political statute of his kingdom in Arles
Arles
Arles is a city and commune in the south of France, in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, of which it is a subprefecture, in the former province of Provence....
. In that diet the first differences between the high civil employees of the emperor, in special took place the chancellor Rainaldo de Dassel, and the pontifical legacy, and future Pope Alexander III
Pope Alexander III
Pope Alexander III , born Rolando of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.-Church career:...
, Rolando Bandinelli. The complaint between theocrats and avivava, being the pretext the interpretation of a papal document in which it was alluded to the "benefits" that Pontiff
Pontiff
A pontiff was, in Roman antiquity, a member of the principal college of priests . The term "pontiff" was later applied to any high or chief priest and, in ecclesiastical usage, to a bishop and more particularly to the Bishop of Rome, the Pope or "Roman Pontiff".-Etymology:The English term derives...
granted to emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
. The word "benefit", in that then, had a very specific meaning, because vassals were the ones who received benefits or fiefs
Fiefdom
A fee was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable lands granted under one of several varieties of feudal tenure by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the...
from their lord. To thus Rainaldo de Dassel understood it and, put forth the argument that, Rolando Bandinelli did not gain a disadvantage in accepting the thesis of its rival: in effect, for him, the emperor received the Empire as a "benefit" of the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
. Adrian IV, the Pope of English origin that crowned emperor Federick I, clarified later that the word had a more general sense: the Pope granted spiritual benefits, not fiefdom
Fiefdom
A fee was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable lands granted under one of several varieties of feudal tenure by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the...
s. But the complaint had been revived, and when Rolando Bandinelli was raised to the pontifical seat as Alexander III
Pope Alexander III
Pope Alexander III , born Rolando of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.-Church career:...
, it was as a true restorer of papal authority
Theocracy
Theocracy is a form of organization in which the official policy is to be governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided, or simply pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religious sect or religion....
(in the spirit of Pope Gregory VII
Pope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
). Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the Gregorian times. In first half of the 12th century, mainly, some authors continued the theses of Gregory VII
Pope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
, like Hugo of San Victor, John of Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the predominant theories assimilate in some form the new realities: rediscovery of the Roman Law
Roman law
Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, and the legal developments which occurred before the 7th century AD — when the Roman–Byzantine state adopted Greek as the language of government. The development of Roman law comprises more than a thousand years of jurisprudence — from the Twelve...
, affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the "trinitarian society" (politicians, the military and agriculturists).
Frederick I against Alexander III
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
. Shortly after, the death of Adrian IV opened a successory crisis in the pontificate. Around both facts the first propitious conjuncture
Conjuncture
In general, a conjuncture is a period marked by some watershed event which separates different epochs.In economics, conjuncture is a critical combination of events....
for the confrontation between emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
and Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
takes place. Frederick tried to subjugate the Lombard cities. Milan
Milan
Milan is the second-largest city in Italy and the capital city of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while its urban area, roughly coinciding with its administrative province and the bordering Province of Monza and Brianza ,...
was raised at the top of this new urban world. The emperor besieged it and forced it to capitulate, preserving its internal autonomy but accepting totally the imperial authority. Next, Frederick reunited to one magna assembly in Roncaglia with the purpose of reorganizing the administration of the kingdom of Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and recovering in him all his authority. It seemed to obtain it, but the resistance against its measures would raise to the cities and would renew its old "entente" with the Pontiff, for whom the constitution of an imperial power hard in the north and center of Italy was more serious the immediate danger against its political independence.
Pope and antipope
When Adrian IV died, the 24 cardinals in favor of opposing the dominion of Federick I in Italy chose Pope Alexander IIIPope Alexander III
Pope Alexander III , born Rolando of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.-Church career:...
, while the three that preferred to reconcile gave their vote to cardinal Octavian, who was titled Victor IV. The split allowed Federick to attempt a conciliation in Pavia
Pavia
Pavia , the ancient Ticinum, is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It is the capital of the province of Pavia. It has a population of c. 71,000...
(January of 1160), where Pope Victor IV was recognized, while Alexander III looked for support in the Norman kingdom of the south of Italy, whose kings were vassals of The Holy See, and in other European countries, to foment opposition against the emperor. Milan
Milan
Milan is the second-largest city in Italy and the capital city of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while its urban area, roughly coinciding with its administrative province and the bordering Province of Monza and Brianza ,...
again revolted in 1161, but it was conquered by force of arms and devastated; shortly after, Alexander III was forced to divide for France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. Federick won, but Alexander was the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
recognized by Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, except for the Empire, and, even so, he counted within this one frightful allies, in particular in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, where the emperor and his chancellors, Rainaldo de Dassel and Christian de Bach, organized authoritarian government
Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a form of social organization characterized by submission to authority. It is usually opposed to individualism and democracy...
to counter the old local autonomies, that were not resigned to accept their new lot without resistance.
Culmination of the imperial intervention
The death of Victor IV also deprived Frederick of an important support, because antipopeAntipope
An antipope is a person who opposes a legitimately elected or sitting Pope and makes a significantly accepted competing claim to be the Pope, the Bishop of Rome and leader of the Roman Catholic Church. At times between the 3rd and mid-15th century, antipopes were typically those supported by a...
s that made choose to happen to him (Paschal III
Antipope Paschal III
Antipope Paschal III was Antipope from 1164 to 20 September 1168.His real name was Guido of Crema. Paschal III was the second of the antipopes to challenge the reign of Pope Alexander III. In 1164, a small number of cardinals who had elected Victor IV met again to vote Paschal III as his successor...
, Callixtus III
Antipope Callixtus III
Antipope Callixtus III or Callistus III was Antipope from September 1168 to 29 August 1178.His real name was Giovanni, Abbot of Struma...
) did not have possible justification nor were recognized willingly by his own German clergy, since the Emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
took advantage of the circumstances to intervene himself in the ecclesiastical life like at the worse moments of "Investiture Controversy
Investiture Controversy
The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of Popes challenged the authority of European monarchies over control of appointments, or investitures, of church officials such...
": In 1165, synod of Würzburg
Würzburg
Würzburg is a city in the region of Franconia which lies in the northern tip of Bavaria, Germany. Located at the Main River, it is the capital of the Regierungsbezirk Lower Franconia. The regional dialect is Franconian....
and Canonization
Canonization
Canonization is the act by which a Christian church declares a deceased person to be a saint, upon which declaration the person is included in the canon, or list, of recognized saints. Originally, individuals were recognized as saints without any formal process...
of Charlemagne
Charlemagne
Charlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans from 800 to his death in 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800...
was the culmination of imperial interventionism. In addition, the dispute with Alexander III forced him to make concessions and to obtain alliances in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
as well as in other countries. Great German nobles made Frederick pay dearly for their fidelity and, in the outside, Federick looked for so much the French alliance, never obtained, like the English, taking advantage of the existing fight between the king Henry II of England
Henry II of England
Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
and the Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
, Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. He is venerated as a saint and martyr by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion...
.
Pontificate and Empire at the time of Frederick I
1152: Frederick succeeds Conrad IIIConrad III of Germany
Conrad III was the first King of Germany of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. He was the son of Frederick I, Duke of Swabia, and Agnes, a daughter of the Salian Emperor Henry IV.-Life and reign:...
. First conflict with the Pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
. The Scandinavian churches are separated from Hamburg
Hamburg
-History:The first historic name for the city was, according to Claudius Ptolemy's reports, Treva.But the city takes its modern name, Hamburg, from the first permanent building on the site, a castle whose construction was ordered by the Emperor Charlemagne in AD 808...
.
1153: Treaty of Constance between Frederick and Eugene III.
1154: Frederick in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
; decree of Roncaglia. Violence against the Italian communes. Adrian IV, the Pope.
1156: Imperial coronation of Frederick. Revolt of Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
and retreat of the emperor, who restitutes Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
to Henry the Lion
Henry the Lion
Henry the Lion was a member of the Welf dynasty and Duke of Saxony, as Henry III, from 1142, and Duke of Bavaria, as Henry XII, from 1156, which duchies he held until 1180....
. Alliance between Adrian IV and William I of Sicily
William I of Sicily
William I , called the Bad or the Wicked, was the second king of Sicily, ruling from his father's death in 1154 to his own...
. Concordato de Benevento. Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, independent countship.
1157 : Assembly of Besançon. Rupture between emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
and the Pope.
1158 : Shaken and punishment of Milan
Milan
Milan is the second-largest city in Italy and the capital city of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while its urban area, roughly coinciding with its administrative province and the bordering Province of Monza and Brianza ,...
. Diet of Roncaglia.
1159 : New revolt of Milan. Siege of Crema, Italy
Crema, Italy
Crema is a town and comune in the province of Cremona, in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. It is built along the river Serio at 43 km from Cremona. It is also the seat of a Catholic Bishop, who gave to Crema the title of city...
. Death of Adrian IV. Alexander III, Pope, and Victor IV, antipope
Antipope
An antipope is a person who opposes a legitimately elected or sitting Pope and makes a significantly accepted competing claim to be the Pope, the Bishop of Rome and leader of the Roman Catholic Church. At times between the 3rd and mid-15th century, antipopes were typically those supported by a...
.
1160 : Storming and destruction of Crema. Beginning of the siege of Milan. Assembly of Pavia.
1162 : Taking and destruction of Milan. Alliance of Frederick with Pisa
Pisa
Pisa is a city in Tuscany, Central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the River Arno on the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa...
and Genoa
Genoa
Genoa |Ligurian]] Zena ; Latin and, archaically, English Genua) is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria....
against William I of Sicily
William I of Sicily
William I , called the Bad or the Wicked, was the second king of Sicily, ruling from his father's death in 1154 to his own...
. Project of interview between Federick and Louis VII of France
Louis VII of France
Louis VII was King of France, the son and successor of Louis VI . He ruled from 1137 until his death. He was a member of the House of Capet. His reign was dominated by feudal struggles , and saw the beginning of the long rivalry between France and England...
to end the schism. Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket
Thomas Becket was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. He is venerated as a saint and martyr by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion...
, archbishop of Canterbury.
1162 - 1165 : The German clergy happens to the party of Alexander III.
1163 : Concil of Tours.
1164 : Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
forms the so called League of Verona against Federick. Death of the antipope Victor IV, happening Paschal III to him.
1165 : Diet of Würzburg. Persecution against those in favor of Alexander III. Henry II of England
Henry II of England
Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
breaks with Alexander III and recognizes Paschal III.
1167 : Federick seizes Rome. Formation of Lombard League
Lombard League
The Lombard League was an alliance formed around 1167, which at its apex included most of the cities of northern Italy , including, among others, Crema, Cremona, Mantua, Piacenza, Bergamo, Brescia, Milan, Genoa, Bologna, Padua, Modena, Reggio Emilia, Treviso, Venice, Vercelli, Vicenza, Verona,...
, that is allied to the one of Verona.
1168 : Foundation of Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
in Piedmont by the cities lombardas in honor of Alexander III. Death of Paschal III.
1170 : Lombard League
Lombard League
The Lombard League was an alliance formed around 1167, which at its apex included most of the cities of northern Italy , including, among others, Crema, Cremona, Mantua, Piacenza, Bergamo, Brescia, Milan, Genoa, Bologna, Padua, Modena, Reggio Emilia, Treviso, Venice, Vercelli, Vicenza, Verona,...
is put under the protection of Alexander III. Negotiations of Veroli between the Pope and the emperor.
1174 - 1175 : Siege of Alexandria by Federick.
1176 : Frederick is defeated at the Battle of Legnano
Battle of Legnano
The Battle of Legnano was fought on May 29, 1176, between the forces of the Holy Roman Empire, led by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, and the Lombard League.-The Lombard League:...
by the Italian communes. Conversations of Agnani with Pope Alexander III.
1177 : Peace of Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
.
1179 : Rupture between the emperor and Henry the Lion
Henry the Lion
Henry the Lion was a member of the Welf dynasty and Duke of Saxony, as Henry III, from 1142, and Duke of Bavaria, as Henry XII, from 1156, which duchies he held until 1180....
. I conciliate of Letrán: reorganization of the papal election.
1180 : War against Henry the Lion.
1181 : Reconciliation between Federick and Henry the Lion. Death of Alexander III.
1183 : Preliminaries of Plasencia and peace of Constanza.
1184 : Diet of Mainz
Mainz
Mainz under the Holy Roman Empire, and previously was a Roman fort city which commanded the west bank of the Rhine and formed part of the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire...
: wedding of Henry
Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor
Henry VI was King of Germany from 1190 to 1197, Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 to 1197 and King of Sicily from 1194 to 1197.-Early years:Born in Nijmegen,...
and Constance of Sicily
Constance of Sicily
Constance of Hauteville was the heiress of the Norman kings of Sicily and the wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor...
. Diet of Verona.
1185 : Alliance between Federick and Milan.
1186 : Rupture between Urban and Frederick. Assembly of Gelnhausen.
1188 : Reconciliation of the Pope with the Roman commune.
1189 : Reconciliation between Pope and emperor. Death of William II of Sicily
William II of Sicily
William II , called the Good, was king of Sicily from 1166 to 1189. William's character is very indistinct. Lacking in military enterprise, secluded and pleasure-loving, he seldom emerged from his palace life at Palermo. Yet his reign is marked by an ambitious foreign policy and a vigorous diplomacy...
; it happens the son of the emperor and future to him Enrique IV.
1190 : Third Crusade
Third Crusade
The Third Crusade , also known as the Kings' Crusade, was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin...
: death of Federick in Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
.
Imperial
- Henry IV, Holy Roman EmperorHenry IV, Holy Roman EmperorHenry IV was King of the Romans from 1056 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until his forced abdication in 1105. He was the third emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century...
- Henry V, Holy Roman EmperorHenry V, Holy Roman EmperorHenry V was King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor , the fourth and last ruler of the Salian dynasty. Henry's reign coincided with the final phase of the great Investiture Controversy, which had pitted pope against emperor...
- Frederick I, Holy Roman EmperorFrederick I, Holy Roman EmperorFrederick I Barbarossa was a German Holy Roman Emperor. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March, crowned King of Italy in Pavia in 1155, and finally crowned Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV, on 18 June 1155, and two years later in 1157 the term...
- Henry VI, Holy Roman EmperorHenry VI, Holy Roman EmperorHenry VI was King of Germany from 1190 to 1197, Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 to 1197 and King of Sicily from 1194 to 1197.-Early years:Born in Nijmegen,...
Papal
- Pope Gregory VIIPope Gregory VIIPope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
- Pope Urban IIPope Urban IIPope Urban II , born Otho de Lagery , was Pope from 12 March 1088 until his death on July 29 1099...
- Pope Paschal IIPope Paschal IIPope Paschal II , born Ranierius, was Pope from August 13, 1099, until his death. A monk of the Cluniac order, he was created cardinal priest of the Titulus S...
- Pope Urban IIIPope Urban IIIPope Urban III , born Uberto Crivelli, was Pope from 1185 to 1187. He was made cardinal and archbishop of Milan by Pope Lucius III, whom he succeeded on November 25, 1185...
- Pope Alexander IIIPope Alexander IIIPope Alexander III , born Rolando of Siena, was Pope from 1159 to 1181. He is noted in history for laying the foundation stone for the Notre Dame de Paris.-Church career:...
- Pope Innocent IVPope Innocent IVPope Innocent IV , born Sinibaldo Fieschi, was pope from June 25, 1243 until his death in 1254.-Early life:...