Roman Catholicism in Mangalore
Encyclopedia
Mangalorean Catholics (Konkani
: Kodialchein Katholik) are an ethno-religious community of Roman Catholics
from the Mangalore Diocese (erstwhile South Canara
district) on the southwestern coast of India
. They are a Konkani people
and speak the Konkani language
.
Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from Goan Catholic
s who migrated to South Canara between 1560 and 1763, throughout the course of the Goa Inquisition
, Portuguese
–Adil Shahi wars, and the Portuguese–Maratha
wars. They learned the languages of South Canara but retained Konkani as their mother tongue and preserved their lifestyle. Their 15-year captivity
at Seringapatam imposed by Tipu Sultan
, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore
, from 24 February 1784 to 4 May 1799 led to the near extinction of the community. After Tipu's defeat and subsequent killing by the British
in 1799, the community resettled in South Canara, and later prospered under British rule.
Although early assertions of a distinct Mangalorean Catholic identity date from the migration period, a developed Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity only emerged following the captivity. The culture of Mangalorean Catholics is a blend of Mangalorean
and Goan
cultures. After migration, they adopted some aspects of the local Mangalorean culture, but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions. The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is mostly concentrated in the Persian Gulf Arab states
and the Anglosphere
.
district) and their descendents are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics. The diocese is located on the southwestern coast of India. It comprises the civil districts of Dakshina Kannada
and Udupi
in Karnataka
state, and Kasaragod
in Kerala
state. This region was collectively referred to as South Canara
during the British regime
, prior to the States Reorganisation Act (1956).
In 1526, Portuguese ships arrived in Mangalore, and the number of local converts slowly increased. However, a sizeable Christian population did not exist until the second half of the 16th century, when there was a large-scale immigration of Christians from Goa to South Canara who were reluctant to learn the local languages of South Canara. They continued to speak Konkani, the language which they brought from Goa, and local Christians had to learn Konkani to converse with these people. After migration, the skilled Goan Catholic agriculturists were offered various land grants by the native Bednore
rulers of South Canara. They observed their traditional Hindu
customs in conjunction with the newfound Catholic practices, and preserved their lifestyle.
Most migrants were people from the lower economic strata who had been left out of government and economic jobs; their lands had been confiscated due to heavy taxation under the Portuguese in Goa. As a consequence of the wealth and privileges which these Goan migrants enjoyed in Mangalore, they began feeling superior to their landless brethren in Goa. Their captivity at Seringapatam
(1784–1799), where many died, were killed, or were forcibly converted to Islam
, led to the formation of a separate and common Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity among members of the group, who hitherto had considered themselves an extension of the larger Goan Catholic community. They no longer self-identified as Goan Catholics. After the captivity, employment on British
ships, prosperity under the British and Italian
Jesuit regimes, and migration for employment to Bombay
, Calcutta
, Poona
, Persian Gulf Arab states
, and the Anglosphere
, enabled the community to restore their identity. The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics are of Pancha Gauda Saraswat Brahmin lineage. Historian Alan Machado Prabhu estimates that almost 95% of Mangalorean Catholics have Goan origins.
All records of an early existence of Christians in South Canara were lost at the time of their deportation by Tipu Sultan
in 1784. Hence, it is not known exactly when Christianity was introduced in South Canara, although it is possible that Syrian Christians
settled in South Canara, just as they did in Kerala
, a state south of Canara. The Italian traveller Marco Polo
recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea
and the Canara coast in the 13th century. It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce; it is possible some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work.
In April 1321 the French Dominican
friar Jordanus Catalani
of Severac (in south-western France) landed at Thana
with four other friars. He then travelled to Bhatkal
in North Canara, a port town on the coastal route from Thana to Quilon
. Being the first bishop of India and the Quilon Diocese, he was entrusted the spiritual nourishment of Christian community in Mangalore and other parts of India by Pope John XXII
. According to historian Severine Silva, no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century. It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to spread.
In 1498 the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed on a group of islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India. He named the islands El Padron de Santa Maria; they later came to be known as St Mary's Islands
. In 1500 Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral
arrived at Anjediva
in North Canara with eight Franciscan
missionaries. Under the leadership of Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra, the missionaries converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region. During the early part of the 16th century, Krishnadevaraya
(1509–1529), the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire
of Deccan
, granted commercial privileges to the Portuguese on the Canara coast. There was complete freedom of worship, belief, and propagation of religious tenets in the Vijaynagara Empire. In 1526, under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio
, the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore.
The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore. A prominent local convert was the Brahmin Mahant
Shankarayya, who in 1751, travelled to Goa with his wife from Kallianpur
and was baptised
, with the Portuguese viceroy assuming the role of his godfather. The honoured Mahant took the name of Francisco de Távora, after the Viceroy Marques de Távora
. Their properties were subsequently taken over by their Hindu relatives, but the viceroy instructed his factor of Mangalore to get their property restored. In 1534 Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa, where the Portuguese had a strong presence. Missionaries soon arrived and gained converts. The number of local converts in South Canara continually increased until 1546. During the mid-16th century, the Portuguese faced resistance from Abbakka Rani
of Ullal
, the Queen of the Bednore dynasty. This put a halt to conversions. The first battle between Abbakka Rani and the Portuguese was fought in 1546; she emerged victorious and drove the Portuguese out of South Canara.
In 1510, a Portuguese fleet under Afonso de Albuquerque
, sent by King Manuel I of Portugal
, wrested the Island of Goa from Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah
of Bijapur. In 1534, the Diocese of Goa was established. Soon missionaries were sent to Goa, which led to conversion of a sizeable population to Roman Catholicism. The bulk of Christian settlers came in three major migration waves towards South Canara. These migrations occurred in periods of great unrest: the Goa Inquisition
occurred from 1560 onwards; the Portuguese
–Adil Shahi wars were between 1570–79; and the Portuguese–Maratha
wars occurred between 1667–83 and 1737–40. Other factors that led to mass migrations were disease epidemics, famines, natural calamities, overpopulation, poor living conditions, heavy tax burdens, and social discrimination by the Portuguese.
In 1542, the Navarrese
Jesuit Francis Xavier, co-founder of the Society of Jesus; arrived in Goa. He discovered that the newly converted Christians were practising their old Hindu customs and traditions. He requested the Portuguese king João III
to install an Inquisition
in Goa in 1545. Many of the Goan ancestors of the present Mangalorean Catholics fled Goa when the Inquisition began in 1560. King Sebastião I
decreed that every trace of Indian customs should be eradicated through the Inquisition. Many Christians of Goa were tenaciously attached to some of their ancient Indian customs, especially their traditional Hindu marriage costumes, and refused to abandon them. Those who refused to comply were forced to leave Goa and to settle outside the Portuguese dominion, which resulted in the first major wave of migrations towards South Canara.
The Christians who left Goa were for the most part skilled farmers who abandoned their irrigated fields in Goa to achieve freedom. The remainder were skilled carpenters, goldsmiths, artisans, and merchants. At the time of migration, Canara was ruled by the Keladi
king Shivappa Nayaka
(1540–60). He evinced great interest in the development of agriculture in his empire and welcomed these farmers to his kingdom, giving them fertile lands to cultivate. They were recruited into the armies of the Bednore dynasty. This was confirmed by Francis Buchanan
, a Scottish physician, when he visited Canara in 1801. In his book A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (1807), he stated that "The princes of the house of Ikkeri had given great encouragement to the Christians, and had induced 80,000 of them to settle in Tuluva
." Later, this was identified as a probable mistake and should have read "8,000". This figure included the second emigration of Christians from Goa. The taxation policies of the Keladi Nayakas during 1598–1763 enabled the Goan Catholic migrants to emerge as prominent landowning gentry in South Canara. These migrants usually brought their own capital from Goa, which they invested in their new lands, thereby indirectly contributing to the prosperity of the Keladi kingdom.
Under the provisional treaties between the Portuguese and the Bednore rulers, and the Padroado
, the Christians were allowed to build churches and help foster the growth of Christianity in South Canara. The arrival of the British and the Dutch
halted the activity of the Portuguese, and they were gradually unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore. Shivappa Nayaka had previously expelled the Portuguese from their forts a little before 1660, which brought about considerable changes in the ecclesiastical situation. The appointment of the Vicar Apostolic of Mangalore was felt by the Holy See
to be of critical importance. Nayaka pressured the church authorities to appoint a native priest as the Vicar Apostolic, which resulted in the appointment of Fr. Andrew Gomez to the post; however, he died before the nomination papers could reach Mangalore.
At the recommendation of the Vicar General
of Verapoly
, Mons. Joseph Sebastiani, Pope Clement X appointed Bishop Thomas de Castro
, a Goan Theatine
and Bishop of Fulsivelem, as the Vicar Apostolic of Propaganda Fide
in the Vicariate
of Canara on 30 August 1675, for the purpose of providing spiritual leadership to the Canara Christians. After his consecration, he first went to Calicut and then moved to Mangalore, where he served from 1677 to 1684. In 1677, Bishop de Castro entered into a conflict with the Archbishop of Goa, Dom Frei António Brandão, for disregarding the Padroado. Consequently, they did not cede the jurisdiction to him despite the Pope's letter of appointment. The Padroado–Propaganda conflict which ensued divided the Catholics of Canara into two sides—those who recognised the authority of the Padroado Archbishop in Goa versus those who supported de Castro.
The Portuguese refused to recognise Bishop de Castro's appointment and vigorously opposed his activities. Archbishop Brandão's sudden death on 6 July 1678 further complicated matters, and the Cathedral chapter
administering the Archdiocese of Goa following the vacancy created by his death, forbade the Canara Catholics from receiving the sacraments from the bishop or from priests appointed by him. In his turn, Bishop de Castro excommunicated those Catholics who were obedient to the Padroado authorities in Goa and their priests. In 1681, the Holy See appointed another Goan priest Fr. Joseph Vaz, as the Vicar Forane
of Canara; he was asked not to submit to Bishop de Castro unless he showed the letter of appointment. However, after being convinced of its legitimacy, Fr. Vaz submitted to Bishop de Castro and brought about a truce. He further managed to persuade the bishop to delegate his jurisdiction to him while retaining the post. In 1700, the Catholics of Canara were again brought under the jurisdiction of the Padroado Archbishop of Goa.
The Milagres Church
, one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro. In 1568, the Church of Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore (Our Lady of the Rosary of Mangalore) was erected by the Portuguese at Bolar
in Mangalore. The Churches of Nossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala (Our Lady of Mercy of Ullal
) and São Francisco de Assis (St. Francis of Assisi) at Farangipet were erected by the Portuguese in South Canara at around the same time. These three churches were mentioned by the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle
, who visited Mangalore in 1623.
In 1570, the Sultan
of Bijapur, Ali Adil Shah I
, entered into an alliance with the Sultan of Ahmadnagar
, Murtaza Nizam Shah, and the Zamorin of Calicut
for a simultaneous attack on the Portuguese territories of Goa, Chaul
, and Mangalore. He attacked Goa in 1571 and ended Portuguese influence in the region. The Bijapur Sultans were especially renowned for their loathing of Christianity. Fearing persecution, many Goan Catholics fled to South Canara during this second wave of migrations, and settled in Barcoor
, Kallianpur
, Cundapore
, and Basroor
. For the next century, there was continual migration of Goan Catholics southwards, so that by 1650, a considerable number of Catholics were settled around Mangalore, Moolki, Shirva
, Pezar, Bantval, Cundapore, Kallianpur, and Kirem. The Christian Goud Saraswat Brahmins who came during this wave belonged mostly to the Shenvi
subcaste.
The attacks of the Maratha Empire on Goa during the mid-16th century precipitated the third major wave of migrations. In 1664 Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire, attacked Kudal
, a town north of Goa, and began his campaign for Goa. After Shivaji's death on 3 April 1680, his son Sambhaji
ascended to the throne. The onslaught of Sambahji along the northern territories of Goa drove nearly all the Christians from their homelands, and most of them migrated to South Canara. Migration increased with the fall of the Portuguese "Province of the North" (which included Bassein, Chaul, and Salsette) and a direct threat to the very existence of Goa in 1738–40.
According to one estimate, emigrations from the Salcete district of Goa were around the rate of 2,000 annually. Jesuit priests estimated that 12,000 Christians emigrated from the Bardez
district of Goa between 1710–12, most of them going southward. A Goa government report of 1747 presently in the Panjim archives records that around 5,000 Christians fled from the Bardez and Tiswadi
districts of Goa during the Maratha invasion. During the Maratha raids on Goa, about 60,000 Christians migrated to South Canara. These new migrants were given lands at Shirva
, Kirem, Mundkur
, Pezar, and Hosabettu
by the Chowta
kings of Moodbidri and at Milagres, Bondel, and Cordel by the Banghel kings of Mangalore.
During later years, migration slowed because of the Maratha–Mughal
wars, and some 10,000 Christians returned to Goa. According to Alan Machado Prabhu, Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58,000 by 1765.
Subsequent to this steady rise in South Canara's Catholic population, the Portuguese took advantage of every opportunity to extend their control over the Mangalorean Catholics, who came to be identified with Portuguese interests.
The Portuguese sought to expand the power of the priests, as from the beginning of their empire, priests had accompanied Portuguese delegations on diplomatic missions and on occasion were the principal negotiatiors. Treaties they signed with the Keladi Nayakas progressively incorporated clauses which increased the authority of the priests over the local Catholic population, making them obedient to the priests in matters of Christian laws as well as granting priests the authority to punish violations. The Portuguese promised to refrain from slaughtering cows and to halt forcible conversions in their factories
. The terms of these treaties were not always honoured by the Portuguese, with the result that whenever hostilities broke out between the Keladis and the Portuguese, the Catholic settlers were often harassed or arrested by the Nayakas.
In 1686, Seringapatam
, the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore
, had a community of more than 400 Catholics. The community was severely harassed in the following two decades, with the churches destroyed and the priest's house confiscated. The destruction was undertaken under the name of the Wodeyar
king, Kanthirava Narasaraja I
, by his finance minister. The priest's house was returned to the church in 1709. Relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved until 1717, when there was an anti-Christian outburst. The resident priest was expelled and forbidden to preach. Several more anti-Christian outbursts followed. By 1736, there were better relations between the two groups.
From 1761 onwards, Hyder Ali
, a distinguished soldier in the Mysore army, took de facto control of the throne of the Kingdom of Mysore through the Wodeyar dynasty. Hyder occupied Mangalore in 1763. The Mangalorean Catholics numbered 80,000 in 1767. In February 1768 the British captured Mangalore from Hyder. Toward the end of 1768, Hyder and his son Tipu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore fort. After the conquest, Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore. Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign.
The Christians were alleged to have helped General Mathews with a sum of Rs. 3,30,000/-. Hyder summoned a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery. The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who helped the British, because it was a fitting punishment for people who betrayed the sovereign. But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians, rather than killing them.
Later, he opened negotiations with the Portuguese. As a result of the agreement, the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed. During Hyder's regime, the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish. After Hyder's death in the Second Anglo-Mysore War
on 7 December 1782, the British captured the fort again. Hyder was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort until January 1784, all of which resulted in failure. The fort was finally delivered to Tipu when the British capitulated
on 30 January 1784.
Tipu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Mangalorean Catholics and their help to the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War. To minimise the British threat to his kingdom and in the Sultan-ul-Tawarikh, due to "the rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast", Tipu banished the Mangalorean Catholic community from their lands, and imprisoned them at Seringapatam, the capital of his empire. The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.
Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore
in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara. He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates, and deport them to Seringapatam, through the Jamalabad fort route. All this was accomplished in a secret and well-planned move on Ash Wednesday
(24 February 1784). Accounts of the number of captives differ, ranging from 30,000 to 80,000. The generally accepted figure is 60,000, as per Tipu's own records. They were forced to climb nearly 4000 feet (1,219.2 m) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat
mountain ranges along two routes; one group travelled along the Bantwal
-Belthangadi-Kulshekar
-Virajpet
-Coorg-Mysore route, and the other along the Gersoppa falls
(Shimoga) route. It was 200 miles (321.9 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks.
According to the Barcoor Manuscript, written in Kannada by a Mangalorean Catholic from Barcoor
after his return from Seringapatam, 20,000 of them (one-third) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger, disease, and ill treatment by the soldiers. At the camp at Jamalabad fort, Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort. All Christian churches in South Canara, except the Hospet Church
at Hospet and the Monte Mariano Church
at Farangipet, were razed to the ground and all land owned by the captured Christians was taken over by Tipu and distributed among his favourites. After they were freed, all their belongings had disappeared and their deserted lands were cultivated by the Bunt
s.
After arriving at Seringapatam, the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam, were tortured, or sentenced to death. The young men who refused to embrace Islam were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears. They were seated on asses, paraded through the city, and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam. Historian Praxy Fernandes, author of Storm over Seringapatam: The Incredible Story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan, states that contrary to popular belief, 40,000 Christians were not kept manacled in the dungeons of Seringapatam.
Ludwig von Pastor
, a German historian, author of The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages. Volume 39 emphasises saying "countless" Mangalorean Catholics were hanged, including women with their children clinging around their necks. Others were trampled or dragged by elephants. The able-bodied young men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam. The young women and girls were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living in Seringapatam. The descendants of these women are today fully Islamic, and speak Konkani in a mixture of Urdu
in parts of present-day Mysore
, Kodagu, and Srirangapatna. According to Mr. Silva of Gangolli
m, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, Tipu had ordered the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet, and one hand as punishment. The persecutions continued until 1792. This was followed by a brief relaxation period from 1792–1797, during which a few Catholic families managed to escape to Coorg, Cannanore
, and Tellicherry. The persecutions resumed in 1797.
In the Battle of Seringapatam
on 4 May 1799, the British army under officers George Harris
, David Baird
, and
Arthur Wellesley
stormed the fortress, breached the town of Seringapatam, and killed Tipu. After his death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
, the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity. Of the 60,000–80,000 Mangalorean Catholics taken captive, only 15,000–20,000 made it out as Christians.
Historian Alan Machado Prabhu mentions that only 11,000 survived the captivity as Christians. British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 of them return to South Canara and resettle on their lands. Of the remaining Christians freed, about a thousand went to Malabar
, and some hundreds settled in Coorg. According to Francis Buchanan
, 15,000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity, while 10,000 of them migrated to Malabar. The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (1883) mentions that 15,000 persons returned, of which 12,000 were from South Canara and 3,000 from North Canara. According to genealogist Michael Lobo, the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors.
Later, the British took over South Canara. In 1800, they took a census of the region. Of the 3,96,672 (396,672) people living in South Canara, 10,877 were Christians. Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector
of Canara in June 1799. He passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians, which were taken over by non-Christians during the captivity. Through the assistance of the church and with the support of Munro, the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates. Fr. José Miguel Luis de Mendes, a Goan Catholic priest, was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on 7 December 1799. He took interest in the re-establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808. Later, British general John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara
. He took an active part in the restoration of the Catholic community's former possessions and the recovery of its estates. He constructed a church for them, which was completed in 1806.
In 1800, there were 2,545 Catholic households with a population of 10,877. Their population almost doubled by 1818. According to various parish books, Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19,068 in South Canara (12,877 in Mangalore and Bantval
, 3,918 in Moolki, 2,273 in Cundapore
and Barcoor
). Most of the churches which were earlier destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt by 1815. The community prospered under the British, and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa recommenced.
The opening of the Protestant German Basel Mission
of 1834 in Mangalore brought many handicraft industries, such as cotton weaving and tile-manufacturing, to the region and led to a large-scale rise in employment. In 1836–37, the political situation in Portugal
was in turmoil. Antonio Feliciano de Santa Rita Carvalho, a Portuguese priest, was appointed Archbishop-elect of Goa in September 1836 without authorisation from the then Pope, Gregory XVI
. Many Mangalorean Catholics did not accept the leadership of Carvalho but instead submitted to the Vicar Apostolic of Verapoly
in Travancore
, while some of them continued to be under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman. The parishes in South Canara were divided into two groups—one under Goa and the other under Verapoly.
Under the leadership of Joachim Pius Noronha, a Mangalorean Catholic priest, and John Joseph Saldanha, a Mangalorean Catholic judge, the Mangalorean Catholics sent a petition to the Holy See in 1840 to establish Mangalore as a separate Vicariate. Conceding to their request, Pope Gregory XVI
established Mangalore as a separate Vicariate on 17 February 1845 under the Verapoly Carmelites
. The Mangalore Mission was transferred to the French Carmelites by a bull dated 3 January 1870. During the regime of Carmelites, the Mangalorean Catholics constantly sent memorandums to the Holy See to send Jesuits to Mangalore to start institutions for higher education, since students frequently had to go to Bombay and Madras for educational purposes. Pope Leo XIII
, by the Brief of 27 September 1878, handed over the Mangalore mission to the Italian Jesuit of Naples
, who reached Mangalore on 31 December 1878.
The Italian Jesuits played an important role in education, health, and social welfare of the community. They built St. Aloysius College
in 1880, St Aloysius Chapel
in 1884, St. Joseph's Seminary
and many other institutions and churches. On 25 January 1887, Pope Leo XIII
established the Diocese of Mangalore, which is considered to be an important landmark in the community's history. By the later half of the 19th century, many Mangalorean Catholics were involved in the Mangalore tile industry, coffee
plantations, and trade in plantation products. They prospered under the British and competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the service of the British. The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics continued to remain agriculturists.
During the later 19th century, they started migrating to other urban areas, especially Bombay, Bangalore
, Calcutta, Karachi
, Madras, Mysore and Poona. The Mangalorean Catholics came to Bombay out of economic necessity. The first permanent settlement of Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay was recorded in the 1890s. The first Mangalorean Catholic settlement in Madras was recorded in the 1940s. Joachim Alva
, a Mangalorean Catholic politician, actively participated in uniting the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British during the Indian Independence Movement
.
In 1901, Mangalorean Catholics accounted for 76,000 of the total 84,103 Christians in South Canara., while in 1962, they numbered 1,86,741 (186,741). During the mid-20th century, Victor Fernandes
, Bishop of Mangalore from 1931 to 1955, erected a large cross
at Nanthoor
, near Padav hills
, on the former outskirts of Mangalore, in honour of the memory of Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march and during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam. During the 1970s, coastal communication increased between Bombay and Mangalore with the introduction of ships by the London-based trade firm Shepherd. These ships facilitated the entry of Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay. In 1993, the Mangalore Diocese estimated the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be 3,25,510 (325,510) out of a total South Canara population of 35,28,540 (3,528,540). This amounts to 9.23 percent of the population. A notable post-independence era event pertaining to the Mangalorean Catholics that occurred in southern Karnataka, and made national headlines, were the attacks on Christian religious institutions in September 2008.
festival, are Bangalore, Chennai
, Delhi
, Kolkata
, Mumbai
, Pune
, Hyderabad, Chikkamagaluru, Hassan
, and Ranchi
. A few Mangalorean Catholics are found in Kodagu and Kerala
, where there are tiny pockets concentrated in Thalassery
, Kasargod, Kannur
and Kochi
. They are mainly descended from those Catholics who fled the persecution and roundup by Tipu Sultan. The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is scattered across the globe. Many Mangalorean Catholics are found in Persian Gulf Arab states
in the Middle East
. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) has estimated that around 300 Mangalorean Catholic families live in Sydney, Australia, with a lot of second generation families. Many of these are multi-racial, being married into Anglo-Saxon, Spanish, Italian, Greek, and other ethnicities. Mangalorean genealogist
Michael Lobo has estimated that approximately half of the Mangalorean Catholics still reside in Mangalore and the other towns in the South Canara district. As for the remaining half, about 15 percent reside in other parts of Karnataka
(mostly Bangalore
), 15 percent reside in Mumbai
and its neighbouring areas, 10 percent reside in the Gulf countries
, 5 percent reside in other parts of India, and the remaining 5 percent reside in other parts of the world.
The German missionary Plebot
set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called the Basel Mission tile factory
. Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing Mangalore tiles
. The Albuquerque tile factory
, the first Indian Mangalore tile factory, was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque at Pane Mangalore
in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing the tiles. The Alvares tile factory
was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878. As of 1991–1992, out of twelve Mangalore tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, six were owned by Christians. These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India, and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterise its urban setting. Urban and rural housing follows the traditional variety of laterite
brick structures with Mangalore tile roofing on steeply sloped roofs. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house. The traditional houses tend to have spacious porticos, red cement or terracotta floors, and have fruit trees outside the house. The old Catholic houses of South Canara bear traces of Portuguese influence. The tall windows, pointed roofs, and verandahs are some of the Portuguese influenced architectural features
of the century-old houses.
.jpg)
Historically, the Mangalorean Catholic diet was completely vegetarian
. This changed during the 20th century, when with the advent of Westernisation, meat came to be consumed increasingly in the community, especially amongst the elite. Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries. Sanna-Dukra Maas (Sanna is idli fluffed with toddy or yeast; Dukra Maas is pork) is one of the most popular dishes of the Mangalorean Catholic community. Rosachi Kadi (Ros Curry), a fish curry made with coconut milk (ros), is a traditional curry served during the Ros ceremony. Patrode
, a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice, dal
, jaggery
, coconut, and spices is popular. Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and include around 22 varieties of sweets. Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics. Par-boiled rice, known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten and is preferred over raw rice.
s, having variants in both Konkani and English, like Zuãuñ (from Portuguese João, meaning John) and Mornel (Magdalene
) are common among Mangalorean Catholics. Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second declension
. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension. Portuguese surnames like D'Souza, Coelho
, and Pinto
are common among Mangalorean Catholics, and generally follow the second declension. Other European surnames are found. Mangalorean Catholics use their native language Konkani forms of their surnames in Konkani-language contexts, along with their English forms in English-language contexts, such as Soz, Kuel, and Pint, instead of Sousa, Coelho, and Pinto. Some families use their original Konkani Brahmin
surnames such as Prabhu
, Kamath, Naik
, Shenoy
and Shet
. These original surnames are actually the names of five classes of persons: lord, cultivator, merchant, warrior, and writer. Four of these are Goud Saraswat Brahmin surnames, with the exception of Shet, which is used by a few who trace their origins to the Daivadnya
Brahmins of Goa. These ancestral pre-conversion surnames of the Mangalorean Catholics are called paik in Konkani. To capture their tradition, many have reverted to their paik surnames, or use hyphenated names consisting of their post-conversion surnames in conjunction with their ancestral ones. Mudartha is a unique Mangalorean Catholic surname to be found among some Catholics that hail from Udupi.
Mangalorean Catholics speak the Konkani language
, which they have retained as their mother tongue despite the migration; the language is central to the community's identity. They speak a dialect known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which the Ethnologue
broadly identifies as the Mangalore dialect.
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect has Sanskrit
influences, and preserves many features of the Maharashtri
, Shauraseni, and Magadhi
dialects of Prakrit
.
It also liberally uses loanword
s from the Tulu
and Kannada
languages. It is written in the Kannada script
. The dialect does not distinguish between the nouns of Kannada and Konkani and has developed into a language that is very practical for business. Some Kannada rootwords which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon. 350–400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect, of which more than half are related to religious terminology. The influence of Portuguese syntax is only found in some sets of phrases and prayers which have come down from the pre-migration era.
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is largely derived from the Bardeskaar (North Goa
n) dialect and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Bardeskaar dialect (spoken by North Goan Christians, North Goan Hindus, and South Goa
n Hindus) and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect. It consequently differs from the dialect spoken by the Goud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara, which is copiously derived and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Sashtikaar (South Goan) dialect spoken by South Goan Christians and North Canara Konkani Hindus. It is much closer to the dialects of the Goan Hindus than to that of the Goan Catholics
.
The Italian Jesuits who arrived in Mangalore in 1878, devoted themselves to the study and development of Konkani, and were thus responsible for the revival of the Konkani language in Mangalore. The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the first An English–Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore. He published a book on Konkani grammar in 1882, with a revised version in 1893. In 1912 the first Konkani periodical, Konknni Dirvem (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas. Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include Raknno (Guardian) (1938) by Mons. Sylvester Menezes, Konkan Daiz (Heritage of Konkani) (1958), and Kannik (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda. The twentieth-century literature focused on themes like the suffering of the Mangalorean Catholics during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam and the oppression of Goan Catholics during the Goa Inquisition
. The first Konkani novel in Karnataka Aangel (1915), was written in the Kannada script by Joachim Santan Alvares. In Bombay—which had a small Mangalorean Catholic community—periodicals like Sukh-Dukh (Ups and Downs) (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues, Konknni Yuvak (Konkani Youth) (1949) by George Fernandes
, Poinnari (Traveller) (1950) by V.J.P. Saldanha, and Divo (Lamp) (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published.
Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as Indian politics
in books like What Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes, historical awakening, in books such as Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu, and sexual desires, in The Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta. Genealogist Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical encyclopaedia, which exceeds 6,000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which include Mangaloreans Worldwide – An International Directory (1999), Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics (2000), and The Mangalorean Catholic Community – A Professional History / Directory (2002). William Robert da Silva translated the first complete Bible from English into Konkani. The work entitled Baibol (Bible) was written in the Kannada script, and published by the Mangalore-based Konkani Bible committee in 1997. In 2000, the Mangalore Diocese also released a Konkani Bible in Kannada script entitled Pavitr Pustak (Holy Book), which was made available online on 26 July 2007.
there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture. The Mangalorean Catholics have no uniform rituals since they belong to both the patrilineal Brahmin stock and to the matrilineal non-Brahmin stock. Their marriage rites share many similarities with the Shenvi sub-caste of the Goud Saraswat Brahmins. It was mainly these pagan marriage rites which the Portuguese found objectionable and prohibited during the Goan Inquisition.
The Ros (anointing
) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and bridegroom and involves the parents' blessing of the bride and groom, who are anointed with ros, a mixture of coconut milk
and coconut oil
, while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead. The marriage traditions include Soirik (betrothal), exchange of Paan Pod (betel leaves) during the marriage ceremony, which known as Badalchen (changing hands; formal acceptance of the promise made by the bride's father to the bridegroom's father that he will give his daughter in marriage). The bride is adorned with the Sado (wedding sari
) and Pirduk (wedding necklace). Other rites include the Onpnni (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride), Porthoponn (re-invitation to the bride's house), and singing of Honvious (hymns). Some non-marriage traditions include Novemjeevon (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) and Novem (blessing of new harvests).
In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas
, Good Friday
, and Easter
, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance. Monti Fest
is one of the major festivals, celebrated on 8 September. It combines the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing of Novem (new crops). The festival derives its name from the Monte Mariano Church
at Farangipet in South Canara, and was initiated by Fr. Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic
priest at Farangipet, in 1763. Although Tipu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali with Fr. Miranda. Attur Jatre or Attur Fest (Attur festival) is the feast of St. Lawrence, celebrated in the St. Lawrence Shrine
on the outskirts of Karkala
in South Canara. This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. Evkaristic Purshanv (Eucharist
ic Procession) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from Milagres Church
to Rosario Cathedral. The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.
Before marriage, women used to wear a Kirgi (sari) and Baju (blouse). The Kirgi is a piece of cloth not longer than four feet, and about three feet wide. It was wrapped around the body from the waist down. A jacket with long sleeves called a Baju, was used to cover the upper part of the body. This dress was a sign of the bride's virginity and was worn during the Ros ceremony. The Kirgi was wrapped around the waist, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder. To wear the sari with its end thrown over the shoulder, known as Worl, is the exclusive right of a married woman. Married women used to wear sarees the general way. The Salwar kameez is another form of popular dress for females. The Mangalorean Catholic bride's wedding sari is known as a Sado. It is usually a red-coloured Banarasi sari
which is made of finely woven silk and is decorated with elaborate engravings. In olden days, the bride wore on her head a red cloth, three feet square. Gold ornaments were absent in those days: the bride went to the church dressed as a virgin girl. In modern times, the bride wears (in place of the Kirgi) a red sari, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder; it is wrapped around the waist. The bride wears a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings, and at least two of the Dantoni (golden combs). Other ornaments worn by the bride in the olden days included Kanti, Chakrasar, Kap, Karap, Mugud, Kanto, and Dantoni.
Dantoni consist of two ordinary combs with the upper part of each one plated with gold; they are worn in the hair on both sides of the head over the ears. On the way to church the bride wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair. In the centre of the forehead, a Bang (gold chain) was placed with a pendant. The Pirduk (Mangalsutra
) is a necklace made of black beads strung on gold wire as either as a single chain or double chain, with a connecting pendant. This necklace is worn as long as the husband is alive; a widow is expected to take it off. It is highly prized by women
as the symbol of their married state. A widow is expected to wear a black sari for the remainder of her life, and is not allowed to wear ornaments. The bridegroom's dress in early times consisted of a short loincloth of hand-woven cloth (Dhoti
), a shawl to cover his shoulders, and a red handkerchief on the head (Leis). Later, his dress consisted of a white loincloth with a red and gold hem (todop), a shirt with gold buttons and a coat (Kutanv), a shawl on the shoulders, and a towel (Urmal) on the head. The bridegroom wore a Chakrasar (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks. At present, most Mangalorean Catholic couples opt for a White wedding
, where the bridegroom wears a suit, while the bride wears a white wedding gown. The traditional style of wedding is becoming exceedingly rare.
, Charodis
, Sudirs, and Gaudis.
The biggest group were the Bamonns, who were converts from the priestly Brahmin
class. All Brahmin sub-castes such as the Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Padye
s, and Daivadnya
s, especially the goldsmiths and a few merchants, were lumped into the Christian caste of Bamonn. The descendants of Goud Saraswat converts comprised the majority of this caste. The Bamonns were further divided into other castes according to rank. In Mangalore, they were sub-divided into Sirudhegars (the highest class), Alhdhengars, Cutdhnangars, Dhivodegars, Nathnolegars, Sashragars, Puruvargars, and Maidhegars. These names are taken from the villages to which they once belonged. This group constituted the landed gentry. In accordance with traditional Hindu law that allowed a Brahmin to practice any occupation except cultivation, the Bamonns refrained from cultivating their lands, and leased them to tenants.
The Charodis, the second-largest group, were converts from the Kshatriya
(warrior class) and Vaishya
(merchant class) castes. They were generally engaged in trade and commercial vocations. The artisan converts formed the third-biggest group and were known as Sudirs (the Konkani word for Shudra
s, which were the labour class). They were workers and agricultural labourers engaged in service professions. The converts from the fisher caste residing around Ullal
, Kuloor, and other places around the seacoast were called Gaudis, and formed the fourth group. They cultivated the lands of the Bamonns and the high-caste Hindus. Other minor castes included the Padvals, whom historian Severine Silva assumes to be local Jain
converts.
The Mangalorean Catholics constituted a small community widely scattered across the South Canara district. Rather than being a closely knit and united group, the Goan Catholic immigrants and their progeny did not associate with the native Catholics on account of caste, origin, and language, and even among themselves were strongly divided by caste. The Hindus, including the indigenous Brahmins (mostly belonging to the Shivalli, Havyaka
, and Kota
sub-groups) and Bunts did not associate with the Catholics and would not admit them into their houses on account of their religion. However, a close contact was kept by the Catholics with the Hindus of the same caste who were refugees from Goa. Catholics would invite their Hindu cousins to festivities such as birth celebrations, weddings, and funeral feasts. The Hindus accepted such invitations. Unlike his Hindu counterpart, a high-caste Mangalorean Catholic did not consider himself polluted upon physical contact with a member of the lower caste, but members of different castes did not fraternise or invite each other home for dinner.
Marriage between members of the various castes was not permitted, and such matches were strictly discouraged by the elders. For instance, a Bamonn boy would only marry a Bamonn girl and a Charodi boy would only marry a Charodi girl. The Bamonns and Charodis would invite neighbours and friends belonging to the Sudir and Gaudi castes to special occasions such as weddings and baptisms, although the latter would have to observe certain restrictions with regards to sitting and eating. The lower castes felt honoured if they were invited and usually accepted such invitations. The upper castes usually did not attend the ceremonies of the lower castes, even if expressly invited. The caste system continues to persist among Mangalorean Catholics, and as in former times, caste distinctions still figure prominently during the formation of marriage alliances.
It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, the Gurkar system came into existence. Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted with the social and religious supervision of the community. After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers. Every farmer practised carpentry, but it was quite primitive and unskilled, and other crafts and industries were non-existent. The mass was celebrated in Latin; but the sermon
, the catechism
, and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.
The parishes were grouped into deaneries called Varados. Every parish was divided into wards, while Parish Council
s were present in most parishes. About 15 percent of the households in the parishes were literate. A widow had to remain indoors, practically for the rest of her life. Since high-caste Hindu widows cannot remarry after the death of their husbands, the high-caste Christians too considered the remarriage of a widow as something unnatural. Canon law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara. Few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied, and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast, and no stigma was attached to her husband. Succession to property was practised as per the Hindu laws.
for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns. Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours, surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe, Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo (Lutheran Evangelical Community of São Paulo
) of Universidade Luterana do Brasil
(Lutheran University of Brazil). The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore, is one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore. The well-known Konkani hymn Riglo Jezu Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Fr. Joachim Miranda, an 18th century Goan Catholic priest, when he was held captive by Tipu Sultan on his Canara mission.
Mons. Minguel Placid Colaco wrote the devotional hymn Jezucho Mog (Jesus' Love) in 1905, and translated the Latin hymn Stabat Mater
into Konkani under the title Khursa Mullim (Bottom of the Holy Cross). Joseph Saldanha's Shembor Cantigo (100 Hymns) and Raimundo Mascarenhas' Deva Daia Kakultichea (O Compassionate Master) were popular. Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics are Aika Cristanv Jana (Listen, O' Christian People), Utha Utha Praniya (Wake up, Creatures), and Sorgim Thaun (From Heaven).
Konkani pop music became popular after Indian Independence
in 1947. Henry D'Souza and Helen D'Cruz are known for the Konkani love duet Kathrina in 1971 and the love Ballad Garacho Divo (Lamp of the House) in the 1970s, while Wilfy Rebimbus' sonnet
Mog Tuzo Kithlo Axelom (How I Have Loved Thee) from 1977 is popular. Konkani plays, especially religious ones, were written and staged in Mangalore in the 20th century by prominent playwrights such as Pedru John D'Souza, Pascal Sequeira and Bonaventure Tauro. The Ghumat
was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings. The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open. The traditional theatre form is called Gumat, and is performed on the eve of the marriage or in connection with the marriage celebrations in the decorated pandal (stage). The play is conducted by males belonging to both the brides' and bridegrooms' parties, and usually takes place for two or three nights. The plays performed are usually those of Biblical stories, and their morals are presented in order to educate the bride and bridegroom. This tradition has almost completely died out among the present generation.
The tradition of Voviyo (wedding songs), sung by women during a Ros, is important to this community. The procedure is that an elderly lady, usually the yejman (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known as yejmani) who knows the voviyos, leads the song while the rest of the women sing along. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times, the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families, invoking the blessing of God on them.
(KCA Bangalore) (established in 1955) and Mangalore Catholic Association (MCA) (established on 10 February 1996 in Pune
) are well known. In the United Kingdom, Mangalorean United Konkani Association (MUKA) in Nottingham
is popular. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria (MCAV) established in Melbourne
was the first organisation for the community in Australia. In 2006 the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) was established in Australia. In North America, the Mangalorean Association of Canada and the Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA) in Chicago
are well known. In the Middle East
, the Mangalore Cultural Association (MCA) in Doha
, Qatar
; was established on March 2008.
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
: Kodialchein Katholik) are an ethno-religious community of Roman Catholics
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
from the Mangalore Diocese (erstwhile South Canara
South Canara
South Canara was a district under the British empire, located at . It was bifurcated in 1859 from Canara district. It was the undivided Dakshina Kannada district...
district) on the southwestern coast of India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. They are a Konkani people
Konkani people
Konkani people , form a group of people mainly found in the Konkan Coast of western India whose mother-tongue is the Konkani language....
and speak the Konkani language
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
.
Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from Goan Catholic
Goan Catholics
The Goan Catholics are an ethno-religious community of Roman Catholics and their descendants from the state of Goa, located on the west coast of India. They are Konkani people and speak the Konkani language...
s who migrated to South Canara between 1560 and 1763, throughout the course of the Goa Inquisition
Goa Inquisition
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting in the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of...
, Portuguese
Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire , also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire or the Portuguese Colonial Empire , was the first global empire in history...
–Adil Shahi wars, and the Portuguese–Maratha
Maratha Empire
The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian imperial power that existed from 1674 to 1818. At its peak, the empire covered much of South Asia, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km²....
wars. They learned the languages of South Canara but retained Konkani as their mother tongue and preserved their lifestyle. Their 15-year captivity
Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam
The Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam was a 15-year imprisonment of Mangalorean Catholics and other Christians at Seringapatam in the Indian region of Canara by Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore...
at Seringapatam imposed by Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan , also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the son of Hyder Ali, at that time an officer in the Mysorean army, and his second wife, Fatima or Fakhr-un-Nissa...
, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire...
, from 24 February 1784 to 4 May 1799 led to the near extinction of the community. After Tipu's defeat and subsequent killing by the British
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
in 1799, the community resettled in South Canara, and later prospered under British rule.
Although early assertions of a distinct Mangalorean Catholic identity date from the migration period, a developed Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity only emerged following the captivity. The culture of Mangalorean Catholics is a blend of Mangalorean
Culture of Mangalore
Mangalore is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. A resident of Mangalore is known as a Mangalorean in English, Kudladaru in Tulu, Kodialgharano in Catholic Konkani, Kodyalkar in Konkani Language and Manglurnavaru in Kannada, Maikaaltanga in Beary bashe.-Multiculturalism:Mangalore...
and Goan
Culture of Goa
This article is about the culture of natives of the Indian state of Goa. A common generalisation about Goans is that they are born with music and football in their blood...
cultures. After migration, they adopted some aspects of the local Mangalorean culture, but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions. The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is mostly concentrated in the Persian Gulf Arab states
Arab states of the Persian Gulf
"Arab states of the Persian Gulf" or "Arab Persian Gulf states" or "Persian Gulf Arab states" or "Arabic Persian Gulf states" or "Arab States of The Gulf", are terms that refer to the six Arab states of Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman, bordering the Persian Gulf....
and the Anglosphere
Anglosphere
Anglosphere is a neologism which refers to those nations with English as the most common language. The term can be used more specifically to refer to those nations which share certain characteristics within their cultures based on a linguistic heritage, through being former British colonies...
.
Ethnic identity
The Roman Catholics from the Mangalore Diocese (erstwhile South CanaraSouth Canara
South Canara was a district under the British empire, located at . It was bifurcated in 1859 from Canara district. It was the undivided Dakshina Kannada district...
district) and their descendents are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics. The diocese is located on the southwestern coast of India. It comprises the civil districts of Dakshina Kannada
Dakshina Kannada
- Geography :The district geography consists of sea shore in the west and Western Ghats in the east. The major rivers are Netravathi, Kumaradhara, Phalguni, Shambhavi, Nandini or Pavanje and Payaswini which all join Arabian sea. Vast areas of evergreen forests which once covered this district, have...
and Udupi
Udupi district
Udupi district , ಉಡುಪಿ ಜಿಲ್ಲೆ) in the Karnataka state of India was created in August 1997. The three northern taluks, Udupi, Kundapur and Karkal, were separated from Dakshina Kannada District to form Udupi district. Udupi district is surrounded by Uttara Kannada district in north, Dakshina Kannada...
in Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
state, and Kasaragod
Kasaragod taluk
Kasaragod, is a taluk which along with Hosdurg taluk constitute the Kasaragod district, Kerala, India.- External links :* *...
in Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
state. This region was collectively referred to as South Canara
South Canara
South Canara was a district under the British empire, located at . It was bifurcated in 1859 from Canara district. It was the undivided Dakshina Kannada district...
during the British regime
British Raj
British Raj was the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947; The term can also refer to the period of dominion...
, prior to the States Reorganisation Act (1956).
In 1526, Portuguese ships arrived in Mangalore, and the number of local converts slowly increased. However, a sizeable Christian population did not exist until the second half of the 16th century, when there was a large-scale immigration of Christians from Goa to South Canara who were reluctant to learn the local languages of South Canara. They continued to speak Konkani, the language which they brought from Goa, and local Christians had to learn Konkani to converse with these people. After migration, the skilled Goan Catholic agriculturists were offered various land grants by the native Bednore
Keladi Nayaka
Keladi Nayaka Kingdom were an important ruling dynasty of post-medieval Karnataka, India. They initially started to rule as a feudatory of the Vijayanagar Empire...
rulers of South Canara. They observed their traditional Hindu
Hindu
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
customs in conjunction with the newfound Catholic practices, and preserved their lifestyle.
Most migrants were people from the lower economic strata who had been left out of government and economic jobs; their lands had been confiscated due to heavy taxation under the Portuguese in Goa. As a consequence of the wealth and privileges which these Goan migrants enjoyed in Mangalore, they began feeling superior to their landless brethren in Goa. Their captivity at Seringapatam
Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam
The Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam was a 15-year imprisonment of Mangalorean Catholics and other Christians at Seringapatam in the Indian region of Canara by Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore...
(1784–1799), where many died, were killed, or were forcibly converted to Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, led to the formation of a separate and common Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity among members of the group, who hitherto had considered themselves an extension of the larger Goan Catholic community. They no longer self-identified as Goan Catholics. After the captivity, employment on British
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
ships, prosperity under the British and Italian
Italian people
The Italian people are an ethnic group that share a common Italian culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a mother tongue. Within Italy, Italians are defined by citizenship, regardless of ancestry or country of residence , and are distinguished from people...
Jesuit regimes, and migration for employment to Bombay
Mumbai
Mumbai , formerly known as Bombay in English, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan area population of approximately 20.5 million...
, Calcutta
Kolkata
Kolkata , formerly known as Calcutta, is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Located on the east bank of the Hooghly River, it was the commercial capital of East India...
, Poona
Pune
Pune , is the eighth largest metropolis in India, the second largest in the state of Maharashtra after Mumbai, and the largest city in the Western Ghats. Once the centre of power of the Maratha Empire, it is situated 560 metres above sea level on the Deccan plateau at the confluence of the Mula ...
, Persian Gulf Arab states
Arab states of the Persian Gulf
"Arab states of the Persian Gulf" or "Arab Persian Gulf states" or "Persian Gulf Arab states" or "Arabic Persian Gulf states" or "Arab States of The Gulf", are terms that refer to the six Arab states of Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman, bordering the Persian Gulf....
, and the Anglosphere
Anglosphere
Anglosphere is a neologism which refers to those nations with English as the most common language. The term can be used more specifically to refer to those nations which share certain characteristics within their cultures based on a linguistic heritage, through being former British colonies...
, enabled the community to restore their identity. The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics are of Pancha Gauda Saraswat Brahmin lineage. Historian Alan Machado Prabhu estimates that almost 95% of Mangalorean Catholics have Goan origins.
Pre-migration era
Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan , also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the son of Hyder Ali, at that time an officer in the Mysorean army, and his second wife, Fatima or Fakhr-un-Nissa...
in 1784. Hence, it is not known exactly when Christianity was introduced in South Canara, although it is possible that Syrian Christians
Saint Thomas Christians
The Saint Thomas Christians are an ancient body of Christians from Kerala, India, who trace their origins to the evangelical activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. They are also known as "Nasranis" because they are followers of "Jesus of Nazareth". The term "Nasrani" is still used by St...
settled in South Canara, just as they did in Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
, a state south of Canara. The Italian traveller Marco Polo
Marco Polo
Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant traveler from the Venetian Republic whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and apparently...
recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
and the Canara coast in the 13th century. It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce; it is possible some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work.
In April 1321 the French Dominican
Dominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
friar Jordanus Catalani
Jordanus
Jordanus or Jordan Catalani was a French Dominican missionary and explorer in Asia known for his Mirabilia describing the marvels of the East.-Travels:He was perhaps born at Sévérac-le-Château in Aveyron, north-east of Toulouse...
of Severac (in south-western France) landed at Thana
Thane
Thane , is a city in Maharashtra, India, part of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, northeastern suburb of Mumbai at the head of the Thane Creek. It is the administrative headquarters of Thane district. On 16 April 1853, G.I.P...
with four other friars. He then travelled to Bhatkal
Bhatkal
Bhatkal is also known as Batecala in some historical text especially in Portuguese history.Once ruled by Jain King Bhattakalanka and thus the name. Bhatkal is a port town in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, India 126 km from Karwar. The town lies on NH-17 running between Mumbai and Mangalore...
in North Canara, a port town on the coastal route from Thana to Quilon
Quilon
Quilon may refer to,* Venad, a former state on Malabar Coast, India* Kollam , Kerala state, India* Kollam district, Kerala state...
. Being the first bishop of India and the Quilon Diocese, he was entrusted the spiritual nourishment of Christian community in Mangalore and other parts of India by Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII , born Jacques Duèze , was pope from 1316 to 1334. He was the second Pope of the Avignon Papacy , elected by a conclave in Lyon assembled by Philip V of France...
. According to historian Severine Silva, no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century. It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to spread.
In 1498 the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed on a group of islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India. He named the islands El Padron de Santa Maria; they later came to be known as St Mary's Islands
St Mary's Island, Karnataka
St. Mary's Islands also known as Coconut Island, are a set of four small islands in the Arabian Sea off the coast of Malpe in Udupi, Karnataka, India. They are known for their distinctive geological formation of columnar basaltic lava ....
. In 1500 Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral
Pedro Álvares Cabral
Pedro Álvares Cabral was a Portuguese noble, military commander, navigator and explorer regarded as the discoverer of Brazil. Cabral conducted the first substantial exploration of the northeast coast of South America and claimed it for Portugal. While details of Cabral's early life are sketchy, it...
arrived at Anjediva
Anjadip Island
Anjadip Island is an island in the Arabian Sea off the coast of Canacona in the South Goa district, Goa, India. Legally and constitutionally, it remains a part of Goa, although there is a widespread misconception that it is a part of the Karnataka state off whose coast it lies.-History:Anjediva,...
in North Canara with eight Franciscan
Franciscan
Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. Besides Roman Catholic communities, there are also Old Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, ecumenical and Non-denominational Franciscan communities....
missionaries. Under the leadership of Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra, the missionaries converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region. During the early part of the 16th century, Krishnadevaraya
Krishnadevaraya
Śrī Kriṣhṇa Devarāya , , , and also known as Krishna Devarayulu in some inscriptions was the famed Emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire who reigned from 1509–1529 CE.He is the third ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty. Presiding over the empire at its zenith, he is regarded as an icon by many Indians...
(1509–1529), the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire
Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire , referred as the Kingdom of Bisnaga by the Portuguese, was an empire based in South Indian in the Deccan Plateau region. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of the Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts...
of Deccan
Deccan Plateau
The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau in India, making up the majority of the southern part of the country. It rises a hundred meters high in the north, rising further to more than a kilometers high in the south, forming a raised triangle nested within the familiar downward-pointing triangle of...
, granted commercial privileges to the Portuguese on the Canara coast. There was complete freedom of worship, belief, and propagation of religious tenets in the Vijaynagara Empire. In 1526, under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio
Lopo Vaz de Sampaio
Lopo Vaz de Sampaio was an administrator of the Portuguese Empire. He was also the captain of Vasco da Gama, a famous Portuguese explorer. During 1528-29, Lopo Vaz de Sampaio seized the fort of Mahim from the Gujarat Sultanate, when the King was at war with Nizam-ul-mulk, the emperor of Chaul, a...
, the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore.
The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore. A prominent local convert was the Brahmin Mahant
Mahant
A mahant is a religious superior, in particular the chief priest of a temple or the head of a monastery. The Hindi word mahant is from Prakrit mahanta-, from Sanskrit mahat "great". The priest, pundit, gyani, or pastor of any well-known religious place would be a mahant...
Shankarayya, who in 1751, travelled to Goa with his wife from Kallianpur
Kallianpur
Kallianpur is a hamlet of Tonse-East village about six km from Udupi. It is a developed hamlet with all modern amenities like schools, college, hospital, good transport and communication facilities. The people of Kallianpur have survived many ages and still retain great positions with attachment to...
and was baptised
Baptism
In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
, with the Portuguese viceroy assuming the role of his godfather. The honoured Mahant took the name of Francisco de Távora, after the Viceroy Marques de Távora
Francisco de Távora
Francisco de Távora was the first count of Alvor.Born to António Luis de Távora, second count of São João da Pesqueira and D. Arcângela Maria de Portugal, he married Inês Catarina de Távora and had three children :*Maria Inácia de Távora...
. Their properties were subsequently taken over by their Hindu relatives, but the viceroy instructed his factor of Mangalore to get their property restored. In 1534 Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa, where the Portuguese had a strong presence. Missionaries soon arrived and gained converts. The number of local converts in South Canara continually increased until 1546. During the mid-16th century, the Portuguese faced resistance from Abbakka Rani
Abbakka Rani
Abbakka Rani or Abbakka Mahadevi was the queen of Tulunadu who fought the Portuguese in the latter half of the 16th century. She belonged to the Chowta dynasty who ruled over the area from the temple town of Moodabidri. The port town of Ullal served as their subsidiary capital. The Portuguese...
of Ullal
Ullal
Ullāḷ is a panchayat town in Dakshina Kannada district in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is a small town about 8–10 km south of Mangalore close to the border between the two southern states of Karnataka and Kerala. It comprises two revenue villages, Ullal and Parmannur, in Mangalore Taluk...
, the Queen of the Bednore dynasty. This put a halt to conversions. The first battle between Abbakka Rani and the Portuguese was fought in 1546; she emerged victorious and drove the Portuguese out of South Canara.
Migration era
Afonso de Albuquerque
Afonso de Albuquerque[p][n] was a Portuguese fidalgo, or nobleman, an admiral whose military and administrative activities as second governor of Portuguese India conquered and established the Portuguese colonial empire in the Indian Ocean...
, sent by King Manuel I of Portugal
Manuel I of Portugal
Manuel I , the Fortunate , 14th king of Portugal and the Algarves was the son of Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, , by his wife, Infanta Beatrice of Portugal...
, wrested the Island of Goa from Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah
Yusuf Adil Shah
Yusuf Adil Shah , referred as Adil Khan or Hidalcão by the Portuguese, was the founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty that ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur for nearly two centuries...
of Bijapur. In 1534, the Diocese of Goa was established. Soon missionaries were sent to Goa, which led to conversion of a sizeable population to Roman Catholicism. The bulk of Christian settlers came in three major migration waves towards South Canara. These migrations occurred in periods of great unrest: the Goa Inquisition
Goa Inquisition
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting in the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of...
occurred from 1560 onwards; the Portuguese
Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire , also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire or the Portuguese Colonial Empire , was the first global empire in history...
–Adil Shahi wars were between 1570–79; and the Portuguese–Maratha
Maratha Empire
The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian imperial power that existed from 1674 to 1818. At its peak, the empire covered much of South Asia, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km²....
wars occurred between 1667–83 and 1737–40. Other factors that led to mass migrations were disease epidemics, famines, natural calamities, overpopulation, poor living conditions, heavy tax burdens, and social discrimination by the Portuguese.
In 1542, the Navarrese
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre , originally the Kingdom of Pamplona, was a European kingdom which occupied lands on either side of the Pyrenees alongside the Atlantic Ocean....
Jesuit Francis Xavier, co-founder of the Society of Jesus; arrived in Goa. He discovered that the newly converted Christians were practising their old Hindu customs and traditions. He requested the Portuguese king João III
John III of Portugal
John III , nicknamed o Piedoso , was the fifteenth King of Portugal and the Algarves. He was the son of King Manuel I and Maria of Aragon, the third daughter of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile...
to install an Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
in Goa in 1545. Many of the Goan ancestors of the present Mangalorean Catholics fled Goa when the Inquisition began in 1560. King Sebastião I
Sebastian of Portugal
Sebastian "the Desired" was the 16th king of Portugal and the Algarves. He was the son of Prince John of Portugal and his wife, Joan of Spain...
decreed that every trace of Indian customs should be eradicated through the Inquisition. Many Christians of Goa were tenaciously attached to some of their ancient Indian customs, especially their traditional Hindu marriage costumes, and refused to abandon them. Those who refused to comply were forced to leave Goa and to settle outside the Portuguese dominion, which resulted in the first major wave of migrations towards South Canara.
The Christians who left Goa were for the most part skilled farmers who abandoned their irrigated fields in Goa to achieve freedom. The remainder were skilled carpenters, goldsmiths, artisans, and merchants. At the time of migration, Canara was ruled by the Keladi
Keladi Nayaka
Keladi Nayaka Kingdom were an important ruling dynasty of post-medieval Karnataka, India. They initially started to rule as a feudatory of the Vijayanagar Empire...
king Shivappa Nayaka
Shivappa Nayaka
Shivappa Nayaka , also known as Keladi Shivappa Nayaka, was a notable ruler of the Keladi Nayaka Kingdom. The Keladi Nayakas were successors of the Vijayanagara Empire in the coastal and Malnad districts of Karnataka, India, in the late 16th century...
(1540–60). He evinced great interest in the development of agriculture in his empire and welcomed these farmers to his kingdom, giving them fertile lands to cultivate. They were recruited into the armies of the Bednore dynasty. This was confirmed by Francis Buchanan
Francis Buchanan-Hamilton
Dr Francis Buchanan, later known as Francis Hamilton but often referred to as Francis Buchanan-Hamilton was a Scottish physician who made significant contributions as a geographer, zoologist, and botanist while living in India.The standard botanical author abbreviation Buch.-Ham. is applied to...
, a Scottish physician, when he visited Canara in 1801. In his book A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (1807), he stated that "The princes of the house of Ikkeri had given great encouragement to the Christians, and had induced 80,000 of them to settle in Tuluva
Tulu Nadu
Tulu Nadu is a Tulu-speaking region spread over to parts of present Karnataka and Kerala States of India. It consists of the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts of Karnataka and the northern parts of the Kasaragod district of Kerala up to the Payaswini River...
." Later, this was identified as a probable mistake and should have read "8,000". This figure included the second emigration of Christians from Goa. The taxation policies of the Keladi Nayakas during 1598–1763 enabled the Goan Catholic migrants to emerge as prominent landowning gentry in South Canara. These migrants usually brought their own capital from Goa, which they invested in their new lands, thereby indirectly contributing to the prosperity of the Keladi kingdom.
Under the provisional treaties between the Portuguese and the Bednore rulers, and the Padroado
Padroado
The Padroado , was an arrangement between the Holy See and the kingdom of Portugal, affirmed by a series of treaties, by which the Vatican delegated to the kings of Spain and Portugal the administration of the local Churches...
, the Christians were allowed to build churches and help foster the growth of Christianity in South Canara. The arrival of the British and the Dutch
Dutch Empire
The Dutch Empire consisted of the overseas territories controlled by the Dutch Republic and later, the modern Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch followed Portugal and Spain in establishing an overseas colonial empire, but based on military conquest of already-existing...
halted the activity of the Portuguese, and they were gradually unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore. Shivappa Nayaka had previously expelled the Portuguese from their forts a little before 1660, which brought about considerable changes in the ecclesiastical situation. The appointment of the Vicar Apostolic of Mangalore was felt by the Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
to be of critical importance. Nayaka pressured the church authorities to appoint a native priest as the Vicar Apostolic, which resulted in the appointment of Fr. Andrew Gomez to the post; however, he died before the nomination papers could reach Mangalore.
At the recommendation of the Vicar General
Vicar general
A vicar general is the principal deputy of the bishop of a diocese for the exercise of administrative authority. As vicar of the bishop, the vicar general exercises the bishop's ordinary executive power over the entire diocese and, thus, is the highest official in a diocese or other particular...
of Verapoly
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly
The Latin Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly is located on the Malabar Coast in India. It became a metropolitan see in 1886. Verapoly is now officially named Varapuzha.-History:...
, Mons. Joseph Sebastiani, Pope Clement X appointed Bishop Thomas de Castro
Thomas de Castro
Dom Thomas de Castro was a native of Divar in Goa. The Holy See appointed him Vicar Apostolic of Canara on 30th August 1675. He later founded the famous Milagres Church in Mangalore, South Canara , Karnataka state, India. He was the nephew of Dom Matheus de Castro , the first Indian Bishop of...
, a Goan Theatine
Theatines
The Theatines or the Congregation of Clerks Regular of the Divine Providence are a male religious order of the Catholic Church, with the post-nominal initials "C.R."-Foundation:...
and Bishop of Fulsivelem, as the Vicar Apostolic of Propaganda Fide
Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples in Rome is the congregation of the Roman Curia responsible for missionary work and related activities...
in the Vicariate
Apostolic vicariate
An apostolic vicariate is a form of territorial jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church established in missionary regions and countries that do not have a diocese. It is essentially provisional, though it may last for a century or more...
of Canara on 30 August 1675, for the purpose of providing spiritual leadership to the Canara Christians. After his consecration, he first went to Calicut and then moved to Mangalore, where he served from 1677 to 1684. In 1677, Bishop de Castro entered into a conflict with the Archbishop of Goa, Dom Frei António Brandão, for disregarding the Padroado. Consequently, they did not cede the jurisdiction to him despite the Pope's letter of appointment. The Padroado–Propaganda conflict which ensued divided the Catholics of Canara into two sides—those who recognised the authority of the Padroado Archbishop in Goa versus those who supported de Castro.
The Portuguese refused to recognise Bishop de Castro's appointment and vigorously opposed his activities. Archbishop Brandão's sudden death on 6 July 1678 further complicated matters, and the Cathedral chapter
Cathedral chapter
In accordance with canon law, a cathedral chapter is a college of clerics formed to advise a bishop and, in the case of a vacancy of the episcopal see in some countries, to govern the diocese in his stead. These councils are made up of canons and dignitaries; in the Roman Catholic church their...
administering the Archdiocese of Goa following the vacancy created by his death, forbade the Canara Catholics from receiving the sacraments from the bishop or from priests appointed by him. In his turn, Bishop de Castro excommunicated those Catholics who were obedient to the Padroado authorities in Goa and their priests. In 1681, the Holy See appointed another Goan priest Fr. Joseph Vaz, as the Vicar Forane
Archpriest
An archpriest is a priest with supervisory duties over a number of parishes. The term is most often used in Eastern Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholic Churches, although it may be used in the Latin rite of the Roman Catholic Church instead of dean or vicar forane.In the 16th and 17th centuries, during...
of Canara; he was asked not to submit to Bishop de Castro unless he showed the letter of appointment. However, after being convinced of its legitimacy, Fr. Vaz submitted to Bishop de Castro and brought about a truce. He further managed to persuade the bishop to delegate his jurisdiction to him while retaining the post. In 1700, the Catholics of Canara were again brought under the jurisdiction of the Padroado Archbishop of Goa.
The Milagres Church
Milagres Church
The Milagres Church is a historic Roman Catholic Church situated in the Hampankatta locality of Mangalore. The church was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro, a Theatine from Divar, Goa. The original structure was constructed at the site of the present-day cemetery...
, one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro. In 1568, the Church of Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore (Our Lady of the Rosary of Mangalore) was erected by the Portuguese at Bolar
Bolar (Location)
Bolara is a locality in Mangalore City, Karnataka, India.The famous Mangaladevi Temple by which Mangalore derives its name is located in Bolara...
in Mangalore. The Churches of Nossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala (Our Lady of Mercy of Ullal
Ullal
Ullāḷ is a panchayat town in Dakshina Kannada district in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is a small town about 8–10 km south of Mangalore close to the border between the two southern states of Karnataka and Kerala. It comprises two revenue villages, Ullal and Parmannur, in Mangalore Taluk...
) and São Francisco de Assis (St. Francis of Assisi) at Farangipet were erected by the Portuguese in South Canara at around the same time. These three churches were mentioned by the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle
Pietro Della Valle
Pietro della Valle was an Italian who traveled throughout Asia during the Renaissance period. His travels took him to the Holy Land, the Middle East, Northern Africa, and as Far as India.-Biography:...
, who visited Mangalore in 1623.
In 1570, the Sultan
Sultan
Sultan is a title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", and "dictatorship", derived from the masdar سلطة , meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who...
of Bijapur, Ali Adil Shah I
Ali Adil Shah I
Ali Adil Shah I was the fifth Sultan of Bijapur Sultanate.On the day of his coronation Ali abandoned the Sunni practices and reintroduced the Shi’ah Khutbah and other practices...
, entered into an alliance with the Sultan of Ahmadnagar
Ahmadnagar Sultanate
The Ahmadnagar Sultanate سلطان احمد نگر was a late medieval Indian kingdom, located in the northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur. Malik Ahmad, the Bahmani governor of Junnar after defeating the Bahmani army led by general Jahangir Khan on 28 May 1490 declared...
, Murtaza Nizam Shah, and the Zamorin of Calicut
Kozhikode
Kozhikode During Classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, Kozhikkode was dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role as the major trading point of eastern spices. Kozhikode was once the capital of an independent kingdom of the same name and later of the erstwhile Malabar District...
for a simultaneous attack on the Portuguese territories of Goa, Chaul
Chaul
Chaul is a former city of Portuguese India, now in ruins. It is located 60 km south of Mumbai, in Raigad District of Maharashtra state in western India....
, and Mangalore. He attacked Goa in 1571 and ended Portuguese influence in the region. The Bijapur Sultans were especially renowned for their loathing of Christianity. Fearing persecution, many Goan Catholics fled to South Canara during this second wave of migrations, and settled in Barcoor
Barkur
Barkur is a cluster of 3 villages [Hosala, Hanehalli, Kachoor] in Udupi district of the Karnataka state in South India. The place is located on the bank of river Seeta.-History:...
, Kallianpur
Kallianpur
Kallianpur is a hamlet of Tonse-East village about six km from Udupi. It is a developed hamlet with all modern amenities like schools, college, hospital, good transport and communication facilities. The people of Kallianpur have survived many ages and still retain great positions with attachment to...
, Cundapore
Kundapura
-Languages and culture :The town mainly consists of Kannadigas who speak Kundagannada, Konkanis and Tuluvas. The Goud Saraswat Brahmins who fled Goa during the Portuguese arrival in the 16th century arrived by Boat in Basrur and some settled in Kundapura and surrounding villages. These people and...
, and Basroor
Basrur
Basrur / Basroor is a village in Kundapur taluk in Udupi district of Karnataka.Historically Basrur was also called as Barcelor, Barcalor, Basnur, Bares, Abu-Sarur and Barsellor.-History:...
. For the next century, there was continual migration of Goan Catholics southwards, so that by 1650, a considerable number of Catholics were settled around Mangalore, Moolki, Shirva
Shirva
Shirva is a village in Udupi taluk of Udupi district. The village is known locally for cultivation of flowers, especially Jasmine, called Mallige in Tulu language spoken by locals...
, Pezar, Bantval, Cundapore, Kallianpur, and Kirem. The Christian Goud Saraswat Brahmins who came during this wave belonged mostly to the Shenvi
Shenoy
Shenoy is a common surname amongst the Goud Saraswat Brahmins and Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins. It is the most common surname among the Goud Saraswat Brahmins.-Etymology:...
subcaste.
Kudal
Kudal is a census town in Sindhudurg district in the Indian state of Maharashtra.-Geography:Kudal is located at . It has an average elevation of 20 metres .-Demographics:...
, a town north of Goa, and began his campaign for Goa. After Shivaji's death on 3 April 1680, his son Sambhaji
Sambhaji
Sambhaji Raje Bhosle was the eldest son and successor to Emporer Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire.- Early life :...
ascended to the throne. The onslaught of Sambahji along the northern territories of Goa drove nearly all the Christians from their homelands, and most of them migrated to South Canara. Migration increased with the fall of the Portuguese "Province of the North" (which included Bassein, Chaul, and Salsette) and a direct threat to the very existence of Goa in 1738–40.
According to one estimate, emigrations from the Salcete district of Goa were around the rate of 2,000 annually. Jesuit priests estimated that 12,000 Christians emigrated from the Bardez
Bardez
Bardez is the name of a region and taluka in North Goa. The name is credited to the Brahmin immigrants who migrated to the Konkan via Magadha in Gangetic India from Aryavarta, in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent. Bardez or more properly Bara desh means "twelve countries"...
district of Goa between 1710–12, most of them going southward. A Goa government report of 1747 presently in the Panjim archives records that around 5,000 Christians fled from the Bardez and Tiswadi
Tiswadi
Tiswadi is a taluka of North Goa district of the state of Goa, India.The word Tiswadi itself means thirty settlements. It refers to the thirty settlements in which the Goud Saraswat Brahmins settled when they migrated to Goa. It is geographically an Island with the Mandovi river forming its...
districts of Goa during the Maratha invasion. During the Maratha raids on Goa, about 60,000 Christians migrated to South Canara. These new migrants were given lands at Shirva
Shirva
Shirva is a village in Udupi taluk of Udupi district. The village is known locally for cultivation of flowers, especially Jasmine, called Mallige in Tulu language spoken by locals...
, Kirem, Mundkur
Mundkur
Mundkur is a village in Karkala Taluk, Udupi district Karnataka, India. The Durga Parameshwari temple located here is more than 1300 years old. -History of Sri Kshethra Mundkur:...
, Pezar, and Hosabettu
Hosabettu
Hosabettu is a census town in Dakshina Kannada District in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located near Moodbidri coming within limits Karnataka state.-Demographics:...
by the Chowta
Chowta
Chowta is a common surname of the Bunt people of Karnataka and Kerala, India. It is also the name of the Jain Bunt dynasty who ruled certain parts of the Tulu Nadu region for several centuries.They initially ruled from their capital at Ullal,then moved it to Puthige.The descendants of the chowta...
kings of Moodbidri and at Milagres, Bondel, and Cordel by the Banghel kings of Mangalore.
During later years, migration slowed because of the Maratha–Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
wars, and some 10,000 Christians returned to Goa. According to Alan Machado Prabhu, Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58,000 by 1765.
Subsequent to this steady rise in South Canara's Catholic population, the Portuguese took advantage of every opportunity to extend their control over the Mangalorean Catholics, who came to be identified with Portuguese interests.
The Portuguese sought to expand the power of the priests, as from the beginning of their empire, priests had accompanied Portuguese delegations on diplomatic missions and on occasion were the principal negotiatiors. Treaties they signed with the Keladi Nayakas progressively incorporated clauses which increased the authority of the priests over the local Catholic population, making them obedient to the priests in matters of Christian laws as well as granting priests the authority to punish violations. The Portuguese promised to refrain from slaughtering cows and to halt forcible conversions in their factories
Factory (trading post)
Factory was the English term for the trading posts system originally established by Europeans in foreign territories, first within different states of medieval Europe, and later in their colonial possessions...
. The terms of these treaties were not always honoured by the Portuguese, with the result that whenever hostilities broke out between the Keladis and the Portuguese, the Catholic settlers were often harassed or arrested by the Nayakas.
Post-migration era and captivity
Srirangapatna
Srirangapatna is a town in Mandya district of the Indian state of Karnataka...
, the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire...
, had a community of more than 400 Catholics. The community was severely harassed in the following two decades, with the churches destroyed and the priest's house confiscated. The destruction was undertaken under the name of the Wodeyar
Wodeyar
The Wodeyar dynasty was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Mysore from 1399 to 1947, until the independence of India from British rule and the subsequent unification of the Indian dominion and princely states into the Republic of India.The spelling Wodeyar/Wadiyar is found in most...
king, Kanthirava Narasaraja I
Kanthirava Narasaraja I
Kanthirava Narasaraja I was the Wodeyar ruler of Mysore from 1638 to 1659.-Early years:...
, by his finance minister. The priest's house was returned to the church in 1709. Relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved until 1717, when there was an anti-Christian outburst. The resident priest was expelled and forbidden to preach. Several more anti-Christian outbursts followed. By 1736, there were better relations between the two groups.
From 1761 onwards, Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born Hyder Naik, he distinguished himself militarily, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's rulers...
, a distinguished soldier in the Mysore army, took de facto control of the throne of the Kingdom of Mysore through the Wodeyar dynasty. Hyder occupied Mangalore in 1763. The Mangalorean Catholics numbered 80,000 in 1767. In February 1768 the British captured Mangalore from Hyder. Toward the end of 1768, Hyder and his son Tipu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore fort. After the conquest, Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore. Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign.
The Christians were alleged to have helped General Mathews with a sum of Rs. 3,30,000/-. Hyder summoned a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery. The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who helped the British, because it was a fitting punishment for people who betrayed the sovereign. But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians, rather than killing them.
Later, he opened negotiations with the Portuguese. As a result of the agreement, the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed. During Hyder's regime, the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish. After Hyder's death in the Second Anglo-Mysore War
Second Anglo-Mysore War
The Second Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in Mughal India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, and the Franco-British conflict raging on account of the American Revolutionary War helped spark Anglo-Mysorean...
on 7 December 1782, the British captured the fort again. Hyder was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort until January 1784, all of which resulted in failure. The fort was finally delivered to Tipu when the British capitulated
Siege of Mangalore
The Siege of Mangalore was conducted during the Second Anglo-Mysore War by Tipu Sultan and forces of the Kingdom of Mysore against a British East India Company garrison led by Colonel Campbell...
on 30 January 1784.
Tipu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Mangalorean Catholics and their help to the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War. To minimise the British threat to his kingdom and in the Sultan-ul-Tawarikh, due to "the rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast", Tipu banished the Mangalorean Catholic community from their lands, and imprisoned them at Seringapatam, the capital of his empire. The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.
Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore
Treaty of Mangalore
The Treaty of Mangalore was signed between Tippu Sultan and the British East India Company on 11 March 1784. It was signed in Mangalore and brought an end to the Second Anglo-Mysore War.-Background:...
in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara. He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates, and deport them to Seringapatam, through the Jamalabad fort route. All this was accomplished in a secret and well-planned move on Ash Wednesday
Ash Wednesday
Ash Wednesday, in the calendar of Western Christianity, is the first day of Lent and occurs 46 days before Easter. It is a moveable fast, falling on a different date each year because it is dependent on the date of Easter...
(24 February 1784). Accounts of the number of captives differ, ranging from 30,000 to 80,000. The generally accepted figure is 60,000, as per Tipu's own records. They were forced to climb nearly 4000 feet (1,219.2 m) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat
Western Ghats
The Western Ghats, Western Ghauts or the Sahyādri is a mountain range along the western side of India. It runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The Western Ghats block rainfall to the Deccan...
mountain ranges along two routes; one group travelled along the Bantwal
Bantwal
Bantwal is a taluk in Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka, India. It is also a town by the same name. The adjacent township of B.C.Road serves as the commercial center.- History :...
-Belthangadi-Kulshekar
Kulshekar
Kulshekar is a locality in Mangalore, Karnataka, India. The famous Holy Cross Church is located in the Cordel suburb of Kulshekar.-External links:*...
-Virajpet
Virajpet
The town of Virajpet is the second town of the district of Kodagu, in Karnataka. It is the main town of the Virajpet taluka, in the south of the district. The name is an abbreviation of Virarajendrapete after the former ruler of Kodagu, Virarajendra, and this latter form is still sometimes used.It...
-Coorg-Mysore route, and the other along the Gersoppa falls
Jog Falls
Jog Falls , created by the Sharavathi River falling from a height of is the second-highest plunge waterfall in India Located in Sagara, Karnataka Shimoga District of Karnataka state, these segmented falls are a major tourist attraction...
(Shimoga) route. It was 200 miles (321.9 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks.
Barkur
Barkur is a cluster of 3 villages [Hosala, Hanehalli, Kachoor] in Udupi district of the Karnataka state in South India. The place is located on the bank of river Seeta.-History:...
after his return from Seringapatam, 20,000 of them (one-third) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger, disease, and ill treatment by the soldiers. At the camp at Jamalabad fort, Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort. All Christian churches in South Canara, except the Hospet Church
Hospet Church
The Church of Holy Cross of Hospet in South Canara, is one of the ancient church in the Mangalore Diocese of India. Being situated in Hosabettu, it is also known as Hosabettu Church. This was the only church that escaped the drive for the demolition of churches by Tippu Sultan during early...
at Hospet and the Monte Mariano Church
Monte Mariano Church
Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet in South Canara, is a church where the Roman Catholic festival Monti Fest was initiated by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet in 1763. Though Tippu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the...
at Farangipet, were razed to the ground and all land owned by the captured Christians was taken over by Tipu and distributed among his favourites. After they were freed, all their belongings had disappeared and their deserted lands were cultivated by the Bunt
Bunt (community)
Bunt , previously spelled Bant, are a community of erstwhile nobility, feudatory and gentry from the region of Tulu Nadu in the south west of India which comprises the districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada in the Indian state of Karnataka and Kasaragod taluk of Kerala...
s.
After arriving at Seringapatam, the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam, were tortured, or sentenced to death. The young men who refused to embrace Islam were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears. They were seated on asses, paraded through the city, and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam. Historian Praxy Fernandes, author of Storm over Seringapatam: The Incredible Story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan, states that contrary to popular belief, 40,000 Christians were not kept manacled in the dungeons of Seringapatam.
Ludwig von Pastor
Ludwig von Pastor
Ludwig Pastor, later Ludwig von Pastor, Freiherr von Campersfelden , was a German historian and a diplomat for Austria. He became one of the most important Roman Catholic historians of his time and is most notable for his History of the Popes...
, a German historian, author of The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages. Volume 39 emphasises saying "countless" Mangalorean Catholics were hanged, including women with their children clinging around their necks. Others were trampled or dragged by elephants. The able-bodied young men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam. The young women and girls were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living in Seringapatam. The descendants of these women are today fully Islamic, and speak Konkani in a mixture of Urdu
Urdu
Urdu is a register of the Hindustani language that is identified with Muslims in South Asia. It belongs to the Indo-European family. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also widely spoken in some regions of India, where it is one of the 22 scheduled languages and an...
in parts of present-day Mysore
Mysore district
Mysore District is an administrative district located in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. The district is bounded by Mandya district to the northeast, Chamrajanagar district to the southeast, Kerala state to the south, Kodagu district to the west, and Hassan district to the north...
, Kodagu, and Srirangapatna. According to Mr. Silva of Gangolli
Gangolli
Gangolli is an Indian village in the Kundapura taluk of Udupi. It is situated across the river Pancha Gangaval from the town of Kundapura. It is located on a peninsula on the west coast of Karnataka...
m, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, Tipu had ordered the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet, and one hand as punishment. The persecutions continued until 1792. This was followed by a brief relaxation period from 1792–1797, during which a few Catholic families managed to escape to Coorg, Cannanore
Kannur
Kannur , also known as Cannanore, is a city in Kannur district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of the District of Kannur and 518km north of state capital Trivandrum. During British rule in India, Kannur was known by its old name Cannanore, which is still in...
, and Tellicherry. The persecutions resumed in 1797.
British and modern era
Battle of Seringapatam
The Siege of Seringapatam was the final confrontation of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore. The British achieved a decisive victory after breaching the walls of the fortress at Seringapatam and storming the citadel. Tippu Sultan, Mysore's...
on 4 May 1799, the British army under officers George Harris
George Harris, 1st Baron Harris
George Harris, 1st Baron Harris GCB was a British soldier.Harris was the son of the Reverend George Harris, curate of Brasted, Kent. He was educated at Westminster School and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, he was commissioned to the Royal Artillery in 1760, transferring to an ensigncy in...
, David Baird
Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet
General Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet GCB was a British military leader.-Military career:He was born at Newbyth House in Haddingtonshire, Scotland, the son of an Edinburgh merchant family, and entered the British Army in 1772. He was sent to India in 1779 with the 73rd Highlanders, in which he...
, and
Arthur Wellesley
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS , was an Irish-born British soldier and statesman, and one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century...
stormed the fortress, breached the town of Seringapatam, and killed Tipu. After his death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War was a war in South India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company under the Earl of Mornington....
, the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity. Of the 60,000–80,000 Mangalorean Catholics taken captive, only 15,000–20,000 made it out as Christians.
Historian Alan Machado Prabhu mentions that only 11,000 survived the captivity as Christians. British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 of them return to South Canara and resettle on their lands. Of the remaining Christians freed, about a thousand went to Malabar
Malabar District
Malabar District was an administrative district of Madras Presidency in British India and independent India's Madras State. The British district included the present-day districts of Kannur, Kozhikode, Wayanad, Malappuram, Palakkad , and Chavakad Taluk of Thrissur District in the northern part of...
, and some hundreds settled in Coorg. According to Francis Buchanan
Francis Buchanan-Hamilton
Dr Francis Buchanan, later known as Francis Hamilton but often referred to as Francis Buchanan-Hamilton was a Scottish physician who made significant contributions as a geographer, zoologist, and botanist while living in India.The standard botanical author abbreviation Buch.-Ham. is applied to...
, 15,000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity, while 10,000 of them migrated to Malabar. The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (1883) mentions that 15,000 persons returned, of which 12,000 were from South Canara and 3,000 from North Canara. According to genealogist Michael Lobo, the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors.
Later, the British took over South Canara. In 1800, they took a census of the region. Of the 3,96,672 (396,672) people living in South Canara, 10,877 were Christians. Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector
District collector
The District Collector is the district head of administration of the bureaucracy in a state of India. Though he/she is appointed and is under general supervision of the state government, he/she has to be a member of the elite IAS recruited by the Central Government...
of Canara in June 1799. He passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians, which were taken over by non-Christians during the captivity. Through the assistance of the church and with the support of Munro, the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates. Fr. José Miguel Luis de Mendes, a Goan Catholic priest, was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on 7 December 1799. He took interest in the re-establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808. Later, British general John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara
South Canara
South Canara was a district under the British empire, located at . It was bifurcated in 1859 from Canara district. It was the undivided Dakshina Kannada district...
. He took an active part in the restoration of the Catholic community's former possessions and the recovery of its estates. He constructed a church for them, which was completed in 1806.
Bantwal
Bantwal is a taluk in Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka, India. It is also a town by the same name. The adjacent township of B.C.Road serves as the commercial center.- History :...
, 3,918 in Moolki, 2,273 in Cundapore
Kundapura
-Languages and culture :The town mainly consists of Kannadigas who speak Kundagannada, Konkanis and Tuluvas. The Goud Saraswat Brahmins who fled Goa during the Portuguese arrival in the 16th century arrived by Boat in Basrur and some settled in Kundapura and surrounding villages. These people and...
and Barcoor
Barkur
Barkur is a cluster of 3 villages [Hosala, Hanehalli, Kachoor] in Udupi district of the Karnataka state in South India. The place is located on the bank of river Seeta.-History:...
). Most of the churches which were earlier destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt by 1815. The community prospered under the British, and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa recommenced.
The opening of the Protestant German Basel Mission
Basel Mission
The Basel Mission is a Christian missionary society active from 1815 to 2001, when it was merged into Mission 21, the successor organization of Kooperation Evangelischer Kirchen und Missione founded in 2001....
of 1834 in Mangalore brought many handicraft industries, such as cotton weaving and tile-manufacturing, to the region and led to a large-scale rise in employment. In 1836–37, the political situation in Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
was in turmoil. Antonio Feliciano de Santa Rita Carvalho, a Portuguese priest, was appointed Archbishop-elect of Goa in September 1836 without authorisation from the then Pope, Gregory XVI
Pope Gregory XVI
Pope Gregory XVI , born Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari, named Mauro as a member of the religious order of the Camaldolese, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 1831 to 1846...
. Many Mangalorean Catholics did not accept the leadership of Carvalho but instead submitted to the Vicar Apostolic of Verapoly
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly
The Latin Catholic Archdiocese of Verapoly is located on the Malabar Coast in India. It became a metropolitan see in 1886. Verapoly is now officially named Varapuzha.-History:...
in Travancore
Travancore
Kingdom of Travancore was a former Hindu feudal kingdom and Indian Princely State with its capital at Padmanabhapuram or Trivandrum ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. The Kingdom of Travancore comprised most of modern day southern Kerala, Kanyakumari district, and the southernmost parts of...
, while some of them continued to be under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman. The parishes in South Canara were divided into two groups—one under Goa and the other under Verapoly.
Under the leadership of Joachim Pius Noronha, a Mangalorean Catholic priest, and John Joseph Saldanha, a Mangalorean Catholic judge, the Mangalorean Catholics sent a petition to the Holy See in 1840 to establish Mangalore as a separate Vicariate. Conceding to their request, Pope Gregory XVI
Pope Gregory XVI
Pope Gregory XVI , born Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari, named Mauro as a member of the religious order of the Camaldolese, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 1831 to 1846...
established Mangalore as a separate Vicariate on 17 February 1845 under the Verapoly Carmelites
Carmelites
The Order of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mount Carmel or Carmelites is a Catholic religious order perhaps founded in the 12th century on Mount Carmel, hence its name. However, historical records about its origin remain uncertain...
. The Mangalore Mission was transferred to the French Carmelites by a bull dated 3 January 1870. During the regime of Carmelites, the Mangalorean Catholics constantly sent memorandums to the Holy See to send Jesuits to Mangalore to start institutions for higher education, since students frequently had to go to Bombay and Madras for educational purposes. Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII , born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci to an Italian comital family, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903...
, by the Brief of 27 September 1878, handed over the Mangalore mission to the Italian Jesuit of Naples
Naples
Naples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
, who reached Mangalore on 31 December 1878.
The Italian Jesuits played an important role in education, health, and social welfare of the community. They built St. Aloysius College
St. Aloysius College (Mangalore)
St. Aloysius College is a Jesuit college in Mangalore, Karnataka, India. It is situated on a campus atop Light House Hill, overlooking the Arabian Sea....
in 1880, St Aloysius Chapel
St Aloysius Chapel
St. Aloysius Chapel, or the chapel of St. Aloysius College, is a Christian chapel in Mangalore in the state of Karnataka in southwest India.-History:...
in 1884, St. Joseph's Seminary
St. Joseph's Seminary (Mangalore)
St. Joseph's Inter-diocesan Seminary, Mangalore is a Jesuit seminary in Jeppu, Mangalore. It was first established by Fr. Joachim Miranda in 1763, and later reestablished by Msgr Nicholas Pagani in 1878.-History:...
and many other institutions and churches. On 25 January 1887, Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII , born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci to an Italian comital family, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903...
established the Diocese of Mangalore, which is considered to be an important landmark in the community's history. By the later half of the 19th century, many Mangalorean Catholics were involved in the Mangalore tile industry, coffee
Coffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage with a dark,init brooo acidic flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant, colloquially called coffee beans. The beans are found in coffee cherries, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia,...
plantations, and trade in plantation products. They prospered under the British and competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the service of the British. The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics continued to remain agriculturists.
During the later 19th century, they started migrating to other urban areas, especially Bombay, Bangalore
Bangalore
Bengaluru , formerly called Bengaluru is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and...
, Calcutta, Karachi
Karachi
Karachi is the largest city, main seaport and the main financial centre of Pakistan, as well as the capital of the province of Sindh. The city has an estimated population of 13 to 15 million, while the total metropolitan area has a population of over 18 million...
, Madras, Mysore and Poona. The Mangalorean Catholics came to Bombay out of economic necessity. The first permanent settlement of Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay was recorded in the 1890s. The first Mangalorean Catholic settlement in Madras was recorded in the 1940s. Joachim Alva
Joachim Alva
Joachim Alva was an Indian freedom fighter, journalist and politician from Mangalore. He was the most prominent Christian figure involved in the Indian independence movement....
, a Mangalorean Catholic politician, actively participated in uniting the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British during the Indian Independence Movement
Indian independence movement
The term Indian independence movement encompasses a wide area of political organisations, philosophies, and movements which had the common aim of ending first British East India Company rule, and then British imperial authority, in parts of South Asia...
.
In 1901, Mangalorean Catholics accounted for 76,000 of the total 84,103 Christians in South Canara., while in 1962, they numbered 1,86,741 (186,741). During the mid-20th century, Victor Fernandes
Bishop Victor R. Fernandes
Bishop Victor R. Fernandes was the Bishop of the Mangalore Diocese from 1931 to 1955.-External links:*...
, Bishop of Mangalore from 1931 to 1955, erected a large cross
Christian cross
The Christian cross, seen as a representation of the instrument of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity...
at Nanthoor
Nanthoor
-External links:*...
, near Padav hills
Padav Hills
Padav hills are a range of hills in the Mangalore taluk, Karnataka, India. During the mid-nineteenth century, Bishop Victor Fernandes, a Mangalorean Catholic priest, erected a large cross at former outskirts of Mangalore in Nanthoor near Padav hills to honour the memory of Mangalorean Catholic...
, on the former outskirts of Mangalore, in honour of the memory of Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march and during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam. During the 1970s, coastal communication increased between Bombay and Mangalore with the introduction of ships by the London-based trade firm Shepherd. These ships facilitated the entry of Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay. In 1993, the Mangalore Diocese estimated the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be 3,25,510 (325,510) out of a total South Canara population of 35,28,540 (3,528,540). This amounts to 9.23 percent of the population. A notable post-independence era event pertaining to the Mangalorean Catholics that occurred in southern Karnataka, and made national headlines, were the attacks on Christian religious institutions in September 2008.
Geographical distribution
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore estimates the population of Mangalorean Catholics in the areas that comprise historical South Canara to be 3,60,000 (360,000) out of a total population of 39,57,071 (3,957,071), or approximately 9.5 percent of the population. Other regions of India having a significant proportion of Mangalorean Catholics, characterised by the presence of Mangalorean Catholic organisations or celebration of the unique Mangalorean Catholic Monti FestMonti Fest
Monti Fest is one of the major festivals of Goan, Mangalorean Catholic and other Konkani Catholic communities celebrated on September 8 every year...
festival, are Bangalore, Chennai
Chennai
Chennai , formerly known as Madras or Madarasapatinam , is the capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal. Chennai is the fourth most populous metropolitan area and the sixth most populous city in India...
, Delhi
Delhi
Delhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census...
, Kolkata
Kolkata
Kolkata , formerly known as Calcutta, is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Located on the east bank of the Hooghly River, it was the commercial capital of East India...
, Mumbai
Mumbai metropolitan area
The Mumbai Metropolitan Region /Mumbai Metropolitan Area is the metropolitan area consisting of the metropolis of Mumbai and its satellite towns. Developing over a period of about 20 years, it consists of seven municipal corporations and fifteen smaller municipal councils...
, Pune
Pune
Pune , is the eighth largest metropolis in India, the second largest in the state of Maharashtra after Mumbai, and the largest city in the Western Ghats. Once the centre of power of the Maratha Empire, it is situated 560 metres above sea level on the Deccan plateau at the confluence of the Mula ...
, Hyderabad, Chikkamagaluru, Hassan
Hassan district
Hassan is a district in Karnataka state, India. The district headquarters are Hassan.Hassan district was the seat of the Hoysala Empire which at its peak ruled large parts of south India from Belur as its early capital and Halebidu as its later capital during the period 1000 - 1334 CE...
, and Ranchi
Ranchi
-Climate:Ranchi has a humid subtropical climate. However, due to its position and the forests around the city, it is known for its pleasant climate. Its climate is the primary reason why Ranchi was once the summer capital of the undivided State of Bihar...
. A few Mangalorean Catholics are found in Kodagu and Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
, where there are tiny pockets concentrated in Thalassery
Thalassery
Thalassery , also known as Tellicherry, is a city on the Malabar Coast of Kerala, India. This is the second largest city of North Malabar in terms of population. The name Tellicherry is the anglicized form of Thalassery. Thalassery municipality has a population just less than 100,000. Established...
, Kasargod, Kannur
Kannur
Kannur , also known as Cannanore, is a city in Kannur district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of the District of Kannur and 518km north of state capital Trivandrum. During British rule in India, Kannur was known by its old name Cannanore, which is still in...
and Kochi
Kochi
-Places:* Kochi, a city in the state of Kerala, India, formerly known as Cochin* Kingdom of Cochin, a former feudal city-state on Malabar Coast, India** Fort Kochi, one of the three main urban components which constitute the present day city of Kochi, Kerala, India...
. They are mainly descended from those Catholics who fled the persecution and roundup by Tipu Sultan. The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is scattered across the globe. Many Mangalorean Catholics are found in Persian Gulf Arab states
Arab states of the Persian Gulf
"Arab states of the Persian Gulf" or "Arab Persian Gulf states" or "Persian Gulf Arab states" or "Arabic Persian Gulf states" or "Arab States of The Gulf", are terms that refer to the six Arab states of Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman, bordering the Persian Gulf....
in the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) has estimated that around 300 Mangalorean Catholic families live in Sydney, Australia, with a lot of second generation families. Many of these are multi-racial, being married into Anglo-Saxon, Spanish, Italian, Greek, and other ethnicities. Mangalorean genealogist
Genealogy
Genealogy is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral traditions, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship and pedigrees of its members...
Michael Lobo has estimated that approximately half of the Mangalorean Catholics still reside in Mangalore and the other towns in the South Canara district. As for the remaining half, about 15 percent reside in other parts of Karnataka
Karnataka
Karnataka , the land of the Kannadigas, is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava...
(mostly Bangalore
Bangalore
Bengaluru , formerly called Bengaluru is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and...
), 15 percent reside in Mumbai
Mumbai
Mumbai , formerly known as Bombay in English, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan area population of approximately 20.5 million...
and its neighbouring areas, 10 percent reside in the Gulf countries
Arab states of the Persian Gulf
"Arab states of the Persian Gulf" or "Arab Persian Gulf states" or "Persian Gulf Arab states" or "Arabic Persian Gulf states" or "Arab States of The Gulf", are terms that refer to the six Arab states of Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman, bordering the Persian Gulf....
, 5 percent reside in other parts of India, and the remaining 5 percent reside in other parts of the world.
Architecture
Plebot
Plebot was a German missionary that established one of the first tile making factories known as Basel Mission tile factory in 1860, after they found large deposits of clay by the banks Gurupura and Nethravathi rivers. It was located near Morgan's Gate on the banks of the river Nethravathi....
set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called the Basel Mission tile factory
Basel Mission tile factory
Basel Mission tile factory ran by the German missionary Plebot, was the first Mangalore tile manufacturing factory to be set up in India in 1860 on bank of the Nethravathi river near Morgan's Gate, about 10 km from the Ullal bridge....
. Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing Mangalore tiles
Mangalore Tiles
Mangalore tiles are a type of tiles native to the city of Mangalore, India. The tiles were first introduced to India in 1860 by a German missionary. Since then the industry flourished in India...
. The Albuquerque tile factory
Albuquerque tile factory
Albuquerque tile factory is a tile factory located at Pani-Mangalore in Mangalore. It is the only tile factory whose tiles are recommended for Government buildings.-History:...
, the first Indian Mangalore tile factory, was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque at Pane Mangalore
Pane mangalore
Pane mangalore is a village on the banks of Netravati river near B.C.Road. It lies in Bantwal taluk of Dakshina Kannada district.The National Highway-48 passes through this village.-External links:**...
in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing the tiles. The Alvares tile factory
Alvares tile factory
Alvares tile factory is a Mangalore tile factory located at in Mangalore. The tiles produced by this factory were in great demand throughout the Indian subcontinent and East Africa....
was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878. As of 1991–1992, out of twelve Mangalore tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, six were owned by Christians. These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India, and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterise its urban setting. Urban and rural housing follows the traditional variety of laterite
Laterite
Laterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock...
brick structures with Mangalore tile roofing on steeply sloped roofs. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house. The traditional houses tend to have spacious porticos, red cement or terracotta floors, and have fruit trees outside the house. The old Catholic houses of South Canara bear traces of Portuguese influence. The tall windows, pointed roofs, and verandahs are some of the Portuguese influenced architectural features
Architecture of Portugal
Architecture of Portugal refers to the architecture practised in the territory of present-day Portugal since before the foundation of the country in the 12th century...
of the century-old houses.
Cuisine
Vegetarian cuisine
Vegetarian cuisine refers to food that meets vegetarian standards by not including meat and animal tissue products. For lacto-ovo vegetarianism , eggs and dairy products such as milk and cheese are permitted...
. This changed during the 20th century, when with the advent of Westernisation, meat came to be consumed increasingly in the community, especially amongst the elite. Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries. Sanna-Dukra Maas (Sanna is idli fluffed with toddy or yeast; Dukra Maas is pork) is one of the most popular dishes of the Mangalorean Catholic community. Rosachi Kadi (Ros Curry), a fish curry made with coconut milk (ros), is a traditional curry served during the Ros ceremony. Patrode
Patrode
Patrode is a dish made in the Konkan region of the western coast of India. It is a popular dish for festive occasions among Konkanis. Regional variations of Patrode are Aluwadi made by the Marathis and Patra made by the Gujaratis, both of which are normally deep fried rather than steamed as in the...
, a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice, dal
Dal
Dal is a preparation of pulses which have been stripped of their outer hulls and split. It also refers to the thick stew prepared from these, an important part of Indian, Nepali, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, and Bangladeshi cuisine...
, jaggery
Jaggery
Jaggery is a traditional unrefined non-centrifugal whole cane sugar consumed in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. It is a concentrated product of cane juice without separation of the molasses and crystals, and can vary from golden brown to dark brown in color...
, coconut, and spices is popular. Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and include around 22 varieties of sweets. Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics. Par-boiled rice, known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten and is preferred over raw rice.
Names and surnames
Bilingual nameBilingual name
A bilingual name is a name of a person that is spelled, if not pronounced, exactly the same in two languages. The speakers of a certain language usually have names that do not exist in another language. Even when the name has a common root or refers to the same historic or religious figure,...
s, having variants in both Konkani and English, like Zuãuñ (from Portuguese João, meaning John) and Mornel (Magdalene
Magdalene (given name)
Magdalene, Magdalen, or Magdalena is a female name used in many countries including Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Romania, Germany, Greece, Poland, Spain, Scandinavia, Slovakia and Slovenia and may refer to:...
) are common among Mangalorean Catholics. Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second declension
Declension
In linguistics, declension is the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and articles to indicate number , case , and gender...
. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension. Portuguese surnames like D'Souza, Coelho
Coelho
-People:* Bento Coelho da Silveira , Portuguese painter* Carlos Coelho, Portuguese politician* Dyego Rocha Coelho, Brazilian football player* Eduardo Teixeira Coelho, maker of comic books...
, and Pinto
Pinto
-General:*Conspiracy of the Pintos, a rebellion against Portuguese rule in Goa, India in 1787*Ford Pinto , a subcompact car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company for the North American market...
are common among Mangalorean Catholics, and generally follow the second declension. Other European surnames are found. Mangalorean Catholics use their native language Konkani forms of their surnames in Konkani-language contexts, along with their English forms in English-language contexts, such as Soz, Kuel, and Pint, instead of Sousa, Coelho, and Pinto. Some families use their original Konkani Brahmin
Konkani Brahmins
Konkani Brahmins are Brahmins whose mother-tongue is Konkani; and in some cases, Marathi, two related languages spoken in western India. Konkani Brahmins hail mainly from the southern part of the Maharashtra coast, Goa and coastal Karnataka....
surnames such as Prabhu
Prabhu
Prabhu means master or the supreme lord in Sanskrit and many of the Indian languages; it is a name sometimes applied to God.The term is also used by male devotees of the hindu deity Lord Krishna/Vishnu as a title and form of address. If a man sees another male devotee whom he does not know, he will...
, Kamath, Naik
Nayak (title)
Nayak, Nayaka, Nayakar, Nayakkar, Naik, Naiker, Naicker, Naickan, Naiken, Nayakkan, Naidu, Nayudu or Naidoo is a common title used by various caste and ethnic groups across India. They are all derivatives of the original Sanskrit Nayaka, meaning a leader...
, Shenoy
Shenoy
Shenoy is a common surname amongst the Goud Saraswat Brahmins and Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins. It is the most common surname among the Goud Saraswat Brahmins.-Etymology:...
and Shet
Shett
Shett, also Shet, Sheth , meaning "Superior", is a honorific title that is common among Daivajnas in west coast of India.-Etymology:...
. These original surnames are actually the names of five classes of persons: lord, cultivator, merchant, warrior, and writer. Four of these are Goud Saraswat Brahmin surnames, with the exception of Shet, which is used by a few who trace their origins to the Daivadnya
Daivadnya
*दाते पंचांग,गोत्रावळी "Gotravali" published by "Date Panchang", Date's Almanac Pvt Ltd, Solapur,India **"Genetics of Castes and Tribes of India:Indian Population Milieu" by M. K. Bhasin, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India...
Brahmins of Goa. These ancestral pre-conversion surnames of the Mangalorean Catholics are called paik in Konkani. To capture their tradition, many have reverted to their paik surnames, or use hyphenated names consisting of their post-conversion surnames in conjunction with their ancestral ones. Mudartha is a unique Mangalorean Catholic surname to be found among some Catholics that hail from Udupi.
| Mangalorean Catholic variant | English variant | Portuguese variant | Meaning | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mâri | Mary Mary (given name) Mary is a feminine given name, the English form of the name Maria, which was in turn a Latin form of the Greek names Μαριαμ, or Mariam, and Μαρια, or Maria, found in the New Testament. Both New Testament names were forms of the Hebrew name מִרְיָם or Miryam.The usual meaning given by various... |
Maria | Beloved | Female |
| Monku | Monica Monica (given name) Monica is a female given name with many variant forms, including Monca, Monicka, Monika, Monike, Moniqua, Monique, Moneca, Mónika and Monnica.- History :... |
Mónica | To advise | Female |
| Motes | Matthew Matthew (name) Matthew is a given name that ultimately comes from the Hebrew name Matityahu. It was first named to Saint Matthew, who was one of the twelve disciples and credited with the authorship of the Gospel of Matthew... |
Mateus | Gift from God | Male |
| Nâtu | Natalia | Natalia | Birthday | Female |
| Pedru | Peter | Pedro | Stone | Male |
| Šila | Sylvester Sylvester Sylvester is a name derived from the Latin adjective silvestris meaning "wooded" or "wild", which derives from the noun silva meaning "woodland". Classical Latin spells this with i. In Classical Latin y represented a separate sound distinct from i, not a native Latin sound but one used in... |
Silva | Wooded | Male |
| Zâbel | Elizabeth Elizabeth (given name) Elizabeth is a feminine given name derived from the Greek Elisávet , which is a form of the Hebrew name Elisheva , meaning "My God is an oath" or"My God is abundance."... |
Isabel | My God is my oath | Female |
| Zoze | Joseph Joseph (name) Joseph is a name originating from Hebrew, recorded in the Hebrew Bible, as יוֹסֵף, Standard Hebrew Yosef, Tiberian Hebrew and Aramaic Yôsēp̄. In Arabic, including in the Qur'an, the name is spelled يوسف or Yūsuf. The name can be translated from Hebrew יהוה להוסיף Yihoh Lhosif as signifying "YHWH... |
José | The Lord will add | Male |
| Source: An English-Konkani Dictionary (1882) and A Konkani Grammar (1882) | ||||
Language and literature
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
, which they have retained as their mother tongue despite the migration; the language is central to the community's identity. They speak a dialect known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which the Ethnologue
Ethnologue
Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International , a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language and support their efforts in language development.The Ethnologue...
broadly identifies as the Mangalore dialect.
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect has Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
influences, and preserves many features of the Maharashtri
Maharashtri
Maharastri or Maharastri Prakrit, SIL: Mahārāṣṭri Prākrit , is a language of ancient and medieval India which is the ancestor of Marathi, Konkani, Sinhala and the Maldivian language as well. It is one of the many languages of a complex called Prakrit, and the chief Dramatic Prakrit...
, Shauraseni, and Magadhi
Magadha
Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganga; its first capital was Rajagriha then Pataliputra...
dialects of Prakrit
Prakrit
Prakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
.
It also liberally uses loanword
Loanword
A loanword is a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept where the meaning or idiom is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort,...
s from the Tulu
Tulu language
The Tulu language |?]]]) is a Dravidian language spoken by 1.95 million native speakers mainly in the southwest part of Indian state Karnataka known as Tulu Nadu. In India, 1.72 million people speak it as their mother tongue , increased by 10 percent over the 1991 census...
and Kannada
Kannada language
Kannada or , is a language spoken in India predominantly in the state of Karnataka. Kannada, whose native speakers are called Kannadigas and number roughly 50 million, is one of the 30 most spoken languages in the world...
languages. It is written in the Kannada script
Kannada script
The Kannada script is an alphasyllabary of the Brahmic family, used primarily to write the Kannada language, one of the Dravidian languages of southern India and also Sanskrit in the past. The Telugu script is derived from Old Kannada, and resembles Kannada script...
. The dialect does not distinguish between the nouns of Kannada and Konkani and has developed into a language that is very practical for business. Some Kannada rootwords which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon. 350–400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect, of which more than half are related to religious terminology. The influence of Portuguese syntax is only found in some sets of phrases and prayers which have come down from the pre-migration era.
The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is largely derived from the Bardeskaar (North Goa
North Goa
North Goa is one of the two districts that make up the state of Goa, India. The district has an area of 1736 km², and is bounded by Sindhudurg and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra state to the north and east respectively, by South Goa District to the south, and by the Arabian Sea to the...
n) dialect and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Bardeskaar dialect (spoken by North Goan Christians, North Goan Hindus, and South Goa
South Goa
South Goa is one of the two districts that comprise the state of Goa, India. The district has an area of 1,966 km² and a population of 586,591...
n Hindus) and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect. It consequently differs from the dialect spoken by the Goud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara, which is copiously derived and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Sashtikaar (South Goan) dialect spoken by South Goan Christians and North Canara Konkani Hindus. It is much closer to the dialects of the Goan Hindus than to that of the Goan Catholics
Goan Catholics
The Goan Catholics are an ethno-religious community of Roman Catholics and their descendants from the state of Goa, located on the west coast of India. They are Konkani people and speak the Konkani language...
.
The Italian Jesuits who arrived in Mangalore in 1878, devoted themselves to the study and development of Konkani, and were thus responsible for the revival of the Konkani language in Mangalore. The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the first An English–Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore. He published a book on Konkani grammar in 1882, with a revised version in 1893. In 1912 the first Konkani periodical, Konknni Dirvem (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas. Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include Raknno (Guardian) (1938) by Mons. Sylvester Menezes, Konkan Daiz (Heritage of Konkani) (1958), and Kannik (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda. The twentieth-century literature focused on themes like the suffering of the Mangalorean Catholics during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam and the oppression of Goan Catholics during the Goa Inquisition
Goa Inquisition
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting in the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of...
. The first Konkani novel in Karnataka Aangel (1915), was written in the Kannada script by Joachim Santan Alvares. In Bombay—which had a small Mangalorean Catholic community—periodicals like Sukh-Dukh (Ups and Downs) (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues, Konknni Yuvak (Konkani Youth) (1949) by George Fernandes
George Fernandes
George Mathew Fernandes is an Indian trade unionist, politician, journalist, agriculturist, and member of Rajya Sabha from Bihar. He is a key member of the Janata Dal , and was the founder of the Samata Party...
, Poinnari (Traveller) (1950) by V.J.P. Saldanha, and Divo (Lamp) (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published.
Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as Indian politics
Politics of India
The politics of India takes place within the framework of a federal constitutional republic, in which the President of India is head of state and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the President and is independent of the legislature...
in books like What Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes, historical awakening, in books such as Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu, and sexual desires, in The Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta. Genealogist Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical encyclopaedia, which exceeds 6,000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which include Mangaloreans Worldwide – An International Directory (1999), Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics (2000), and The Mangalorean Catholic Community – A Professional History / Directory (2002). William Robert da Silva translated the first complete Bible from English into Konkani. The work entitled Baibol (Bible) was written in the Kannada script, and published by the Mangalore-based Konkani Bible committee in 1997. In 2000, the Mangalore Diocese also released a Konkani Bible in Kannada script entitled Pavitr Pustak (Holy Book), which was made available online on 26 July 2007.
Traditions and festivals
Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions; these are especially visible during the celebration of a marriage. Their culture is more traditional and Indian. Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore, and most of the priests arriving in the region were Portuguese,there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture. The Mangalorean Catholics have no uniform rituals since they belong to both the patrilineal Brahmin stock and to the matrilineal non-Brahmin stock. Their marriage rites share many similarities with the Shenvi sub-caste of the Goud Saraswat Brahmins. It was mainly these pagan marriage rites which the Portuguese found objectionable and prohibited during the Goan Inquisition.
The Ros (anointing
Anointing
To anoint is to pour or smear with perfumed oil, milk, water, melted butter or other substances, a process employed ritually by many religions. People and things are anointed to symbolize the introduction of a sacramental or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit, power or God...
) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and bridegroom and involves the parents' blessing of the bride and groom, who are anointed with ros, a mixture of coconut milk
Coconut milk
Coconut milk is the water that comes from the grated meat of a coconut. The colour and rich taste of the milk can be attributed to the high oil content. In many parts of the world, the term coconut milk is also used to refer to coconut water, the naturally occurring liquid found inside the hollow...
and coconut oil
Coconut oil
Coconut oil is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconuts harvested from the coconut palm . Throughout the tropical world, it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry...
, while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead. The marriage traditions include Soirik (betrothal), exchange of Paan Pod (betel leaves) during the marriage ceremony, which known as Badalchen (changing hands; formal acceptance of the promise made by the bride's father to the bridegroom's father that he will give his daughter in marriage). The bride is adorned with the Sado (wedding sari
Sari
A sari or sareeThe name of the garment in various regional languages include: , , , , , , , , , , , , , is a strip of unstitched cloth, worn by females, ranging from four to nine metres in length that is draped over the body in various styles. It is popular in India, Bangladesh, Nepal,...
) and Pirduk (wedding necklace). Other rites include the Onpnni (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride), Porthoponn (re-invitation to the bride's house), and singing of Honvious (hymns). Some non-marriage traditions include Novemjeevon (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) and Novem (blessing of new harvests).
In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas
Christmas
Christmas or Christmas Day is an annual holiday generally celebrated on December 25 by billions of people around the world. It is a Christian feast that commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ, liturgically closing the Advent season and initiating the season of Christmastide, which lasts twelve days...
, Good Friday
Good Friday
Good Friday , is a religious holiday observed primarily by Christians commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. The holiday is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, and may coincide with the Jewish observance of...
, and Easter
Easter
Easter is the central feast in the Christian liturgical year. According to the Canonical gospels, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion. His resurrection is celebrated on Easter Day or Easter Sunday...
, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance. Monti Fest
Monti Fest
Monti Fest is one of the major festivals of Goan, Mangalorean Catholic and other Konkani Catholic communities celebrated on September 8 every year...
is one of the major festivals, celebrated on 8 September. It combines the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing of Novem (new crops). The festival derives its name from the Monte Mariano Church
Monte Mariano Church
Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet in South Canara, is a church where the Roman Catholic festival Monti Fest was initiated by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet in 1763. Though Tippu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the...
at Farangipet in South Canara, and was initiated by Fr. Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic
Goan Catholics
The Goan Catholics are an ethno-religious community of Roman Catholics and their descendants from the state of Goa, located on the west coast of India. They are Konkani people and speak the Konkani language...
priest at Farangipet, in 1763. Although Tipu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali with Fr. Miranda. Attur Jatre or Attur Fest (Attur festival) is the feast of St. Lawrence, celebrated in the St. Lawrence Shrine
St. Lawrence Shrine
St. Lawrence Shrine or Attur Church is a Church in the erstwhile South Canara in existence from 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. It is by characterized its Attur Jatre or Attur Fest ....
on the outskirts of Karkala
Karkala
Karkala is a town and the headquarters of Karkala taluk in the Udupi district of Karnataka, India. Located about 380 km from Bangalore, it lies near the Western Ghats....
in South Canara. This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. Evkaristic Purshanv (Eucharist
Eucharist
The Eucharist , also called Holy Communion, the Sacrament of the Altar, the Blessed Sacrament, the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance...
ic Procession) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from Milagres Church
Milagres Church
The Milagres Church is a historic Roman Catholic Church situated in the Hampankatta locality of Mangalore. The church was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro, a Theatine from Divar, Goa. The original structure was constructed at the site of the present-day cemetery...
to Rosario Cathedral. The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.
Costumes and ornaments
Mangalorean Catholic men traditionally wore long, loose-frilled, white or black coats known as Kutanv (similar to the Maratha loose coats with buttons), over a Zibbo (loose shirt), while the Pudvem (dhoti), a piece of unstitched cloth, usually around 7 yards (6.4 m) long, was wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist. The turban called Mundaas or Urmal, were usually flattened like the Coorgi turbans. It was a long white piece of cloth with a Todop (golden hem) tied around the head like a turban in a particular manner by which they could be easily identified as Catholics. In modern times however, this mode has changed. Only a few older people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church-going occasions.Before marriage, women used to wear a Kirgi (sari) and Baju (blouse). The Kirgi is a piece of cloth not longer than four feet, and about three feet wide. It was wrapped around the body from the waist down. A jacket with long sleeves called a Baju, was used to cover the upper part of the body. This dress was a sign of the bride's virginity and was worn during the Ros ceremony. The Kirgi was wrapped around the waist, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder. To wear the sari with its end thrown over the shoulder, known as Worl, is the exclusive right of a married woman. Married women used to wear sarees the general way. The Salwar kameez is another form of popular dress for females. The Mangalorean Catholic bride's wedding sari is known as a Sado. It is usually a red-coloured Banarasi sari
Banarasi
Banarasi saris are saris made in Varanasi, a city which is also called "Benares." These saris are historically considered to be among the finest saris in India and are known for their gold and silver brocade, fine silk and opulent embroidery, and being highly sought after...
which is made of finely woven silk and is decorated with elaborate engravings. In olden days, the bride wore on her head a red cloth, three feet square. Gold ornaments were absent in those days: the bride went to the church dressed as a virgin girl. In modern times, the bride wears (in place of the Kirgi) a red sari, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder; it is wrapped around the waist. The bride wears a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings, and at least two of the Dantoni (golden combs). Other ornaments worn by the bride in the olden days included Kanti, Chakrasar, Kap, Karap, Mugud, Kanto, and Dantoni.
Mangalsutra
A Mangalsutra is a symbol of Hindu marriage union in South Asia. It is a sacred thread of love and goodwill worn by women as a symbol of their marriage...
) is a necklace made of black beads strung on gold wire as either as a single chain or double chain, with a connecting pendant. This necklace is worn as long as the husband is alive; a widow is expected to take it off. It is highly prized by women
as the symbol of their married state. A widow is expected to wear a black sari for the remainder of her life, and is not allowed to wear ornaments. The bridegroom's dress in early times consisted of a short loincloth of hand-woven cloth (Dhoti
Dhoti
The dhoti or pancha is the traditional men's garment in the in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. A similar garment is worn in some rural areas of Punjab province in Pakistan, but the use is fast declining...
), a shawl to cover his shoulders, and a red handkerchief on the head (Leis). Later, his dress consisted of a white loincloth with a red and gold hem (todop), a shirt with gold buttons and a coat (Kutanv), a shawl on the shoulders, and a towel (Urmal) on the head. The bridegroom wore a Chakrasar (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks. At present, most Mangalorean Catholic couples opt for a White wedding
White wedding
A white wedding is a traditional formal or semi-formal wedding originating in Europe.The term originates from the white color of the wedding dress, which first became popular with Victorian era elites, after Queen Victoria wore a white lace dress at her wedding; however, the term now also...
, where the bridegroom wears a suit, while the bride wears a white wedding gown. The traditional style of wedding is becoming exceedingly rare.
Historical society
Mangalorean Catholics retained the same caste system as their ancestors in Goa. They were mainly divided into four castes: BamonnsRoman Catholic Brahmin
The Roman Catholic Brahmin, also referred to asBamonn in Konkani, is a caste among the Goan and Mangalorean Catholics, of modern-day descendants of Konkani Brahmin converts to Roman Catholicism.-Origins:In Goa, the Brahmins were originally engaged in the priestly occupation, but had taken up...
, Charodis
Roman Catholic Kshatriya
The Roman Catholic Kshatriya is a caste among the Goan and Mangalorean Catholics, of modern-day descendants of Goan Kshatriya and a few Vaishya converts to Roman Catholicism. They are respectively known as Chardo in the Goan Catholic dialects of Konkani The Roman Catholic Kshatriya is a caste among...
, Sudirs, and Gaudis.
The biggest group were the Bamonns, who were converts from the priestly Brahmin
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
class. All Brahmin sub-castes such as the Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Padye
Padye
Padye Brahmin community hails from Goa, commonly known as "Bhatt" ,they speak a unique dialect of Konkani known as "Bhati Bhasha".-Etymology:...
s, and Daivadnya
Daivadnya
*दाते पंचांग,गोत्रावळी "Gotravali" published by "Date Panchang", Date's Almanac Pvt Ltd, Solapur,India **"Genetics of Castes and Tribes of India:Indian Population Milieu" by M. K. Bhasin, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India...
s, especially the goldsmiths and a few merchants, were lumped into the Christian caste of Bamonn. The descendants of Goud Saraswat converts comprised the majority of this caste. The Bamonns were further divided into other castes according to rank. In Mangalore, they were sub-divided into Sirudhegars (the highest class), Alhdhengars, Cutdhnangars, Dhivodegars, Nathnolegars, Sashragars, Puruvargars, and Maidhegars. These names are taken from the villages to which they once belonged. This group constituted the landed gentry. In accordance with traditional Hindu law that allowed a Brahmin to practice any occupation except cultivation, the Bamonns refrained from cultivating their lands, and leased them to tenants.
The Charodis, the second-largest group, were converts from the Kshatriya
Kshatriya
*For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya, meaning warrior, is one of the four varnas in Hinduism...
(warrior class) and Vaishya
Vaishya
Vaishya is one of the four varnas of the Hindu social order. According to Vedic tradition, this caste primarily comprises merchants, farmers, cattle-herders and artisans.-Duties of Vaishyas:...
(merchant class) castes. They were generally engaged in trade and commercial vocations. The artisan converts formed the third-biggest group and were known as Sudirs (the Konkani word for Shudra
Shudra
Shudra is the fourth Varna, as prescribed in the Purusha Sukta of the Rig veda, which constitutes society into four varnas or Chaturvarna. The other three varnas are Brahmans - priests, Kshatriya - those with governing functions, Vaishya - agriculturalists, cattle rearers and traders...
s, which were the labour class). They were workers and agricultural labourers engaged in service professions. The converts from the fisher caste residing around Ullal
Ullal
Ullāḷ is a panchayat town in Dakshina Kannada district in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is a small town about 8–10 km south of Mangalore close to the border between the two southern states of Karnataka and Kerala. It comprises two revenue villages, Ullal and Parmannur, in Mangalore Taluk...
, Kuloor, and other places around the seacoast were called Gaudis, and formed the fourth group. They cultivated the lands of the Bamonns and the high-caste Hindus. Other minor castes included the Padvals, whom historian Severine Silva assumes to be local Jain
Tulu Jains
The Jain Bunt are a Jain community of erstwhile nobility and gentry from the region of Tulu Nadu in the southwest of India which comprises the districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada in the Indian state of Karnataka and the Kasaragod taluk of Kerala. The Jain Bunts are traditionally defined as a...
converts.
The Mangalorean Catholics constituted a small community widely scattered across the South Canara district. Rather than being a closely knit and united group, the Goan Catholic immigrants and their progeny did not associate with the native Catholics on account of caste, origin, and language, and even among themselves were strongly divided by caste. The Hindus, including the indigenous Brahmins (mostly belonging to the Shivalli, Havyaka
Havyaka Brahmin
Havyaka Brahmins are a Hindu Pancha Dravida Brahmin subsect primarily from the Indian state of Karnataka and Northern Kerala. Havyakas profess the Advaita philosophy propounded by Adi Shankaracharya.-Etymology:...
, and Kota
Kota brahmin
Kota Brahmins hail from the Kundapur and surrounding areas of Udupi district in Karnataka, Bantwal and Puttur Taluk in Mangalore District and Kasargod District in Kerala...
sub-groups) and Bunts did not associate with the Catholics and would not admit them into their houses on account of their religion. However, a close contact was kept by the Catholics with the Hindus of the same caste who were refugees from Goa. Catholics would invite their Hindu cousins to festivities such as birth celebrations, weddings, and funeral feasts. The Hindus accepted such invitations. Unlike his Hindu counterpart, a high-caste Mangalorean Catholic did not consider himself polluted upon physical contact with a member of the lower caste, but members of different castes did not fraternise or invite each other home for dinner.
Marriage between members of the various castes was not permitted, and such matches were strictly discouraged by the elders. For instance, a Bamonn boy would only marry a Bamonn girl and a Charodi boy would only marry a Charodi girl. The Bamonns and Charodis would invite neighbours and friends belonging to the Sudir and Gaudi castes to special occasions such as weddings and baptisms, although the latter would have to observe certain restrictions with regards to sitting and eating. The lower castes felt honoured if they were invited and usually accepted such invitations. The upper castes usually did not attend the ceremonies of the lower castes, even if expressly invited. The caste system continues to persist among Mangalorean Catholics, and as in former times, caste distinctions still figure prominently during the formation of marriage alliances.
It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, the Gurkar system came into existence. Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted with the social and religious supervision of the community. After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers. Every farmer practised carpentry, but it was quite primitive and unskilled, and other crafts and industries were non-existent. The mass was celebrated in Latin; but the sermon
Sermon
A sermon is an oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, religious, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law or behavior within both past and present contexts...
, the catechism
Catechism
A catechism , i.e. to indoctrinate) is a summary or exposition of doctrine, traditionally used in Christian religious teaching from New Testament times to the present...
, and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.
The parishes were grouped into deaneries called Varados. Every parish was divided into wards, while Parish Council
Pastoral Council
Not to be confused with Parish councilIn Catholic dioceses and parishes, Pastoral Councils may be established by the diocesan Bishop or pastor. They are consultative bodies which serve to advise them regarding pastoral issues....
s were present in most parishes. About 15 percent of the households in the parishes were literate. A widow had to remain indoors, practically for the rest of her life. Since high-caste Hindu widows cannot remarry after the death of their husbands, the high-caste Christians too considered the remarriage of a widow as something unnatural. Canon law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara. Few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied, and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast, and no stigma was attached to her husband. Succession to property was practised as per the Hindu laws.
Songs and music
On 26 and 27 January 2008, a Konkani cultural event, Konkani Nirantari, held in Mangalore by the Mangalorean Catholic organisation Mandd Sobhann; entered the Guinness Book of World RecordsGuinness World Records
Guinness World Records, known until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records , is a reference book published annually, containing a collection of world records, both human achievements and the extremes of the natural world...
for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns. Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours, surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe, Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo (Lutheran Evangelical Community of São Paulo
São Paulo
São Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, the largest city in the southern hemisphere and South America, and the world's seventh largest city by population. The metropolis is anchor to the São Paulo metropolitan area, ranked as the second-most populous metropolitan area in the Americas and among...
) of Universidade Luterana do Brasil
Universidade Luterana do Brasil
The Universidade Luterana do Brasil is a university located in the city of Canoas, in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil...
(Lutheran University of Brazil). The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore, is one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore. The well-known Konkani hymn Riglo Jezu Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Fr. Joachim Miranda, an 18th century Goan Catholic priest, when he was held captive by Tipu Sultan on his Canara mission.
Mons. Minguel Placid Colaco wrote the devotional hymn Jezucho Mog (Jesus' Love) in 1905, and translated the Latin hymn Stabat Mater
Stabat Mater
Stabat Mater is a 13th-century Roman Catholic hymn to Mary. It has been variously attributed to the Franciscan Jacopone da Todi and to Innocent III...
into Konkani under the title Khursa Mullim (Bottom of the Holy Cross). Joseph Saldanha's Shembor Cantigo (100 Hymns) and Raimundo Mascarenhas' Deva Daia Kakultichea (O Compassionate Master) were popular. Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics are Aika Cristanv Jana (Listen, O' Christian People), Utha Utha Praniya (Wake up, Creatures), and Sorgim Thaun (From Heaven).
Konkani pop music became popular after Indian Independence
Indian independence movement
The term Indian independence movement encompasses a wide area of political organisations, philosophies, and movements which had the common aim of ending first British East India Company rule, and then British imperial authority, in parts of South Asia...
in 1947. Henry D'Souza and Helen D'Cruz are known for the Konkani love duet Kathrina in 1971 and the love Ballad Garacho Divo (Lamp of the House) in the 1970s, while Wilfy Rebimbus' sonnet
Sonnet
A sonnet is one of several forms of poetry that originate in Europe, mainly Provence and Italy. A sonnet commonly has 14 lines. The term "sonnet" derives from the Occitan word sonet and the Italian word sonetto, both meaning "little song" or "little sound"...
Mog Tuzo Kithlo Axelom (How I Have Loved Thee) from 1977 is popular. Konkani plays, especially religious ones, were written and staged in Mangalore in the 20th century by prominent playwrights such as Pedru John D'Souza, Pascal Sequeira and Bonaventure Tauro. The Ghumat
Ghumot
The Ghumot or Ghumat is a percussion instrument from Goa, India. Ghumat is an instrument of earthen vessel having both sides open; on the bigger opening a leather of monitor lizard is mounted...
was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings. The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open. The traditional theatre form is called Gumat, and is performed on the eve of the marriage or in connection with the marriage celebrations in the decorated pandal (stage). The play is conducted by males belonging to both the brides' and bridegrooms' parties, and usually takes place for two or three nights. The plays performed are usually those of Biblical stories, and their morals are presented in order to educate the bride and bridegroom. This tradition has almost completely died out among the present generation.
The tradition of Voviyo (wedding songs), sung by women during a Ros, is important to this community. The procedure is that an elderly lady, usually the yejman (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known as yejmani) who knows the voviyos, leads the song while the rest of the women sing along. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times, the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families, invoking the blessing of God on them.
Organisations
Many organisations cater to the community in South Canara. The most notable are Mandd Sobhann, which broke the Guinness record for non-stop singing, and the Catholic Association of South Kanara (CASK). The first session of the Canara Konkani Catholic World Convention took place on 26 December 2004 in Mangalore. The convention aimed to establish institutions to conduct research on the history of Mangalorean Catholics. In India, the Kanara Catholic Association, BangaloreBangalore
Bengaluru , formerly called Bengaluru is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and...
(KCA Bangalore) (established in 1955) and Mangalore Catholic Association (MCA) (established on 10 February 1996 in Pune
Pune
Pune , is the eighth largest metropolis in India, the second largest in the state of Maharashtra after Mumbai, and the largest city in the Western Ghats. Once the centre of power of the Maratha Empire, it is situated 560 metres above sea level on the Deccan plateau at the confluence of the Mula ...
) are well known. In the United Kingdom, Mangalorean United Konkani Association (MUKA) in Nottingham
Nottingham
Nottingham is a city and unitary authority in the East Midlands of England. It is located in the ceremonial county of Nottinghamshire and represents one of eight members of the English Core Cities Group...
is popular. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria (MCAV) established in Melbourne
Melbourne
Melbourne is the capital and most populous city in the state of Victoria, and the second most populous city in Australia. The Melbourne City Centre is the hub of the greater metropolitan area and the Census statistical division—of which "Melbourne" is the common name. As of June 2009, the greater...
was the first organisation for the community in Australia. In 2006 the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) was established in Australia. In North America, the Mangalorean Association of Canada and the Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA) in Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
are well known. In the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
, the Mangalore Cultural Association (MCA) in Doha
Doha
Doha is the capital city of the state of Qatar. Located on the Persian Gulf, it had a population of 998,651 in 2008, and is also one of the municipalities of Qatar...
, Qatar
Qatar
Qatar , also known as the State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in the Middle East, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its...
; was established on March 2008.
Notable Mangalorean Catholics
| Notable Mangalorean Catholics | Achievements |
|---|---|
| Joachim Alva Joachim Alva Joachim Alva was an Indian freedom fighter, journalist and politician from Mangalore. He was the most prominent Christian figure involved in the Indian independence movement.... |
Member of the Rajya Sabha Rajya Sabha The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Rajya means "state," and Sabha means "assembly hall" in Sanskrit. Membership is limited to 250 members, 12 of whom are chosen by the President of India for their expertise in specific fields of art, literature,... , the upper house of the Indian Parliament Parliament of India The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body in India. Founded in 1919, the Parliament alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all political bodies in India. The Parliament of India comprises the President and the two Houses, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha... , from 3 April 1968 to 2 April 1974 |
| Margaret Alva Margaret Alva Margaret Alva is the Governor of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. Alva became Uttarakhand's first woman governor in July 2009... |
Member of Rajya Sabha from 1972 to 1998; appointed Governor of Uttaranchal in 2009 |
| Richard Crasta | American novelist |
| Blasius D'Souza | Politician in the Indian National Congress Indian National Congress The Indian National Congress is one of the two major political parties in India, the other being the Bharatiya Janata Party. It is the largest and one of the oldest democratic political parties in the world. The party's modern liberal platform is largely considered center-left in the Indian... and first Roman Catholic minister in the Karnataka state government |
| Genelia D'Souza Genelia D'Souza Genelia D'Souza is an Indian actress, model, and host. She has appeared in Telugu, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam language films. After gaining wide attention in a Parker Pen commercial with Amitabh Bachchan, D'Souza began her acting career with Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003... |
Indian actress |
| Tony D'Souza Tony D'Souza Tony D'Souza is an American novelist, journalist, essayist, reviewer, travel and short story writer. He has published three novels with Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, and in foreign translations: Whiteman , The Konkans , and Mule... |
American novelist of mixed Mangalorean Catholic and Caucasian descent |
| George Fernandes George Fernandes George Mathew Fernandes is an Indian trade unionist, politician, journalist, agriculturist, and member of Rajya Sabha from Bihar. He is a key member of the Janata Dal , and was the founder of the Samata Party... |
Defence minister of India from 19 March 1998 to 22 May 2004 |
| Oscar Fernandes Oscar Fernandes Oscar Fernandes is an India politician, a senior Indian National Congress leader and AICC General Secretary. He was the Minister of State of the Ministry of Labour and Employment in Dr. Manmohan Singh's first UPA government in India. He was elected to the 7th Lok Sabha in 1980 from Udupi... |
Member of Lok Sabha Lok Sabha The Lok Sabha or House of the People is the lower house of the Parliament of India. Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by direct election under universal adult suffrage. As of 2009, there have been fifteen Lok Sabhas elected by the people of India... , the lower house of the Indian Parliament, from 1980 to 1998 |
| Michael Lobo | Indian writer, scientist and genealogist |
| Maxwell Pereira Maxwell Pereira Maxwell Francis Joseph Pereira-Kamath , popularly known as Maxwell Pereira, is a former Joint Police Commissioner in Delhi, India.-Early life and education:... |
IPS Indian Police Service The Indian Police Service , simply known as Indian Police or IPS, is one of the three All India Services of the Government of India... officer who variously served as Assistant Commissioner of Police and Deputy Commissioner of Police in Delhi Delhi Delhi , officially National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest by population in India, next to Mumbai. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16,753,265 inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census... , Superintendent of Police for Sikkim Sikkim Sikkim is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayan mountains... , Assistant Inspector General of Police and Chief Vigilance Officer in Mizoram Mizoram Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India, sharing borders with the states of Tripura, Assam, Manipur and with the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Burma. Mizoram became the 23rd state of India on 20 February 1987. Its capital is Aizawl. Mizoram is located in the... , and Inspector General of Police for Pondicherry. |
| Diana Pinto Diana Pinto Diana Pinto is an Indian beauty pageant titleholder, who was crowned Miss India America 2009, at the 18th Annual Miss India America Pageant held at Long Beach, California on 7 August 2009.-Early life and family:... |
Miss India America 2009 |
| Freida Pinto Freida Pinto Freida Pinto is an Indian actress and model best known for her portrayal of Latika in the 2008 Academy Award winning film Slumdog Millionaire, for which she won a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture... |
Hollywood actress known for her role in Slumdog Millionaire Slumdog Millionaire Slumdog Millionaire is a 2008 British epic romantic drama adventure film directed by Danny Boyle, written by Simon Beaufoy, and co-directed in India by Loveleen Tandan. It is an adaptation of the novel Q & A by Indian author and diplomat Vikas Swarup... |
| Pius Fidelis Pinto Pius Fidelis Pinto Pius Fidelis Pinto is an Indian Jesuit priest and research scholar of Christianity in Canara, India. He is noted for his research work and publications on the history of Konkani Christians of Canara... |
Indian historian, researcher and scholar on Christianity |
| Viren Rasquinha Viren Rasquinha Viren Wilfred Rasquinha was the captain of India's national field hockey team. The midfielder made his international senior debut in May 2002, at a Four Nation Tournament in Adelaide. He studied at the St... |
Captain of India's national field hockey Field hockey Field Hockey, or Hockey, is a team sport in which a team of players attempts to score goals by hitting, pushing or flicking a ball into an opposing team's goal using sticks... team |
| Wilfy Rebimbus Wilfy Rebimbus Wilfred Gerald Rebimbus , was a Konkani singer and lyricist. He was known as Konkan Kogul .-Early life and family:... |
Konkani singer and lyricist |
| Victor Rodrigues | Konkani novelist and short story writer |
| Lawrence Saldanha Lawrence Saldanha Lawrence John Saldanha was born in Mangalore, India on 25 October 1936. He received his religious training at the Christ the King seminary in Karachi and was ordained a priest in Lahore, Pakistan on 16 January 1960.... |
Catholic Archbishop of Lahore Lahore Lahore is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and the second largest city in the country. With a rich and fabulous history dating back to over a thousand years ago, Lahore is no doubt Pakistan's cultural capital. One of the most densely populated cities in the world, Lahore remains a... , Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan... |
| V.J.P. Saldanha | Konkani litterateur, dramatist, musician, and poet |
See also
- Roman Catholicism in MangaloreRoman Catholicism in MangaloreMangalorean Catholics are an ethno-religious community of Roman Catholics from the Mangalore Diocese on the southwestern coast of India...
- Mangalorean ProtestantsMangalorean Protestants-The community:The biggest denomination among Mangalorean Protestants is the Church of South India , composed of the Basel Mission Protestant church and the Anglican church. They number about 60,434 and are spread all over the South Canara district. They have a Theological College of their own and...
- MangaloreansMangaloreansMangaloreans are generally considered to be a collection of ethnic group from the South Canara district on the south western coast of India. It can also refer to residents of Mangalore.-History:Historically, Tulu Nadu included the two separate lands of Haiva and Tuluva...
- East Indian Catholics
External links
- Sarasvati's Children; Summary of the popular history book by Joe Lobo
- Origins of Christianity in South Kanara by Diocese of Mangalore
- How Catholics settled in Mangalore by M. V. KamathM. V. Kamath'Madhav Vittal Kamath' is an Indian journalist. He was the former chairman of Prasar Bharati. He worked as the editor of 'The Sunday Times ' for two years during 1967-69 and as the its Washington Correspondent of 'Times of India' during 1969-78. He has also served as editor of 'The Illustrated...
- Mangalorean Catholic Association Of Sydney (MCAS)
- Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA), USA
- Mangalorean Association of Canada (MAC)
- Mangalore Cultural Association, Doha, Qatar (MCA Qatar)
- Online Manglorean Konkani Dictionary Project