Azerbaijan Democratic Republic - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR; ) was the first successful attempt to establish a democratic and secular republic

Republic

A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...

in the Muslim world

Muslim world

The term Muslim world has several meanings. In a religious sense, it refers to those who adhere to the teachings of Islam, referred to as Muslims. In a cultural sense, it refers to Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilization...

(pre-dating the Republic of Turkey

Turkey

Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...

). The ADR was founded on May 28, 1918 after the collapse of the Russian Empire

Russian Empire

The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...

that began with the Russian Revolution of 1917

Russian Revolution of 1917

The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. The Tsar was deposed and replaced by a provisional government in the first revolution of February 1917...

by Azerbaijani National Council

Azerbaijani National Council

Azerbaijani National Council was the first delegated legislative body of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic from 27 May 1918 to 17 June 1918 and again from 16 November 1918 to 3 December 1918...

in Tiflis. Its established borders were with Russia

Russia

Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...

in the north, Democratic Republic of Georgia

Democratic Republic of Georgia

The Democratic Republic of Georgia , 1918–1921, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of Georgia.The DRG was created after the collapse of the Russian Empire that began with the Russian Revolution of 1917...

in the north-west, Democratic Republic of Armenia

Democratic Republic of Armenia

The Democratic Republic of Armenia was the first modern establishment of an Armenian state...

in the west, and Persian Empire

Qajar dynasty

The Qajar dynasty was an Iranian royal family of Turkic descent who ruled Persia from 1785 to 1925....

in the south. It had a population of 2 million. Ganja was the temporary capital of the Republic as Baku

Baku

Baku , sometimes spelled as Baki or Bakou, is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. It is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, which projects into the Caspian Sea. The city consists of two principal...

was under Bolshevik

Bolshevik

The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....

control.

Under the ADR, a government system was developed in which a Parliament elected on the basis of universal, free, and proportionate representation, was the supreme organ of state authority and Council of Ministers held responsible before it. Fatali Khan Khoyski

Fatali Khan Khoyski

Fatali Khan Khoyski Isgender oglu was an attorney, a member of the Second State Duma of the Russian Empire, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Defense and, later the first Prime Minister of the independent Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early life:Khoyski was born on December 7, 1875 in...

became its first prime-minister. Besides the Musavat majority, Ehrar, Ittihad

Ittihad

The Ittihad Party was a radical Islamist party in the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1917–1920. It was formed in September 1917 in opposition to the secular Musavat Party and proposed political unity of all the Muslims of the Russian Empire...

, Muslim Social-democrats

Muslim Social Democratic Party

The Muslim Social Democratic Party, usually referred to as Hummet , was a political party in South Caucasus. In 1920, it merged with "Adalat" communist cell in Baku, forming the first Communist Party of Azerbaijan.- "Old" Hummet :...

as well as representatives of Armenian

Armenians

Armenian people or Armenians are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.The largest concentration is in Armenia having a nearly-homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian....

(21 out of 120 seats), Russian

Russians

The Russian people are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries....

, Polish

Poles

thumb|right|180px|The state flag of [[Poland]] as used by Polish government and diplomatic authoritiesThe Polish people, or Poles , are a nation indigenous to Poland. They are united by the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe...

, Jewish and German

Germans

The Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....

minorities gained seats in the parliament. Some members supported Pan-Islamist and Pan-Turkist ideas.

Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women, making Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan , officially the Republic of Azerbaijan is the largest country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to...

the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men. In this accomplishment, Azerbaijan also preceded the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

and the United States

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

. Another important accomplishment of ADR was the establishment of Baku State University

Baku State University

Baku State University is a public university located in Baku, Azerbaijan. Established in 1919 by the Parliament of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the University started with faculties of history and philology; physics and mathematics; law and medicine with an initial enrollment of 1094...

, which was the first modern-type university founded in Azerbaijan.

Establishment

In 1917, the Russian Caucasus Front collapsed following the abdication of the Tsar. On March 9, 1917, Special Transcaucasian Committee

Special Transcaucasian Committee

Special Transcaucasian Committee was established on March 9, 1917, with Member of the State Duma V. A...

Ozakom (short for Osobyi Zakavkazskii Komitet, Особый Закавказский Комитет) was established to fill the administrative gap in areas occupied in the course of the war on the Caucasian front in the Transcaucasia by the Russian Provisional Government

Russian Provisional Government

The Russian Provisional Government was the short-lived administrative body which sought to govern Russia immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II . On September 14, the State Duma of the Russian Empire was officially dissolved by the newly created Directorate, and the country was...

. The Viceroyalty of the Caucasus

Viceroyalty of the Caucasus

The Viceroyalty of the Caucasus is a term used to denote the Imperial Russian administrative and political authority in the Caucasus region exercised through the offices of glavnoupravlyayushchiy and namestnik...

was abolished by the Russian Provisional Government

Russian Provisional Government

on March 18, 1917, and all authority, except in the zone of the active army, was entrusted to the civil administrative body Special Transcaucasian Committee. This administration, which included representatives of Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgians did not last long.
After the February Revolution like many ethnic minorities of Transcaucasia, Azeris aimed at secession from Russia. In the provinces and districts where Azeris constituted considerable population local Muslim National Councils (MNC) were formed. On March 27, 1917 delegates of MNCs gathered and elected a central committee Mammad Hasan Hajinski, Mammed Amin Rasulzade

Mammed Amin Rasulzade

Mammad Amin Rasulzade was an Azerbaijani statesman, scholar, public figure and one of the founding political leaders of Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan...

, Alimardan Topchubashov, Fatali Khan Khoyski

Fatali Khan Khoyski

, and other founders of the future Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. On November 11, the first government of the independent Transcaucasia was created in Tbilisi named as "Transcaucasian Commissariat

Transcaucasian Commissariat

The Transcaucasian Commissariat was established at Tbilisi on November 11, 1917, as the first government of the independent Transcaucasia and following the Bolshevik seizure of power in St...

(Sejm)." Azeri's gave 37 representatives to Transcaucasian Commissariat. The Transcaucasian Commissariat was anti-Bolshevik in its political goals and sought the separation of Transcaucasia from Bolshevik Russia. Following the October Revolution

October Revolution

The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution , Red October, the October Uprising or the Bolshevik Revolution, was a political revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution of 1917...

, a government of the local Soviet was established in Baku: the so-called Baku Commune (November 1917 - 31 July 1918). The Commune was formed by 85 Social Revolutionaries and Left Social Revolutionaries

Left Socialist-Revolutionaries

In 1917, Russia the Socialist-Revolutionary Party split between those who supported the Provisional Government, established after the February Revolution, and those who supported the Bolsheviks who favoured a communist insurrection....

, 48 Bolsheviks, 36 Dashnaks, 18 Musavatists and 13 Mensheviks. Stepan Shaumyan, a Bolshevik, and Prokopius Dzhaparidze

Prokopius Dzhaparidze

Prokofy Aprasionovich Dzhaparidze or Japaridze, , was a Georgian Communist activist, one of the Red Army and Bolshevik Party leaders in Azerbaijan during the Russian Revolution....

, a leftist SR, were elected Chairmen of the Council of People's Commissioners of the Commune of Baku. The Baku Soviet was at odds with emergent Transcaucasian Federation and was supportive of Bolshevik governments in most areas, except peace treaty with Ottoman Empire. Uneasy truce existed between different faction, until Treaty of Brest-Litovsk exposed weakness of the coalition. The Russian Caucasus Army was degrading After the collapse of the Russian Empire and on November 7, 1917, signed Armistice of Erzincan

Armistice of Erzincan

The Armistice of Erzincan or Erzincan Armistice ended the armed conflicts between Russia and Ottoman Empire in the Persian Campaign and Caucasus Campaign of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. It was signed by the Russians and Ottoman Third Army in Erzincan on December 5, 1917...

with the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

.
On February 24, 1918, The Sejm proclaimed the Transcaucasia as the independent Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic

Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic

The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic , was a short-lived state composed of the modern-day countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia in the South Caucasus.-...

. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, mediated by South African Andrik Fuller, at Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the Central Powers, headed by Germany, marking Russia's exit from World War I.While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year,...

marked Russia's (signed by Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....

) exit from World War I. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk exposed the weakness of this coalition, which hold on an uneasy truce between different factions. On March 14, the Trabzon peace conference

Trabzon Peace Conference

The Trabzon peace conference was a conference held between March and April of 1918 in Trabzon between the Ottoman Empire and a delegation of the Transcaucasian Diet and government. The opening session was on 14 March 1918. The representatives were Rear-Admiral Rauf Bey for the Ottoman Empire, and...

began between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Transcaucasian Commissariat (Sejm).

In March 1918, ethnic and religious tension grew and the Armenian-Azeri conflict in Baku began. Musavat and Ittihad parties were accused of Pan-Turkism

Pan-Turkism

Pan-Turkism is a nationalist movement that emerged in 1880s among the Turkic intellectuals of the Russian Empire, with the aim of cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples.-Name:...

by Bolsheviks and their allies. Armenian and Muslim militia engaged in armed confrontation, with the formally neutral Bolsheviks tacitly supporting the Armenian side. All the non-Azeri political groups of the city joined the Bolsheviks against the Muslims: Bolsheviks, Dashnaks

Armenian Revolutionary Federation

The Armenian Revolutionary Federation is an Armenian political party founded in Tiflis in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian...

, Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and even the anti-bolshevik Kadets found themselves for the first time on the same side of the barricade because they were all fighting "for the Russian cause". Equating the Azeris with the Ottoman Turks, the Dashnaks launched a massacre on the city's Azeris in revenge for the Armenian Genocide

Armenian Genocide

The Armenian Genocide—also known as the Armenian Holocaust, the Armenian Massacres and, by Armenians, as the Great Crime—refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during and just after World War I...

in the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...

. As a result, between 3,000 and 12,000 Muslims were killed in what is known as the March Days

March Days

The March Days, or March Events, refer to an inter-ethnic strife and massacres of up to 12,000 Azerbaijanis and other Muslims that took place between March 30 and April 2, 1918 in the city of Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate of Russian Empire.Facilitated by a political power struggle...

. Muslims were expelled from Baku, or went underground. At the same time the Baku Commune was involved in heavy fighting with the advancing Ottoman Caucasian Army of Islam in and around Ganja. Major battles occurred in Yevlakh and Agdash, where the Turks routed and defeated Dashnak and Russian forces.
The Bolshevik account of the events of March 1918 in Baku is presented by Victor Serge in Year One Of the Russian Revolution: "The Soviet at Baku, led by Shaumyan, was meanwhile making itself the ruler of the area, discreetly but unmistakably. Following the Moslem rising of 18 March, it had to introduce a dictatorship. This rising, instigated by the Mussavat, set the Tartar and Turkish population, led by their reactionary bourgeoisie, against the Soviet, which consisted of Russians with support from the Armenians. The races began to slaughter each other in the street. Most of the Turkish port-workers (the ambal) either remained neutral or supported the Reds. The contest was won by the Soviets."

On 26 May 1918, after the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic fell and its bodies were dissolved. The Azerbaijani faction of constituted itself into the Azerbaijani National Council (NC). Azerbaijani National Council immediately undertook parliamentary functions and proclaimed the foundation of the "Azerbaijani Democratic Republic" on 28 May 1918 and declared the National Charter, which read as following:

Azerbaijan is fully sovereign nation; it consists of the southern and eastern parts of Transcaucasia under the authority of the Azerbaijani people.
It is resolved that the form of government of the independent Azerbaijani state is a democratic republic.
The Azerbaijani Democratic Republic is determined to establish friendly relations with all, especcially with the neighboring nations and states.
The Azerbaijani Democratic Republic guarantees to all its citizens within its borders full civil and political rights, regardless of ethnic origin, religion, class, profession, or sex.
The Azerbaijani Democratic Republic encourages the free development of all nationalities inhabiting its territory.
Until the Azerbaijani Constituent Assembly is convened, the supreme authority over Azerbaijan is vested in a universally elected National Council and the provisional government responsible to this Council.

The Council was opposed by ultra-nationalists who accused it of being too left-wing. The Council was abolished after the opening of the Parliament on 7 December 1918.

Policy

Despite existing for only two short years, the multi party Azerbaijani Parliamentary republic and the coalition governments managed to achieve a number of measures on national and state building, education, creation of an army, independent financial and economic systems, international recognition of the ADR as a de facto state pending de jure recognition, official recognitions and diplomatic relations with a number of states, preparing of a Constitution, equal rights for all, etc. This has laid an important foundation for the re-establishment of independence in 1991.

Domestic

Political life in ADR was dominated by Musavat Party, the local winner of the Constituent Assembly

Constituent assembly

A constituent assembly is a body composed for the purpose of drafting or adopting a constitution...

elections of 1917. First parliament of the republic

National Assembly of Azerbaijan

The National Assembly , also transliterated as Milli Majlis is the legislative branch of government in Azerbaijan. The unicameral National Assembly has 125 deputies: previously 100 members were elected for five-year terms in single-seat constituencies and 25 were members elected by proportional...

opened on December 5, 1918. Musavat had 38 of its members in the parliament that consisted of 125 deputies, and with the some independent MPs formed the biggest faction. The republic was governed by five cabinets

Cabinet of Azerbaijan

The Cabinet of Azerbaijan is the chief executive body of the Republic of Azerbaijan.-The Executive Power:The President of the Republic of Azerbaijan is the head of state....

(the 6th was being in the process when Azerbaijan was occupied by Bolsheviks):

Cabinets	Name of Premier	Cabinet term
1st cabinet First cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic First cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic governed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic between May 28, 1918 and June 17, 1918. It was formed after proclamation of independence of Azerbaijan on May 28, 1918 and was led by Prime Minister of Azerbaijan Fatali Khan Khoyski with the following...	Fatali Khan Khoyski Fatali Khan Khoyski Fatali Khan Khoyski Isgender oglu was an attorney, a member of the Second State Duma of the Russian Empire, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Defense and, later the first Prime Minister of the independent Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early life:Khoyski was born on December 7, 1875 in...	May 28, 1918 — June 17, 1918
2nd cabinet Second cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Second cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic governed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic between June 17, 1918 and December 7, 1918. It was formed after the first cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic dissolved and was led by Prime Minister of Azerbaijan Fatali Khan Khoyski with the following...	Fatali Khan Khoyski Fatali Khan Khoyski Fatali Khan Khoyski Isgender oglu was an attorney, a member of the Second State Duma of the Russian Empire, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Defense and, later the first Prime Minister of the independent Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early life:Khoyski was born on December 7, 1875 in...	June 17, 1918 - December 7, 1918
3rd cabinet Third cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Third cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic governed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic between December 26, 1918 and March 14, 1919. It was formed after the second cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic dissolved on December 7, 1918 and was led by Prime Minister of Azerbaijan Fatali Khan...	Fatali Khan Khoyski Fatali Khan Khoyski Fatali Khan Khoyski Isgender oglu was an attorney, a member of the Second State Duma of the Russian Empire, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Defense and, later the first Prime Minister of the independent Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early life:Khoyski was born on December 7, 1875 in...	December 26, 1918 - March 14, 1919
4th cabinet Fourth cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Fourth cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic governed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic between April 14, 1919 and December 22, 1919. It was formed after the third cabinet of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic dissolved on March 14, 1919 and was led by Prime Minister of Azerbaijan Nasib Yusifbeyli...	Nasib Yusifbeyli Nasib Yusifbeyli Nasib Yusif oglu Yusifbeyli or Usubbeyov - Azerbaijani publicist, statesman and major political figure in Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early years:Nasib Yusifbeyli was born in 1881 in Elisavetpol...	April 14, 1919 - December 22, 1919
5th cabinet	Nasib Yusifbeyli Nasib Yusifbeyli Nasib Yusif oglu Yusifbeyli or Usubbeyov - Azerbaijani publicist, statesman and major political figure in Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early years:Nasib Yusifbeyli was born in 1881 in Elisavetpol...	December 22, 1919 - April 1, 1920
6th cabinet	Mammad Hasan Hajinski Mammad Hasan Hajinski Mammad Hasan Jafargulu oglu Hajinski was an Azerbaijani architect and statesman. He also served as a Minister for Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and the last Prime Minister of ADR.-Early life:...	was in the process of forming

All cabinets were formed by a coalition of Musavat and other parties including Muslim Socialist Bloc, the Independents, Ehrar, the Muslim Social Democratic Party

Muslim Social Democratic Party

. Conservative Ittihad

Ittihad

party was the major opposition force and didn't participate in the cabinet formations, except its member was State Inspector General

Inspector General

An Inspector General is an investigative official in a civil or military organization. The plural of the term is Inspectors General.-Bangladesh:...

in the last Cabinet. The premier in the first three cabinets was Fatali Khan Khoyski

Fatali Khan Khoyski

; in the last two, Nasib Yusifbeyli

Nasib Yusifbeyli

Nasib Yusif oglu Yusifbeyli or Usubbeyov - Azerbaijani publicist, statesman and major political figure in Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early years:Nasib Yusifbeyli was born in 1881 in Elisavetpol...

. The formation of the next cabinet was assigned to Mammad Hasan Hajinski

Mammad Hasan Hajinski

Mammad Hasan Jafargulu oglu Hajinski was an Azerbaijani architect and statesman. He also served as a Minister for Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and the last Prime Minister of ADR.-Early life:...

, but he was unable to form it, due to lack of time and majority backing in the parliament, and also Bolshevik

Bolshevik

invasion. The Chairman of the Parliament, Alimardan Topchubashev

Alimardan Topchubashev

Alimardan Alakbar oglu Topchubashov was a prominent Azerbaijani politician, foreign minister and speaker of the Parliament of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic....

, was recognized as the head of state. In this capacity he represented Azerbaijan at the Versailles Paris Peace Conference in 1919.

Foreign relations

The ADR government always remained neutral

Neutral country

A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...

on the issue of Russian Civil War

Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a...

and never sided with the Red

Red Army

The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union. By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history.The "Red Army" name refers to...

or White Army

White movement

The White movement and its military arm the White Army - known as the White Guard or the Whites - was a loose confederation of Anti-Communist forces.The movement comprised one of the politico-military Russian forces who fought...

. Throughout its existence from 1918 to 1920, the Republic of Azerbaijan had diplomatic relations with a number of states. Among the representation of ADR abroad were the Azerbaijani Peace Delegation in Paris

Paris

Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...

, consisting of the chair Alimardan Topchubashev, A.A. Sheykh Ul-Islamov, M. Maharramov, M. Mir-Mehdiyev and advisor B. Hajibayov; Diplomatic Representative to Georgia, Farist Bey Vekilov, to Armenia - Abdurahman Bey Akhverdiyev, advisor Agha Salah Musayev; to Persia - Agha-khan Khiatkhan and his assistant Alakpar Bey Sadikhov; in Constantinople

Constantinople

Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...

- Yusif Bey Vezirov, his financial advisor, Jangir Bey Gayibov; General Consul in Batumi

Batumi

Batumi is a seaside city on the Black Sea coast and capital of Adjara, an autonomous republic in southwest Georgia. Sometimes considered Georgia's second capital, with a population of 121,806 , Batumi serves as an important port and a commercial center. It is situated in a subtropical zone, rich in...

, Mahmud Bey Efendiyev; Consul to Ukraine, Jamal Sadikhov and Consul in Crimea

Crimea

Crimea , or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea , is a sub-national unit, an autonomous republic, of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name...

, Sheykh Ali Useynov. Agreements on the principles of mutual relations were signed with some of them; sixteen states established their missions in Baku.

List of the foreign diplomatic missions in Azerbaijan

Country	Name of the Envoy	Address
United Kingdom United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...	Vice Consul Gevelke	Kladbisshenskaya Str, 11. Building of Depository of Russian-Asian Bank
Armenia Democratic Republic of Armenia The Democratic Republic of Armenia was the first modern establishment of an Armenian state...	Diplomatic Representative G.A. Bekzadyan	Telefonnaya Str 28 May Street The 28 May Street is located in the Nəsimi raion of Baku. Beginning at the Richard Sorge Street, it spans about and ends up at the Bulbul Avenue. The street was known as Telefonnaya during the Russian rule, then was renamed to 28 April Street to mark the date of the establishment of Azerbaijan... , 5
Belgium Belgium Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...	Consul Ayvazov	Gorchakovskaya Str, 19
Greece Greece Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....	Consul Koussis	Corner of Gogolevskaya and Molokanskaya streets
Georgia Democratic Republic of Georgia The Democratic Republic of Georgia , 1918–1921, was the first modern establishment of a Republic of Georgia.The DRG was created after the collapse of the Russian Empire that began with the Russian Revolution of 1917...	Diplomatic Representative N.S. Alshibay	Politseyskaya Str, 20
Denmark Denmark Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...	E.F. Bisring	Birzhevaya Str, 32. Building of Elektricheskaya Sila company
Italy Italy Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...	Chief of the 8th Mission, Enrico Ensom; Consul L. Grikurov	Molokanskaya, 35. Krasnovodskaya, 8
Lithuania Lithuania Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...	Consul Vincas Mickevičius Vincas Mickevicius-Kapsukas Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas was a Lithuanian political activist, one of the founders and leaders of the Communist Party of Lithuania and the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic ....	Pozenovskaya, 15
Persia	Consul Saad Ul Vizirov	Gubernskaya Str, corner of Spasskaya Str
Poland Poland Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...	Consul S. Rylsky	Politseyskaya Str, 15
United States of America	Consul Randolph	Krasnovodskaya Str, 8
Ukraine Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...	Consul Golovan	Nikolayevskaya Str Istiglaliyyat Street Istiglaliyyat Street is an arterial road in central uptown part of Baku, Azerbaijan. It begins at Gulustan Palace located on the southern hillside part of Baku continues north, then northeast, terminating at intersection of Aziz Aliyev and Mammad Amin Rasulzade streets at the edge of the... , 8. House of Mirzabeyov brothers
Finland Finland Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...	Consul Vegelius	Balaxanı Balaxani Balaxanı is a settlement and municipality in Baku, Azerbaijan. It has a population of 11,615.- Notable natives :... settlement. Nobel Brothers Office
France France The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...	Consul Emelyanov	Vodovoznaya Str. House of Mitrofanovs
Switzerland Switzerland Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....	Consul Clateau	Birzhevaya Str. 14
Sweden Sweden Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....	Consul R.K. Vander-Ploug	Corner of Persidskaya and Gubernskaya streets

Recognition by Allies

A delegation from Azerbaijan attended the Paris Peace Conference, 1919

Paris Peace Conference, 1919

The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...

. Upon its arrival, the Azerbaijani delegation addressed a note to U.S. President

President of the United States

The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....

Woodrow Wilson

Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...

, making the following requests:

1. That the independence of Azerbaijan be recognized,

2. That Wilsonian principles be applied to Azerbaijan,

3. That the Azerbaijani delegation be admitted to the Paris Peace Conference,

4. That Azerbaijan be admitted to the League of Nations,

5. That the United States War Department extend military help to Azerbaijan, and

6. That diplomatic relations be established between the United States of America and the Republic of Azerbaijan.

President Wilson granted the delegation an audience, at which he displayed a cold and rather unsympathetic attitude. As the Azerbaijani delegation reported to its Government, Wilson had stated that the Conference did not want to partition the world into small pieces. Wilson advised Azerbaijan that it would be better for them to develop a spirit of confederation, and that such a confederation of all the peoples of Transcaucasia could receive the protection of some Power on the basis of a mandate granted by the League of Nations. The Azerbaijani question, Wilson concluded, could not be solved prior to the general settlement of the Russian question

However, despite Wilson's attitude, on January 12, 1920, the Allied Supreme Council extended de facto recognition to Azerbaijan, along with Georgia, and Armenia. Bulletin d'information de l'Azerbaidjan wrote: "The Supreme Council at one of its last sessions recognized the de facto independence of the Caucasian Republics: Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. The delegation of Azerbaijan and Georgia had been notified of this decision by M. Jules Cambon at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on 15th January, 1920".

Furthermore, in the House of Commons the [British] Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Mr. Greenwood

Hamar Greenwood, 1st Viscount Greenwood

Hamar Greenwood, 1st Viscount Greenwood PC, KC , known as Sir Hamar Greenwood, Bt, between 1915 and 1929 and as The Lord Greenwood between 1929 and 1937, was a Canadian-born British lawyer and politician...

, was asked on what date recognition had been extended to Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia, and whether "in accordance with such recognition, official representatives have been exchanged, and the boundaries of the Transcaucasian Republics defined", Mr. Greenwood replied:
The Allies recognized the Transcaucasian Republics partly because of their fear of Bolshevism, but their activities directed against Bolshevism, at least in Transcaucasia, did not go much beyond words, the strongest of which were status quo, recognition, demarche, and a list of standard diplomatic remonstrances.

Persia

The decision to use the name Azerbaijan

History of the name Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan is the name used for the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Iranian region of Azerbaijan. This name originated from pre-Islamic history of [Persia], derived from Atropates, a Persian satrap...

, drew some protests from Iran. According to Tadeusz Swietochowski:
On 16 July 1919, the Council of Ministers [of ADR] appointed Adil Khan Ziatkhan, who had up to that time served as Assistant Minister of Foreign Affairs, diplomatic representative of Azerbaijan to the court of the Persian King of Kings. A Persian delegation headed by Seyed Ziaed-Din Tabatai came to Baku, to negotiate transit, tariff, mail, customs, and other such agreements. Speeches were made in which the common bonds between Caucasian Azerbaijan and Iran were stressed.

Territorial disputes

Much like its other counterparts in the Caucasus

Caucasus

The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia , is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea...

, the ADR's early years of existence were plagued with territorial disputes. In particular, these included disputes with the Democratic Republic of Armenia

Democratic Republic of Armenia

The Democratic Republic of Armenia was the first modern establishment of an Armenian state...

(Nakhchivan, Nagorno-Karabakh

Nagorno-Karabakh

Nagorno-Karabakh is a landlocked region in the South Caucasus, lying between Lower Karabakh and Zangezur and covering the southeastern range of the Lesser Caucasus mountains...

, Zangezur (today the Armenian province of Syunik), and Qazakh

Qazakh

Qazakh is a rayon of Azerbaijan. It has two exclaves inside Armenia, Yukhari Askipara and Barkhudarli, both of which came under Armenian control during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.- History :In antiquity, this rayon was part of the province of Utik...

) and the Democratic Republic of Georgia

Democratic Republic of Georgia

(Balakan

Balakan

Balakan is a rayon of northwestern Azerbaijan, located between Georgia and Russia. It borders Georgia to south and Dagestan of Russia to east and north...

, Zaqatala

Zaqatala (rayon)

Zaqatala is a rayon of Azerbaijan. The capital and principal town of the rayon is Zaqatala. The rayon is an appendix of Azeri territory wedged between Georgia and Dagestan...

, and Qakh

Qakh

Qakh , also Kakh or sometimes Gakh , is a raion in the north of Azerbaijan, on the border with Georgia.-Geography:The area of the region occupies and borders Russia on the north, Georgia on the west...

). The ADR also claimed territories of the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus

Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus

The Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus was a short-lived state situated in the Northern Caucasus...

(Derbent

Derbent

Derbent |Lak]]: Чурул, Churul; Persian: دربند; Judæo-Tat: דארבּאנד/Дэрбэнд/Dərbənd) is a city in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia, close to the Azerbaijani border. It is the southernmost city in Russia, and it is the second most important city of Dagestan...

), but they were not as persistent about these claims as they were about the territories they disputed between Armenia and Georgia.

Armenian-Azerbaijani war

In the summer of 1918, the Dashnaks, together with the SRs and the Mensheviks, expelled the Bolsheviks, who refused to ask for British support, and founded the Centro Caspian Dictatorship (1 August 1918 - 15 September 1918). The CCD was supported by the British

United Kingdom

who sent an expeditionary force to Baku to help the Armenians and the Mensheviks. The purpose of the British forces (led by Major General

Major General

Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...

Lionel Dunsterville

General Lionel Charles Dunsterville CB, CSI was a British general, who led the so-called Dunsterforce across present-day Iraq and Iran towards Caucasus and oil-rich Baku.-Biography:...

, who arrived from Persia's Enzeli at the head of a 1,000-strong elite force) was to seize the oil fields in Baku ahead of Enver Pasha's advancing Turkish troops (Army of Islam) or the Kaiser's German troops (who were in neighboring Georgia) and to block a Bolshevik consolidation in the Caucasus

Caucasus

The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia , is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea...

and Central Asia

Central Asia

Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...

The city of Baku

Baku

became the capital of the ADR only in September, 1918

Unable to resist advancing Turkish troops during the Battle of Baku

Battle of Baku

The Battle of Baku in June – September 1918 was a clash between coalitions of Ottoman–Azerbaijani forces led by Nuri Pasha and Bolshevik–Dashnak Baku Soviet forces, later succeeded by British–Armenian–White Russian forces led by Lionel Dunsterville as part of the final battle of the Caucasus...

, Dunsterville ordered the evacuation of the city on September 14, after six weeks of occupation, and withdrew to Iran; most of the Armenian population escaped with British forces. The Ottoman Army of Islam and its Azeri allies, led by Nuri Pasha, entered Baku on September 15 and slaughtered between 10,000 - 20,000 Armenians in retaliation for the March massacre of Muslims. The capital of the ADR was finally moved from Ganja to Baku. However, after the Armistice of Mudros

Armistice of Mudros

The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...

between Great Britain and Turkey on October 30, Turkish troops were substituted by the Allies of World War I

Allies of World War I

The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...

. Headed by British general W. Thomson, who had declared himself the military governor of Baku, 5,000 Commonwealth

Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...

soldiers arrived in Baku on November 17, 1918. By General Thomson's order, martial law

Martial law

Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...

was implemented in Baku.

Fight for survival

The ADR found itself in a difficult position, hemmed in from the north by advancing Denikin forces, unfriendly Iran in the south; the British administration was not hostile but indifferent to the plight of Muslims. General Thomson initially did not recognize the Republic but tacitly cooperated with it. On April 25, 1919, a violent protest organized by talysh

Talysh people

Talysh are an Iranian people indigenous to a region shared between Azerbaijan and Iran which spans the South Caucasus and the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea. They speak the Talysh language, one of the Northwestern Iranian languages...

workers of pro-Bolshevik orientation exploded in Lankaran

Lankaran

-History:The city was built on a swamp along the northern bank of the river bearing the city's name. There are remains of human settlements in the area dating back to the Neolithic period as well as ruins of fortified villages from the Bronze and Iron Ages. Lankaran's history is rather recent,...

and deposed the Mughan Territorial Administration

Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan

The Provisional Military Dictatorship of Mughan was a British-controlled anti-communist short-lived state founded in the Lankaran region on August 1, 1918. The Mughan government did not support independence of Azerbaijan and it was led by white Russian colonel V.T. Sukhorukov who acted under the...

, a military dictatorship led by Russian colonel V.T. Sukhorukov. On May 15, the Extraordinary Congress of the "Councils of Workers' and Peasants' Deputies" of Lankaran district proclaimed the Mughan Soviet Republic
Mughan Soviet Republic
The Mughan Soviet Republic was a short-lived pro-Bolshevik state that existed in present-day southeastern Azerbaijan from March to June 1919. It was founded in opposition to the Musavatist Azerbaijani Government in Baku.-See also:...

. By mid-1919 the situation in Azerbaijan had more or less stabilized, and British forces left on August 19, 1919.

This made the ADR pursue a neutral policy with regards to the Russian Civil War. On June 16, 1919, the ADR and Georgia signed a defensive treaty against the White troops of General Anton Denikin's Volunteer Army

Volunteer Army

The Volunteer Army was an anti-Bolshevik army in South Russia during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1920....

who were threatening to start an offensive on their borders. Denikin concluded a secret military pact with Armenia. The Republic of Armenia with its forces formed the 7th corps of Denikin's army and gained military support from the White Movement. This fact increased the tension between the ADR and Armenia. However, the war never materialized as by January 1920, Denikin's army was completely defeated by the XI Red Army, that later started to concentrate its troops on Azerbaijan's borders.

Armenia and Azerbaijan were engaged in fighting over Karabakh

Armenian-Azeri war 1918

The Armenian-Azerbaijani war, which started after the Russian Revolution, was a series of brutal and hard to classify conflicts in 1918, then from 1920 to 1922 that occurred during the brief independence of Armenia and Azerbaijan and afterward. Most of the conflicts did not have a principal pattern...

for some part of 1919. The fighting increased in intensity by February 1920 and martial law was introduced in Karabakh, which was enforced by the newly formed National Army, led by general Samedbey Mehmandarov

Samedbey Mehmandarov

Samadbey Mehmandarov Sadykhbey oglu was an Azerbaijani General of the Artillery in the Imperial Russian Army and served as the Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early life:...

Sovietization of Azerbaijan, April 1920

By March 1920, it was obvious that Soviet Russia would attack the much-needed Baku. Vladimir Lenin

Vladimir Lenin

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and communist politician who led the October Revolution of 1917. As leader of the Bolsheviks, he headed the Soviet state during its initial years , as it fought to establish control of Russia in the Russian Civil War and worked to create a...

said that the invasion was justified by the fact that Soviet Russia

Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

could not survive without Baku oil. According to the prevailing opinion in Moscow, Russian Bolsheviks were to assist the Baku proletariat

Proletariat

The proletariat is a term used to identify a lower social class, usually the working class; a member of such a class is proletarian...

in overthrowing the "counter-revolutionary nationalists."

After a major political crisis, the Fifth Cabinet of Ministers of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic resigned on April 1, 1920. On April 25, 1920, the Russia

Russia

Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...

n XI Red Army crossed into Azerbaijan, entering Baku on April 27. They demanded the dissolution of the Azerbaijani Parliament (Majlis) and set up their own Bolshevik government headed by Nariman Narimanov

Nariman Narimanov

Narimanov Nariman Karbalayi Najaf oglu was an Azerbaijani revolutionary, writer, publicist, politician and statesman. In 1920, Narimanov headed the Soviet government of Azerbaijan, the Provisional Military-Revolutionary Committee , replacing Mirza Davud Huseynov, then he was the Chairman of the...

. To avoid bloodshed, the deputies complied with the demand and the ADR officially ceased to exist on April 28, 1920, giving way to the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (Azerbaijan SSR) as its successor state. The Red Army met very little resistance in Baku from Azerbaijani forces, which were tied up on the Karabakh front. The first Communist government of Azerbaijan consisted almost entirely of native Azerbaijanis from the left factions of Hummat and Adalat parties.

In May 1920, there was a major uprising against the occupying Russian XI Army in Ganja

1920 Ganja revolt

The 1920 Ganja revolt , also referred to as the Ganja Uprising, was an anti-Bolshevik rebellion that took place in Ganja, Azerbaijan from 26 to 31 May 1920 as a reaction to Azerbaijan's Sovietisation.-Prelude:...

, intent on restoring Musavatists in power. The uprising was crushed by government troops by May 31. Leaders of the ADR either fled to Menshevik Georgia

Democratic Republic of Georgia

, Turkey and Iran, or were captured by Bolsheviks, like Mammed Amin Rasulzade

Mammed Amin Rasulzade

Mammad Amin Rasulzade was an Azerbaijani statesman, scholar, public figure and one of the founding political leaders of Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan...

(who was later allowed to emigrate) and executed (like Gen. Selimov, Gen. Sulkevich, Gen. Agalarov, a total of over 20 generals), or assassinated by Armenian militants like Fatali Khan Khoyski

Fatali Khan Khoyski

and Behbudagha Javanshir. Most students and citizens travelling abroad remained in those countries never to return again to their country. Other prominent ADR military figures like the former Minister of Defense General Samedbey Mehmandarov

Samedbey Mehmandarov

Samadbey Mehmandarov Sadykhbey oglu was an Azerbaijani General of the Artillery in the Imperial Russian Army and served as the Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Early life:...

and deputy defense minister General Ali-Agha Shikhlinski

Ali-Agha Shikhlinski

Ali-Agha Ismail-Agha oglu Shikhlinski was lieutenant-general of the Russian tsarist army and Deputy Minister of Defense and General of the Artillery of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.-Life and military career:...

(who was called "the God of Artillery" ) were at first arrested, but then released two months later thanks to efforts of Nariman Narimanov

Nariman Narimanov

. Gen. Mehmandarov and Gen. Shikhlinsky spent their last years teaching in the Azerbaijan SSR military school.

In the end, "the Azeris did not surrender their brief independence of 1918-20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest." However, it has to be noticed that the installation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic was made easier by the fact that there was a certain popular support for Bolshevik ideology in Azerbaijan, in particular among the industrial workers in Baku.

External links

Account of British Force in Baku
Gasimov, Zaur: The Caucasus, in: Europäische Geschichte Online (EGO), hg. vom Institut für Europäische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz European History Online (EGO), published by the Institute of European History (IEG), Mainz 2011-11-17. URL: http://www.ieg-ego.eu/gasimovz-2011-en

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