Indo
Encyclopedia
Indo or Indo-European people is a term, used since the 19th century, to describe a Eurasian
people of mixed European
and indigenous Indonesian ancestry. They are primarily found in the Netherlands
and Indonesia
, but also in the United States
, Australia
and New Zealand
.
In the United States of America the term Dutch Indonesians is used for this particular group of Eurasians, which is a rough translation of the Dutch term Indische Nederlander. The Dutch term Indische Nederlander, more accurately translated to Indies Dutchman, was first coined after World War II. In the Netherlands this term includes all Dutch nationals that lived in the Dutch East Indies
, so with and without a mixed ancestry. To distinguish between the two, Eurasians are called 'Indo' and native Dutch are called 'Totok'. In contemporary Indonesia the term 'Indo' is not confined anymore to former inhabitants of the Dutch East Indies, but includes all people of a mixed European and native Indonesian background.
In early pre-colonial (16-18th century) history these Eurasians were referred to by their Portuguese name 'mestiço' (Dutch: Mesties) or as 'coloured
' (Dutch: Kleurling). Additionally a wide range of more contumelious terms, such as for instance 'liplap' can be found in literature of all centuries.
(the Moluccas), the fabled "Spice Islands". Similarly the Spanish established a dominant presence further north in the Philippines
. These historical developments were instrumental in building a foundation for large Eurasian communities in this region. Old Eurasian
families in the Philippines mainly descend from the Spanish. While the oldest Indo families descend from Portuguese traders and explorers, some family names of old Indo families include Simao, De Fretes, Perera, Henriques, etc.
With the decline of the Portuguese and Spanish global empires in the early 17th century, Dutch and English maritime merchants began establishing a network of trading posts. In 1602 the Dutch founded the first ever joint stock multinational firm, the Dutch East India Company
(VOC). The company was charged with generating profit from trade in the East Indies
. The VOC established a European presence initially in the Spice Islands of Maluku
and subsequently on Java
. English trade posts were established in Singapore
and Malaya
.
Originally, most Dutch VOC employees were traders, accountants, sailors and adventurers and may have thought of themselves as temporary sojourners. British and other Europeans also settled there, usually as traders or professionals. Most of the settlers in the 18th and early 19th centuries were men, without wives and mixing occurred with the local inhabitants. The VOC and later the colonial government to a certain extent encouraged this, partly to maintain their control over the region. The existing Indo (or Mestizo) population of Portuguese descent was therefore welcome to integrate. A Indo-European society developed in the East Indies. Although most of its members became Dutch citizens, their culture was strongly Eurasian in nature, with focus on both Asian and European heritage. 'European' society in the Indies was dominated by this Indo culture into which non-native born European settlers integrated. This would change coming the formal colonization by the Dutch in the 19th century.
dominance throughout Java, Sumatra
, Sulawesi
, Kalimantan
, Nusa Tenggara, and western New Guinea
. The Dutch East Indies became the foundation of the independent state of Indonesia in the middle of the 20th century. In this period a large Indo community developed that was recognized by Dutch law as European, and these Indo Eurasians made up the majority of Europeans in the Dutch East Indies. During this time the already existing Indo population was complemented by the offspring of Dutch, Belgian and German soldiers who served in the Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL).
Indo influence on the nature of colonial society waned following World War I
and the opening of the Suez Canal
, when there was a substantial influx of white Dutch families. An Indo movement led by the Indo European Alliance
voiced the idea of independence from the Netherlands, however only a Indo minority led by Ernest Douwes Dekker
and P.F.Dahler
joined the indigenous independence Indonesian independence movement.
Leaders of the Indonesian independence movement cooperated with the Japanese to realise an independent nation. Two days after Japan's surrender in the Pacific in August 1945, the indpendence leaders declared an independent Republic of Indonesia
. The majority of Indo males were either captive or in hiding and remained oblivious to these developments. The Indo community at large did not participate in the Indonesian independence movement. They were singled out as one of the pro-western out-groups and became targets during the violent and chaotic Bersiap
period, when thousands were killed. The main revolutionary leader Sukarno
was declared the first president of the Republic in 1945. But to the Dutch government he was a collaborator and could not be accepted as an official counterpart. Following a diplomatic and armed struggle
, the Netherlands recognised Indonesia’s independence in December 1949.
The Dutch tried to vainly hang on to their colonial possessions in Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution
(1945–1948), but lost the military and still later political battles they waged, to the newly founded Republic of Indonesia. In the end the Dutch were completely ousted from the archipelago. Although native to the country the Indo community was intertwined with Dutch rule and their intermediary role between colonial government and the majority of local society became obsolete. Notwithstanding many Indos had been active in the resistance movement fighting Nazi occupation of the Netherlands, only a minority was actively involved in the Indonesian revolution. Indo-Europeans in fact became an outgroup heavily targeted by the Indonesian revolutionaries. In the so called Bersiap
period during the first year of the revolution many thousands mostly Indo elderly, women and children were killed. After 400 years the Indo community in Indonesia dissolved. The founding of the Republic of Indonesia directly resulted in the Indo Diaspora. In contrast, the United Kingdom managed to hold on to their colonies in South East Asia until 1957 (Malaya
) and 1963 (Sabah
, Sarawak
and Singapore
) and were able to maintain the Commonwealth
with the British sovereign as the titular head of this organisation. In Singapore the Eurasian community is acknowledged as a separate ethnic group.
, (1945–1965) around 300,000 people, pre-dominantly Indos, left Indonesia to go to the Netherlands. This migration was called repatriation
. The majority of this group had never set foot in the Netherlands before.
The migration pattern of the so called Repatriation progressed in five distinct waves over a period of 20 years.
and Florida
in the United States of America. Exact numbers relating to Indo immigrants in other major immigration countries like Canada and New Zealand are not documented. A 2005 study estimates the number of Indos that went to Australia around 10,000. Research has shown that most Indo immigrants are assimilating into their host societies.
In contrast to Indonesia the Eurasian communities of Malaysia, and in particular Singapore
are flourishing, offering their native Eurasian population a wide range of community services including: Heritage and culture studies and exhibitions, family support services, social assistance programs, youth mentoring programs, scholarships and subsidies. Singapore's second president Benjamin Sheares was a Eurasian. Many political leaders in East Timor are Eurasian Mestizo including the former and current President, Xanana Gusmão
and José Ramos-Horta.
The Indos are a people of mixed Indonesian and European ancestry that developed over a period of more than 400 years. Although all family names are uniformly European, their ethnic composition varies from a range of European peoples such as the Belgian, Dutch, English, French, German, Portuguese, Scottish, and Swedish; and equally diverse Indonesian peoples such as Javanese, Sundanese, Ambonese, Manadonese, Moluccan, Borneonese, Sumatran and Chinese. The variety in their ethnic composition and the fact that they are spread out all over the globe makes it difficult to define a uniform Indo culture let alone predict its future.
The older an Indo family is, the harder it becomes to pinpoint an actual percentage of either pure European or Indonesian blood. In most cases this is practically impossible to determine. As Indo culture evolves, steered by the path of the Indo Diaspora, each new generation of Indos keeps integrating more and more into their new homelands. Increasingly the issue of an Indo identity is becoming a matter of personal choice and not a given into which an individual is born.
The new generations will determine if their legacy will become more than a historical footnote.
. They are a relatively small Eurasian refugee-immigrant group in the United States of America.
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colony, competing for housing and employment. They did not experience a warm welcome to the Dutch mother country and felt their war and post-war trials and tribulations were not sufficiently acknowledged by their Dutch compatriates.
Although familiar with the distinction between European and native Indonesian, the Dutch appeared not to be familiar with the existence of an in-between, Eurasian category of people. Even though Indos represent a kaleidoscope
of color, ranging from those with blond hair and blue eyes to those with dark skin and black eyes and anything in between, their objection to being referred to by terms denoting skin color and the lack of recognition of the European status they held dearly in the former colony, led to their migration to the U.S.A.
and the Catholic Relief Services
. An accurate count of Indo immigrants is not available, as the U.S. Census classified people according to their self-determined ethnic affiliation. The Indos could have therefore been included in overlapping categories of "country of origin”, “other Asians," "total foreign”, “mixed parentage”, "total foreign-born” and “foreign mother tongue". However the Indos that settled in the USA via the legislative refugee measures number at least 25,000 people.
Indos can be found in all fifty states, with a majority in southern California. The 1970 U.S. Census recorded 28,000 foreign-born Dutch (Dutch not born in the Netherlands) in California, while the 6 traditional Dutch American stronghold states Michigan
, New York
, New Jersey
, Illinois
and Washington as well as Florida
hosted most of the other 50,000 foreign born Dutch.
The formation of Indo enclaves was prevented because of various factors. Indos settled initially with their sponsors or in locations offered to them by the sponsor. Indos also had a wide variety of occupations and in this respect were not limited to certain geographic areas. There were no forces in the host society limiting the choice of location. Moreover there was a full choice as to where to settle, with the economic factor of family income as only limitation.
The 1953 flood disaster in the Netherlands resulted in the Refugee Relief Act including a slot for 15,000 ethnic Dutch that had at least 50% European blood (one year later loosened to Dutch citizens with at least 2 Dutch grandparents) and an immaculate legal and political track record. In 1954 only 187 visas were actually granted. Partly influenced by the anti-western rhetoric and policies of the Sukarno administration the anti-communist senator Francis E. Walter
pleaded for a second term of the Refugee Relief Act in 1957 and an additional slot of 15,000 visas in 1958.
In 1958 the Pastore-Walter Act (Act for the relief of certain distressed alliens) was passed allowing for a one off acceptance of 10,000 Dutchmen from Indonesia (excluding the regular annual quota of 3,136 visas). It was hoped however that only 10% of these Dutch refugees would in fact be racially mixed Indos and the American embassy in The Hague was frustrated with the fact that Canada, where they were more strict in their ethnic profiling, was getting the full blooded Dutch and the USA was getting Dutch "all rather heavily dark". Still in 1960 senators Pastore and Walter managed to get a second 2 year term for their act which was used by a great number of Indo 'Spijtoptanten' (Repentis).
Notwithstanding most research has focused on the Indos in Diaspora and it has been established that the majority of Indos that were legally recognized as Europeans in the Dutch East Indies
, migrated from Indonesia
, a significant Eurasian group can still be found there. Indonesian researchers suggest that at least 1 million Indonesians have a European bloodline. Most Indo families in Diaspora have relatives in Indonesia. Even when taking into account the popular definition of the term Indo used in contemporary Indonesia, the background of the majority of Indos in Indonesia can be traced back to the colonial era.
In all his foresight Sjahrir
did not foresee the Indo community itself practically disappear from Indonesia only 20 years after he wrote this statement.
Another group of Indos, that did enjoy European status in colonial times, willingly opted for Indonesian citizenship. Although most of them did not endure the hardships of the early post colonial years and eventually repatriated to the Netherlands. Notable exceptions are Ibu Nos Fransz, Ferry Sonneville
and Ernest Douwes Dekker
. Most European family names have been changed to Indonesian sounding names.
As Indo women outnumbered the men a third considerable group consists of the Indo women married to mostly Christian Indonesians. By default this sizeable group became Indonesian citizens. Notable examples are Nelly van Amden married to the Indonesian war hero Alexander Evert Kawilarang
and Rochmaria Jeane mother to former Indonesian Minister of Defense Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani.
Case studies by organisations such as Halin
show a fourth group concerns Indo children that had either lost their parents or needed to take care of an immobile parent during the years following Indonesian independence and were unable to attain the necessary Dutch travel papers.
At times this dominant position of Indos in Indonesian media fuels national debate. For instance in 2005 when the show Joe Millionaire Indonesia was aired, where dozens of women fought over the Indo Marlon or when the FHM
issue with Indo playmate Petra Verkaik was released in Jakarta and sold out in record time.
, Mira Lesmana (she herself is of Indo descent) and Riri Riza
have mainly chosen Indo actors for lead roles in their movies.
Even for the 2005 biographical movie Gie
, which tells the tale of the Chinese student Soe Hok Gie
who challenged the power of Sukarno
, the Indo actor Nicholas Saputra
was selected. In 2004 the Indonesian Ministry for Culture and Tourism initiated a contest for the best film script. The award winning script was about an Indo girl named Anne.
, Bogor
, Bandung
and Malang
. In Bandung Indos such as Felix Feitsma, a teacher at the School for Tourism, are involved in the Bandung Society for Heritage Conservation. In Malang the Indo upper class is clustered in particular neighbourhoods and Sunday ceremony in the Sion Church is still in Dutch. In Bandung over 2000 poor Indos are supported by overseas organisations such as Halin
and the Alan Neys Memorial Fund.
Another place with a relatively large Dutch speaking Indo community is Depok
, on Java. Smaller communities still exist in places such as Kampung Tugu in Koja, Jakarta
. Recently after the Aceh region in Sumatra became more widely accessible, following post Tsunami
relief work, the media also discovered a closed Indo Eurasian community of devout Muslims in the Lanbo area.
Like the Chinese minority in Indonesia also most Indos have changed their family names to blend into mainstream society and prevent discrimination. The latest trend among Indo-Chinese and Indo-Europeans is to change them back.
In 1990 the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics
(CBS) registered the number of first-generation Indos living in the Netherlands at around 180,000 people. In 2001 official registration, including the second generation, accumulate their numbers to around half a million. Based on this the estimations, which include the third generation, reach up to at least 800,000 people. This makes them by far the largest minority community in the Netherlands
.
society. (In 2006 statistics show that in Rotterdam
, the second largest city in the country, close to 50% of the inhabitants were of foreign descent.) The Indo community however is considered the best integrated ethnic and cultural minority in the Netherlands. Statistical data compiled by the CBS shows that Indos belong to the group with the lowest crime rates in the country.
A CBS study of 1999 reveals that of all foreign born groups living in the Netherlands, only the Indos have an average income similar to that of citizens born in the Netherlands. Job participation in government, education and health care is similar as well. Another recent CBS study, among foreign born citizens and their children living in the Netherlands in 2005, shows that on average, Indos own the largest number of independent enterprises. A 2007 CBS study shows that already over 50% of first-generation Indos have married a native born Dutch person. A percentage that increased to 80% for the second generation. One of the first and oldest Indo organisations that supported the integration of Indo repatriates into the Netherlands is the Pelita foundation.
Although Indo repatriates, being born overseas, are officially registered as Dutch citizens of foreign descent, their Eurasian background puts them in the Western sub-class instead of the Non-Western (Asian) sub-class.
Two factors are usually attributed to the essence of their apparently seamless assimilation into Dutch society: Dutch citizenship and the amount of 'Dutch cultural capital', in the form of school attainments and familiarity with the Dutch language and culture, that Indos already possessed before migrating to the Netherlands.
event, which is organized in the Netherlands every year. The main musical formats Indos introduced to Europe are Kroncong
and Indorock
. Indo culture by definition is a mix of various European and Indonesian elements. The dominant language spoken by the majority remains Dutch. Indos were never formally educated in the Indonesian language. But many were fluent in the lingua franca
'Malay'
. Their mix language known as Petjok (a Dutch/Malay creole
, comparable to French/African Patois
, or the Portuguese
/Macanese
Patua
) is slowly dying out completely. The single most important champion of Indo culture was the avant garde and visionary writer Tjalie Robinson
(1911–1974), who co-founded the Tong Tong Fair.
period, all Dutch (language) institutions, schools and businesses were gradually eliminated and public discrimination and racism against Indos in the Indonesian job market continued. In the end 98% of the original Indo community repatriated to their distant fatherland in Europe.
In the Netherlands the first generation Indo repatriates quickly adapted to the host society’s culture and at least outwardly adopted all customs associated with it. Exactly as was the case in the old colony the necessity to blend in with dominant Dutch culture remained paramount for social and professional advancement. For the most part Indo customs became restricted to the private habitat and even there they were under pressure to be discarded. Unlike in the Dutch East Indies pressure to assimilate invaded even the intimacy of the private household. On a regular basis Indos that were lodged in guest houses were carefully screened for so called ‘oriental practices’ by social workers. These deviating ‘oriental practices’ included the private use of any language other than Dutch, the home preparation of Indonesian food, wearing clothing from the Indies, using water for hygiene in the toilet and even the practice of taking daily baths.
A small progressive cultural elite around the avant-garde visionary Tjalie Robinson
resisted assimilation and struggled to describe, promote and preserve a unique Indo cultural domain. Under both heavy social and formal pressure to assimilate into Dutch culture and society and still carrying the burden of the traumatic World War II and Bersiap experience the vast majority of first generation Indos was not ready yet to embark on a wide scale search for identity. Apart from the rebellious Indo rockers
led by Andy Tielman
most Indos compliantly focused on civil integration. In what is described in literature as ‘the great silence’ the supposedly ‘noiseless Indo’ disappeared from Dutch consciousness. Throughout the assimilation process of the first decennia much historic and cultural awareness faded even from the community itself.
In recent years however the reinvigorated search for roots and identity has also produced several academic studies.
In her master thesis published in 2010 Dutch scholar Nora Iburg argues that for third-generation Indos in the Netherlands there is no need to define the essence of a common Indo group identity and concludes that for them there is in fact no true essence of Indo identity except for its hybrid nature.
However to be able to do this there can not be disregard of history and she mentions the re-construction of family history as the first step.
Eurasian (mixed ancestry)
The word Eurasian refers to people of mixed Asian and European ancestry. It was originally coined in 19th-century British India to refer to Anglo-Indians of mixed British and Indian descent....
people of mixed European
White people
White people is a term which usually refers to human beings characterized, at least in part, by the light pigmentation of their skin...
and indigenous Indonesian ancestry. They are primarily found in the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
and Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, but also in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
.
In the United States of America the term Dutch Indonesians is used for this particular group of Eurasians, which is a rough translation of the Dutch term Indische Nederlander. The Dutch term Indische Nederlander, more accurately translated to Indies Dutchman, was first coined after World War II. In the Netherlands this term includes all Dutch nationals that lived in the Dutch East Indies
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. It was formed from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East India Company, which came under the administration of the Netherlands government in 1800....
, so with and without a mixed ancestry. To distinguish between the two, Eurasians are called 'Indo' and native Dutch are called 'Totok'. In contemporary Indonesia the term 'Indo' is not confined anymore to former inhabitants of the Dutch East Indies, but includes all people of a mixed European and native Indonesian background.
In early pre-colonial (16-18th century) history these Eurasians were referred to by their Portuguese name 'mestiço' (Dutch: Mesties) or as 'coloured
Coloured
In the South African, Namibian, Zambian, Botswana and Zimbabwean context, the term Coloured refers to an heterogenous ethnic group who possess ancestry from Europe, various Khoisan and Bantu tribes of Southern Africa, West Africa, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaya, India, Mozambique,...
' (Dutch: Kleurling). Additionally a wide range of more contumelious terms, such as for instance 'liplap' can be found in literature of all centuries.
Portuguese and Spanish in Southeast Asia (16th century)
The earliest significant presence of Europeans in South East Asia was Portuguese and Spanish traders. Portuguese explorers discovered two trade routes to Asia, sailing around the south of Africa and the Americas to create a commercial monopoly. In the early 16th century the Portuguese established important trade posts in South East Asia, which was a diverse collection of many rival kingdoms, sultanates and tribes spread over a huge territory of peninsulas and islands. One of the main Portuguese strongholds was in the Maluku IslandsMaluku Islands
The Maluku Islands are an archipelago that is part of Indonesia, and part of the larger Maritime Southeast Asia region. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone...
(the Moluccas), the fabled "Spice Islands". Similarly the Spanish established a dominant presence further north in the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
. These historical developments were instrumental in building a foundation for large Eurasian communities in this region. Old Eurasian
Filipino mestizo
Filipino mestizo is a term used in the Philippines to describe people of mixed Filipino and foreign ancestry. The word mestizo is of Spanish origin, and was originally used in the Americas to only describe people of mixed European and Native American ancestry.- History :Spanish periodThe Spanish...
families in the Philippines mainly descend from the Spanish. While the oldest Indo families descend from Portuguese traders and explorers, some family names of old Indo families include Simao, De Fretes, Perera, Henriques, etc.
Early Dutch and English presence in Southeast Asia (17th and 18th century)
With the decline of the Portuguese and Spanish global empires in the early 17th century, Dutch and English maritime merchants began establishing a network of trading posts. In 1602 the Dutch founded the first ever joint stock multinational firm, the Dutch East India Company
Dutch East India Company
The Dutch East India Company was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia...
(VOC). The company was charged with generating profit from trade in the East Indies
East Indies
East Indies is a term used by Europeans from the 16th century onwards to identify what is now known as Indian subcontinent or South Asia, Southeastern Asia, and the islands of Oceania, including the Malay Archipelago and the Philippines...
. The VOC established a European presence initially in the Spice Islands of Maluku
Maluku Islands
The Maluku Islands are an archipelago that is part of Indonesia, and part of the larger Maritime Southeast Asia region. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone...
and subsequently on Java
Java
Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of 135 million , it is the world's most populous island, and one of the most densely populated regions in the world. It is home to 60% of Indonesia's population. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is in west Java...
. English trade posts were established in Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
and Malaya
British Malaya
British Malaya loosely described a set of states on the Malay Peninsula and the Island of Singapore that were brought under British control between the 18th and the 20th centuries...
.
Originally, most Dutch VOC employees were traders, accountants, sailors and adventurers and may have thought of themselves as temporary sojourners. British and other Europeans also settled there, usually as traders or professionals. Most of the settlers in the 18th and early 19th centuries were men, without wives and mixing occurred with the local inhabitants. The VOC and later the colonial government to a certain extent encouraged this, partly to maintain their control over the region. The existing Indo (or Mestizo) population of Portuguese descent was therefore welcome to integrate. A Indo-European society developed in the East Indies. Although most of its members became Dutch citizens, their culture was strongly Eurasian in nature, with focus on both Asian and European heritage. 'European' society in the Indies was dominated by this Indo culture into which non-native born European settlers integrated. This would change coming the formal colonization by the Dutch in the 19th century.
Dutch East Indies (1800 - 1949)
Following the bankruptcy of the privately owned VOC at the end of the 18th century, the Dutch state took over its debts, as well as its possessions. Over the course of the 19th century, the Netherlands extended colonialColonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
dominance throughout Java, Sumatra
Sumatra
Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia, westernmost of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island entirely in Indonesia , and the sixth largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 with a population of 50,365,538...
, Sulawesi
Sulawesi
Sulawesi is one of the four larger Sunda Islands of Indonesia and is situated between Borneo and the Maluku Islands. In Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo, and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger Indonesian populations.- Etymology :The Portuguese were the first to...
, Kalimantan
Kalimantan
In English, the term Kalimantan refers to the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo, while in Indonesian, the term "Kalimantan" refers to the whole island of Borneo....
, Nusa Tenggara, and western New Guinea
Netherlands New Guinea
Netherlands New Guinea refers to the West Papua region while it was an overseas territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1949 to 1962. Until 1949 it was a part of the Netherlands Indies. It was commonly known as Dutch New Guinea...
. The Dutch East Indies became the foundation of the independent state of Indonesia in the middle of the 20th century. In this period a large Indo community developed that was recognized by Dutch law as European, and these Indo Eurasians made up the majority of Europeans in the Dutch East Indies. During this time the already existing Indo population was complemented by the offspring of Dutch, Belgian and German soldiers who served in the Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL).
Indo influence on the nature of colonial society waned following World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and the opening of the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
, when there was a substantial influx of white Dutch families. An Indo movement led by the Indo European Alliance
Indo Europeesch Verbond
The Indo Europeesch Verbond or Indo European Alliance was a social movement and political organisation founded in 1919 by the Indo-European community of the Dutch East Indies that fought for race equality and political say in late colonial Indonesia during the early 20th century.It was one of the...
voiced the idea of independence from the Netherlands, however only a Indo minority led by Ernest Douwes Dekker
Ernest Douwes Dekker
Ernest François Eugène Douwes Dekker was an Indonesian freedom fighter and politician of Indo descent. He was related to the famous Dutch writer, Multatuli, whose real name was Eduard Douwes Dekker. In his youth, he took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa on the Boer side...
and P.F.Dahler
P.F.Dahler
Pieter Frederich Dahler , more commonly known as P.F. Dahler or Frits Dahler, was one of the leading Indo politicians and activists advocating integration of the native Indo-European community into the indigenous society of the Dutch East Indies...
joined the indigenous independence Indonesian independence movement.
Japanese occupation (1942-1945)
During World War II the European colonies in South East Asia, including the Dutch East Indies, were invaded and annexed by the Japanese Empire. The Japanese sought to eradicate anything reminiscent of European government. All Europeans were put in Japanese concentration camps. First the POWs, then all male adults and finally all females and adolescents were interned. The Japanese failed in their attempts to win over the Indo community and Indos were made subject to the same forceful measures."Nine tenths of the so called Europeans are the offspring of whites married to native women. These mixed people are called Indo-Europeans… They have formed the backbone of officialdom. In general they feel the same loyalty to Holland as do the white Netherlanders. They have full rights as Dutch citizens and they are Christians and follow Dutch customs. This group has suffered more than any other during the Japanese occupation.” Official US Army publication for the benefit of G.I.’s, 1944.
Leaders of the Indonesian independence movement cooperated with the Japanese to realise an independent nation. Two days after Japan's surrender in the Pacific in August 1945, the indpendence leaders declared an independent Republic of Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
. The majority of Indo males were either captive or in hiding and remained oblivious to these developments. The Indo community at large did not participate in the Indonesian independence movement. They were singled out as one of the pro-western out-groups and became targets during the violent and chaotic Bersiap
Bersiap
Bersiap is the name given by the Dutch to a violent and chaotic phase of Indonesia's revolutionary period following the end of World War II. The Indonesian word bersiap means 'get ready' or 'be prepared'...
period, when thousands were killed. The main revolutionary leader Sukarno
Sukarno
Sukarno, born Kusno Sosrodihardjo was the first President of Indonesia.Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for independence from the Netherlands and was Indonesia's first President from 1945 to 1967...
was declared the first president of the Republic in 1945. But to the Dutch government he was a collaborator and could not be accepted as an official counterpart. Following a diplomatic and armed struggle
Indonesian National Revolution
The Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Indonesia and the Dutch Empire, and an internal social revolution...
, the Netherlands recognised Indonesia’s independence in December 1949.
Indonesian Independence struggle (1945-1949)
At the end of World War II Europe’s colonial presence around the world quickly declined.The Dutch tried to vainly hang on to their colonial possessions in Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution
Indonesian National Revolution
The Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Indonesia and the Dutch Empire, and an internal social revolution...
(1945–1948), but lost the military and still later political battles they waged, to the newly founded Republic of Indonesia. In the end the Dutch were completely ousted from the archipelago. Although native to the country the Indo community was intertwined with Dutch rule and their intermediary role between colonial government and the majority of local society became obsolete. Notwithstanding many Indos had been active in the resistance movement fighting Nazi occupation of the Netherlands, only a minority was actively involved in the Indonesian revolution. Indo-Europeans in fact became an outgroup heavily targeted by the Indonesian revolutionaries. In the so called Bersiap
Bersiap
Bersiap is the name given by the Dutch to a violent and chaotic phase of Indonesia's revolutionary period following the end of World War II. The Indonesian word bersiap means 'get ready' or 'be prepared'...
period during the first year of the revolution many thousands mostly Indo elderly, women and children were killed. After 400 years the Indo community in Indonesia dissolved. The founding of the Republic of Indonesia directly resulted in the Indo Diaspora. In contrast, the United Kingdom managed to hold on to their colonies in South East Asia until 1957 (Malaya
Federation of Malaya
The Federation of Malaya is the name given to a federation of 11 states that existed from 31 January 1948 until 16 September 1963. The Federation became independent on 31 August 1957...
) and 1963 (Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
, Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
and Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
) and were able to maintain the Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
with the British sovereign as the titular head of this organisation. In Singapore the Eurasian community is acknowledged as a separate ethnic group.
Indo diaspora (1945-1965)
During and after the Indonesian National Revolution, which followed the Second World WarWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, (1945–1965) around 300,000 people, pre-dominantly Indos, left Indonesia to go to the Netherlands. This migration was called repatriation
Repatriation
Repatriation is the process of returning a person back to one's place of origin or citizenship. This includes the process of returning refugees or soldiers to their place of origin following a war...
. The majority of this group had never set foot in the Netherlands before.
The migration pattern of the so called Repatriation progressed in five distinct waves over a period of 20 years.
- The first wave, 1945–1950: After Japan's capitulation and Indonesia’s declaration of independence around 100,000 people, many former captives that spent the war years in Japanese concentration camps and then faced the turmoil of the violent BersiapBersiapBersiap is the name given by the Dutch to a violent and chaotic phase of Indonesia's revolutionary period following the end of World War II. The Indonesian word bersiap means 'get ready' or 'be prepared'...
period, left for the Netherlands. Although Indos suffered severely during this period, with 20,000 people killed over 8 months in the Bersiap period alone, the great majority only left their place of birth in the next few waves. - The second wave, 1950–1957: After formal Dutch recognition of Indonesias independence many civil servants, law enforcement and defence personnel left for the Netherlands. The colonial army was disbanded and at least 4,000 of the South Moluccan price soldiers and their families were also relocated to the Netherlands. The exact number of people that left Indonesia during the second wave is unknown.
- The third wave, 1957–1958: During the political conflict around the so called ‘New-Guinea Issue’ Dutch citizens were declared undesired elements by the young Republic of Indonesia and around 20,000 more people left for the Netherlands.
- The fourth wave, 1962–1964: When finally the last Dutch ruled territory i.e. New Guinea, was released to the Republic of Indonesia. Also the last remaining Dutch citizens left for the Netherlands, including around 500 Papua civil servants and their families. The total number of people that migrated is estimated at 14,000.
- The fifth wave, 1949–1967: During this overlapping period a distinctive group of people, known as Spijtoptanten' (Repentis), that originally opted for Indonesian citizenship found that they were unable to integrate into Indonesian society and also left for the Netherlands. In 1967 the Dutch government formally terminated this option. Of the 31,000 people that originally opted for Indonesian citizenship (Indonesian term: Warga negara Indonesia) 25,000 withdrew their decision over the years.
Contemporary history (20th and 21st century)
Many Indos that had left for the Netherlands often continued the journey of their Diaspora to warmer places in the West like for instance CaliforniaCalifornia
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
and Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
in the United States of America. Exact numbers relating to Indo immigrants in other major immigration countries like Canada and New Zealand are not documented. A 2005 study estimates the number of Indos that went to Australia around 10,000. Research has shown that most Indo immigrants are assimilating into their host societies.
In contrast to Indonesia the Eurasian communities of Malaysia, and in particular Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
are flourishing, offering their native Eurasian population a wide range of community services including: Heritage and culture studies and exhibitions, family support services, social assistance programs, youth mentoring programs, scholarships and subsidies. Singapore's second president Benjamin Sheares was a Eurasian. Many political leaders in East Timor are Eurasian Mestizo including the former and current President, Xanana Gusmão
Xanana Gusmão
Kay Rala Xanana Gusmão GCL is a former militant who was the first President of East Timor, serving from May 2002 to May 2007...
and José Ramos-Horta.
The Indos are a people of mixed Indonesian and European ancestry that developed over a period of more than 400 years. Although all family names are uniformly European, their ethnic composition varies from a range of European peoples such as the Belgian, Dutch, English, French, German, Portuguese, Scottish, and Swedish; and equally diverse Indonesian peoples such as Javanese, Sundanese, Ambonese, Manadonese, Moluccan, Borneonese, Sumatran and Chinese. The variety in their ethnic composition and the fact that they are spread out all over the globe makes it difficult to define a uniform Indo culture let alone predict its future.
The older an Indo family is, the harder it becomes to pinpoint an actual percentage of either pure European or Indonesian blood. In most cases this is practically impossible to determine. As Indo culture evolves, steered by the path of the Indo Diaspora, each new generation of Indos keeps integrating more and more into their new homelands. Increasingly the issue of an Indo identity is becoming a matter of personal choice and not a given into which an individual is born.
The new generations will determine if their legacy will become more than a historical footnote.
Indos in the United States
During the 1950s and 1960s an estimated 60,000 Indos arrived in the USA, where they have smoothly integrated into mainstream American society. American Indos are sometimes also referred to as Dutch-Indonesians, Indonesian-Dutch, Indo-Europeans and Amerindos. They are a relatively small Eurasian refugee-immigrant group in the United States of America.
Reasons for immigration to the United States
The majority of the 60,000 U.S. Indos repatriated to the Netherlands before they immigrated to the U.S.A. in the late 1950s and early 1960s. These Indos felt Dutch society in the 50's was not prepared for the unexpected postwar influx of hundreds of thousands Eurasians from the former Dutch East IndiesDutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. It was formed from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East India Company, which came under the administration of the Netherlands government in 1800....
colony, competing for housing and employment. They did not experience a warm welcome to the Dutch mother country and felt their war and post-war trials and tribulations were not sufficiently acknowledged by their Dutch compatriates.
Although familiar with the distinction between European and native Indonesian, the Dutch appeared not to be familiar with the existence of an in-between, Eurasian category of people. Even though Indos represent a kaleidoscope
Kaleidoscope
A kaleidoscope is a circle of mirrors containing loose, colored objects such as beads or pebbles and bits of glass. As the viewer looks into one end, light entering the other end creates a colorful pattern, due to the reflection off the mirrors...
of color, ranging from those with blond hair and blue eyes to those with dark skin and black eyes and anything in between, their objection to being referred to by terms denoting skin color and the lack of recognition of the European status they held dearly in the former colony, led to their migration to the U.S.A.
Registration and location in the United States
The Indos mainly entered the U.S.A. under legislative refugee measures and were sponsored by Christian organizations such as the Church World ServiceChurch World Service
Founded in 1946, Church World Service is a cooperative ministry of 37 Christian denominations and communions in the United States, providing sustainable self-help, development, disaster relief, and refugee assistance around the world...
and the Catholic Relief Services
Catholic Relief Services
Catholic Relief Services is the international humanitarian agency of the Catholic community in the United States. Founded in 1943 by the U.S. bishops, the agency provides assistance to 130 million people in more than 90 countries and territories in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Middle East and...
. An accurate count of Indo immigrants is not available, as the U.S. Census classified people according to their self-determined ethnic affiliation. The Indos could have therefore been included in overlapping categories of "country of origin”, “other Asians," "total foreign”, “mixed parentage”, "total foreign-born” and “foreign mother tongue". However the Indos that settled in the USA via the legislative refugee measures number at least 25,000 people.
Indos can be found in all fifty states, with a majority in southern California. The 1970 U.S. Census recorded 28,000 foreign-born Dutch (Dutch not born in the Netherlands) in California, while the 6 traditional Dutch American stronghold states Michigan
Michigan
Michigan is a U.S. state located in the Great Lakes Region of the United States of America. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake"....
, New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
, New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
, Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...
and Washington as well as Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
hosted most of the other 50,000 foreign born Dutch.
The formation of Indo enclaves was prevented because of various factors. Indos settled initially with their sponsors or in locations offered to them by the sponsor. Indos also had a wide variety of occupations and in this respect were not limited to certain geographic areas. There were no forces in the host society limiting the choice of location. Moreover there was a full choice as to where to settle, with the economic factor of family income as only limitation.
Legislative refugee measures
The original post-war refugee legislation of 1948, already adhering to a strict 'affidavit of support' policy, was still maintaining a colour bar making it difficult for Indos to emigrate to the USA. By 1951 American consulates in the Netherlands registered 33,500 requests and had waiting times of 3 to 5 years. Also the Walter-McCarren Act of 1953 adhered to the traditional American policy of keeping down immigrants from Asia. The yearly quota for Indonesia was limited to a 100 visas, even though Dutch foreign affairs attempted to profile Indos as refugees from the alleged pro-communist Sukarno administration.The 1953 flood disaster in the Netherlands resulted in the Refugee Relief Act including a slot for 15,000 ethnic Dutch that had at least 50% European blood (one year later loosened to Dutch citizens with at least 2 Dutch grandparents) and an immaculate legal and political track record. In 1954 only 187 visas were actually granted. Partly influenced by the anti-western rhetoric and policies of the Sukarno administration the anti-communist senator Francis E. Walter
Francis E. Walter
Francis Eugene Walter was a Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.-Biography:...
pleaded for a second term of the Refugee Relief Act in 1957 and an additional slot of 15,000 visas in 1958.
In 1958 the Pastore-Walter Act (Act for the relief of certain distressed alliens) was passed allowing for a one off acceptance of 10,000 Dutchmen from Indonesia (excluding the regular annual quota of 3,136 visas). It was hoped however that only 10% of these Dutch refugees would in fact be racially mixed Indos and the American embassy in The Hague was frustrated with the fact that Canada, where they were more strict in their ethnic profiling, was getting the full blooded Dutch and the USA was getting Dutch "all rather heavily dark". Still in 1960 senators Pastore and Walter managed to get a second 2 year term for their act which was used by a great number of Indo 'Spijtoptanten' (Repentis).
Developments in the United States
Unlike in the Netherlands U.S. Indos do not increase numerically. This is due to their relative small numbers and geographical dispersion. Also the disappearance of a proverbial "old country" able to supply a continual influx of new immigrants stimulates the rapid assimilation of U.S. Indos into the U.S.A. Although several Indo clubs have existed throughout the second half of the 20th century, the community's elders are passing away steadily. Some experts expect that within the lifespan of the second and third generation the community will be assimilated and disappear completely into American multi-cultural society. The great leap in technological innovation of the 20th and 21st century, in the areas of communication and media, is mitigating the geographical dispersion and diversity of American Indos. Triggered by the loss of family and community elders American Indos are starting to rapidly reclaim their cultural heritage as well as sense of community.Indos in Indonesia
- See also List of Indonesian Indos
Notwithstanding most research has focused on the Indos in Diaspora and it has been established that the majority of Indos that were legally recognized as Europeans in the Dutch East Indies
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. It was formed from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East India Company, which came under the administration of the Netherlands government in 1800....
, migrated from Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, a significant Eurasian group can still be found there. Indonesian researchers suggest that at least 1 million Indonesians have a European bloodline. Most Indo families in Diaspora have relatives in Indonesia. Even when taking into account the popular definition of the term Indo used in contemporary Indonesia, the background of the majority of Indos in Indonesia can be traced back to the colonial era.
"...the place that the Indos ...occupy in our colonial society has been altered. In spite of everything, the Indos are gradually becoming Indonesians, or one could say that the Indonesians are gradually coming to the level of the Indos. The evolution of the deeply ingrained process of transformation in our society first established the Indos in a privileged position, and now that same process is withdrawing those privileges. Even if they retain their 'European" status before the law, they will still be on a level with the Indonesians, because there are and will continue to be many more educated Indonesians than Indos. Their privileged position thus is losing its social foundation, and as a result that position itself will also disappear.” Sutan SjahrirSutan SjahrirSutan Sjahrir , an avant garde and idealistic Indonesian intellectual, was a revolutionary independence leader...
, 1937
In all his foresight Sjahrir
Sutan Sjahrir
Sutan Sjahrir , an avant garde and idealistic Indonesian intellectual, was a revolutionary independence leader...
did not foresee the Indo community itself practically disappear from Indonesia only 20 years after he wrote this statement.
Descendants from the colonial era
During colonial times Indos were not always formally recognized and registered as Europeans. A considerable number of Indos integrated into their respective local indigenous societies and have never been officially registered as either European or Eurasian sub-group. Exact numbers are unknown. But a group of around 12,000 has been identified by the Indo community in Diaspora and consequently receives support from their overseas Indo beneficiaries.Another group of Indos, that did enjoy European status in colonial times, willingly opted for Indonesian citizenship. Although most of them did not endure the hardships of the early post colonial years and eventually repatriated to the Netherlands. Notable exceptions are Ibu Nos Fransz, Ferry Sonneville
Ferry Sonneville
Ferry Sonneville was an Indonesian badminton player noted for his touch, consistency, tactical astuteness, and coolness under pressure...
and Ernest Douwes Dekker
Ernest Douwes Dekker
Ernest François Eugène Douwes Dekker was an Indonesian freedom fighter and politician of Indo descent. He was related to the famous Dutch writer, Multatuli, whose real name was Eduard Douwes Dekker. In his youth, he took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa on the Boer side...
. Most European family names have been changed to Indonesian sounding names.
As Indo women outnumbered the men a third considerable group consists of the Indo women married to mostly Christian Indonesians. By default this sizeable group became Indonesian citizens. Notable examples are Nelly van Amden married to the Indonesian war hero Alexander Evert Kawilarang
Alexander Evert Kawilarang
Alex Kawilarang is an Indonesian national hero, a freedom fighter and founder of the military unit 'Kesko TT' in 1952. This was the earliest name of the now famous Indonesian special forces unit called Kopassus...
and Rochmaria Jeane mother to former Indonesian Minister of Defense Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani.
Case studies by organisations such as Halin
Halin
Halin is a settlement in the administrative district of Gmina Pakosław, within Rawicz County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland.-References:...
show a fourth group concerns Indo children that had either lost their parents or needed to take care of an immobile parent during the years following Indonesian independence and were unable to attain the necessary Dutch travel papers.
In Indonesian media
The presence of Indos in Indonesian media is abundant. More than 50% of the many Indonesian sitcom celebrities have European blood, which can be verified at their websites. Most popular Indonesian bands have at least a few Indo band members. Also the marketing and advertisement industry often uses Indo models and actors to promote products.At times this dominant position of Indos in Indonesian media fuels national debate. For instance in 2005 when the show Joe Millionaire Indonesia was aired, where dozens of women fought over the Indo Marlon or when the FHM
FHM
FHM, originally published as For Him Magazine, is an international monthly men's lifestyle magazine.- History :The magazine began publication in 1985 in the United Kingdom under the name For Him and changed its title to FHM in 1994 when Emap Consumer Media bought the magazine, although the full For...
issue with Indo playmate Petra Verkaik was released in Jakarta and sold out in record time.
In the Indonesian film industry
Indo actors are popular with both audiences and movie producers and directors alike. While in the past Indo actors were usually chosen to play upper class roles, they now cover the whole array of acting roles. Established and respected directors such as Nia DinataNia Dinata
Nurkurniati Aisyah Dewi , better known as Nia Dinata, is an award-winning Indonesian film director...
, Mira Lesmana (she herself is of Indo descent) and Riri Riza
Riri Riza
Riri Riza is an Indonesian film director, film producer and screenwriter.-Education, early career:Riri graduated in 1993 from the Jakarta Arts Institute, where he majored in film directing. His final film project, Sonata Kampung Bata , won third place in the 1994 Oberhausen short film festival...
have mainly chosen Indo actors for lead roles in their movies.
Even for the 2005 biographical movie Gie
Gie
Gie is a 2005 Indonesian film directed by Riri Riza. The film tells the story of Soe Hok Gie, a graduate from University of Indonesia who is known as an activist and nature lover. The film is based on a diary Catatan Seorang Demonstran written by Soe himself...
, which tells the tale of the Chinese student Soe Hok Gie
Soe Hok Gie
Soe Hok Gie was a Chinese Indonesian activist who opposed the successive dictatorships of Presidents Sukarno and Suharto.- Overview :...
who challenged the power of Sukarno
Sukarno
Sukarno, born Kusno Sosrodihardjo was the first President of Indonesia.Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for independence from the Netherlands and was Indonesia's first President from 1945 to 1967...
, the Indo actor Nicholas Saputra
Nicholas Saputra
Nicholas Schubring Saputra is an Indonesian actor, model and VJ. Saputra is primarily known for his role in the break-out teen movie Ada Apa dengan Cinta?, as well as his role as the activist Soe Hok Gie in the film Gie. Saputra holds a degree in architecture from the University of Indonesia...
was selected. In 2004 the Indonesian Ministry for Culture and Tourism initiated a contest for the best film script. The award winning script was about an Indo girl named Anne.
In contemporary Indonesian society
Outside of the media spotlight Indo communities in Indonesia are clustered around big cities such as JakartaJakarta
Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Officially known as the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta, it is located on the northwest coast of Java, has an area of , and a population of 9,580,000. Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre...
, Bogor
Bogor
Bogor is a city on the island of Java in the West Java province of Indonesia. The city is located in the center of the Bogor Regency , 60 kilometers south of the Indonesian capital Jakarta...
, Bandung
Bandung
Bandung is the capital of West Java province in Indonesia, and the country's third largest city, and 2nd largest metropolitan area in Indonesia, with a population of 7.4 million in 2007. Located 768 metres above sea level, approximately 140 km southeast of Jakarta, Bandung has cooler...
and Malang
Malang
Malang is the second largest city in East Java province, Indonesia. It has an ancient history dating back to the Mataram Kingdom. The city population at the 2010 Census was 819,708. During the period of Dutch colonization, it was a popular destination for European residents. The city is famous for...
. In Bandung Indos such as Felix Feitsma, a teacher at the School for Tourism, are involved in the Bandung Society for Heritage Conservation. In Malang the Indo upper class is clustered in particular neighbourhoods and Sunday ceremony in the Sion Church is still in Dutch. In Bandung over 2000 poor Indos are supported by overseas organisations such as Halin
Halin
Halin is a settlement in the administrative district of Gmina Pakosław, within Rawicz County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland.-References:...
and the Alan Neys Memorial Fund.
Another place with a relatively large Dutch speaking Indo community is Depok
Depok
Depok is a city in West Java province, Indonesia on the western border of DKI Jakarta in the Jabodetabek metropolitan region. The "de" in Jabodetabek refers to Depok, while the word "depok" itself comes from Sundanese language meaning hermitage or abode of one living in seclusion.It has an area of...
, on Java. Smaller communities still exist in places such as Kampung Tugu in Koja, Jakarta
Koja, Jakarta
Koja is a subdistrict of North Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia. It is known as the location of Kampung Tugu, a historic Portuguese-influenced neighborhood in North Jakarta....
. Recently after the Aceh region in Sumatra became more widely accessible, following post Tsunami
Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake...
relief work, the media also discovered a closed Indo Eurasian community of devout Muslims in the Lanbo area.
Like the Chinese minority in Indonesia also most Indos have changed their family names to blend into mainstream society and prevent discrimination. The latest trend among Indo-Chinese and Indo-Europeans is to change them back.
Indos in the Netherlands
- See also List of Dutch Indos
In 1990 the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics
Statistics Netherlands
Statistics Netherlands, founded in 1899, is a Dutch governmental institution that gathers statistical information about the Netherlands. In Dutch it is known as the Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, often abbreviated to CBS. It is a department of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs and is...
(CBS) registered the number of first-generation Indos living in the Netherlands at around 180,000 people. In 2001 official registration, including the second generation, accumulate their numbers to around half a million. Based on this the estimations, which include the third generation, reach up to at least 800,000 people. This makes them by far the largest minority community in the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
.
Integration
In the 1990s and early 21st century the Netherlands was confronted with ethnic tension in a now multi-culturalMulticulturalism
Multiculturalism is the appreciation, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultures, applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, usually at the organizational level, e.g...
society. (In 2006 statistics show that in Rotterdam
Rotterdam
Rotterdam is the second-largest city in the Netherlands and one of the largest ports in the world. Starting as a dam on the Rotte river, Rotterdam has grown into a major international commercial centre...
, the second largest city in the country, close to 50% of the inhabitants were of foreign descent.) The Indo community however is considered the best integrated ethnic and cultural minority in the Netherlands. Statistical data compiled by the CBS shows that Indos belong to the group with the lowest crime rates in the country.
A CBS study of 1999 reveals that of all foreign born groups living in the Netherlands, only the Indos have an average income similar to that of citizens born in the Netherlands. Job participation in government, education and health care is similar as well. Another recent CBS study, among foreign born citizens and their children living in the Netherlands in 2005, shows that on average, Indos own the largest number of independent enterprises. A 2007 CBS study shows that already over 50% of first-generation Indos have married a native born Dutch person. A percentage that increased to 80% for the second generation. One of the first and oldest Indo organisations that supported the integration of Indo repatriates into the Netherlands is the Pelita foundation.
Although Indo repatriates, being born overseas, are officially registered as Dutch citizens of foreign descent, their Eurasian background puts them in the Western sub-class instead of the Non-Western (Asian) sub-class.
Two factors are usually attributed to the essence of their apparently seamless assimilation into Dutch society: Dutch citizenship and the amount of 'Dutch cultural capital', in the form of school attainments and familiarity with the Dutch language and culture, that Indos already possessed before migrating to the Netherlands.
Indo culture
Next to their culinary culture, Indo influence in Dutch society is mostly reflected in the arts, i.e. music and literature. The biggest manifestation of Indo culture in the world is the Tong Tong Fair, formerly known as the Pasar Malam BesarPasar Malam Besar
The Tong Tong Fair is the largest festival in the world for Indo culture, held annually in The Netherlands. In 2009 it was renamed to 'Tong Tong Fair'. Established in 1959 it is one of the oldest festivals and the fourth largest grand fair in The Netherlands...
event, which is organized in the Netherlands every year. The main musical formats Indos introduced to Europe are Kroncong
Kroncong
Kroncong is the name of a ukulele-type instrument and an Indonesian musical style that typically makes use of the kroncong , the band or combo or ensemble consist of a flute, a violin, a melody guitar, a cello in pizzicato style, string bass also in...
and Indorock
Indorock
Indorock is a musical genre, originating in the 1950s in the Netherlands and Europe. It is a fusion of Indonesian and Western music, and has roots in Kroncong .Indo Rock, Rock 'n roll 50's 60's style....
. Indo culture by definition is a mix of various European and Indonesian elements. The dominant language spoken by the majority remains Dutch. Indos were never formally educated in the Indonesian language. But many were fluent in the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
'Malay'
Malay language
Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...
. Their mix language known as Petjok (a Dutch/Malay creole
Creole language
A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that they have been nativized by children as their primary language, making them have features of natural languages that are normally missing from...
, comparable to French/African Patois
Patois
Patois is any language that is considered nonstandard, although the term is not formally defined in linguistics. It can refer to pidgins, creoles, dialects, and other forms of native or local speech, but not commonly to jargon or slang, which are vocabulary-based forms of cant...
, or the Portuguese
Portuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
/Macanese
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
Patua
Patua
The Patua is a community found in the state of West Bengal in India. Some Patuas are Hindus, while others are Muslims and Buddhists. Hindu Patuas are active in Kalighat and Kumartuli regions of Calcutta, along with some parts of Bengal, where they are reduced in number...
) is slowly dying out completely. The single most important champion of Indo culture was the avant garde and visionary writer Tjalie Robinson
Tjalie Robinson
Tjalie Robinson is the main alias of the Indo intellectual and writer Jan Boon also known as Vincent Mahieu. His father Cornelis Boon, a KNIL sergeant, was Dutch and his Indo-European mother Fela Robinson was part English and Javanese...
(1911–1974), who co-founded the Tong Tong Fair.
First-generation
Notwithstanding the fact that Indos in the former colony of the Dutch East Indies were officially part of the European legal class and were formally considered to be Dutch nationals, the Dutch government always practiced an official policy of discouragement with regard to the post-WWII repatriation of Indos to the Netherlands. While Dutch policy was in fact aimed at stimulating Indos to give up Dutch citizenship and opt for Indonesian citizenship, simultaneously the young Indonesian Republic implemented policies increasingly intolerant towards anything remotely reminiscent of Dutch influence. Even though actual aggression against Indos decreased after the extreme violence of the BersiapBersiap
Bersiap is the name given by the Dutch to a violent and chaotic phase of Indonesia's revolutionary period following the end of World War II. The Indonesian word bersiap means 'get ready' or 'be prepared'...
period, all Dutch (language) institutions, schools and businesses were gradually eliminated and public discrimination and racism against Indos in the Indonesian job market continued. In the end 98% of the original Indo community repatriated to their distant fatherland in Europe.
In the Netherlands the first generation Indo repatriates quickly adapted to the host society’s culture and at least outwardly adopted all customs associated with it. Exactly as was the case in the old colony the necessity to blend in with dominant Dutch culture remained paramount for social and professional advancement. For the most part Indo customs became restricted to the private habitat and even there they were under pressure to be discarded. Unlike in the Dutch East Indies pressure to assimilate invaded even the intimacy of the private household. On a regular basis Indos that were lodged in guest houses were carefully screened for so called ‘oriental practices’ by social workers. These deviating ‘oriental practices’ included the private use of any language other than Dutch, the home preparation of Indonesian food, wearing clothing from the Indies, using water for hygiene in the toilet and even the practice of taking daily baths.
A small progressive cultural elite around the avant-garde visionary Tjalie Robinson
Tjalie Robinson
Tjalie Robinson is the main alias of the Indo intellectual and writer Jan Boon also known as Vincent Mahieu. His father Cornelis Boon, a KNIL sergeant, was Dutch and his Indo-European mother Fela Robinson was part English and Javanese...
resisted assimilation and struggled to describe, promote and preserve a unique Indo cultural domain. Under both heavy social and formal pressure to assimilate into Dutch culture and society and still carrying the burden of the traumatic World War II and Bersiap experience the vast majority of first generation Indos was not ready yet to embark on a wide scale search for identity. Apart from the rebellious Indo rockers
Indorock
Indorock is a musical genre, originating in the 1950s in the Netherlands and Europe. It is a fusion of Indonesian and Western music, and has roots in Kroncong .Indo Rock, Rock 'n roll 50's 60's style....
led by Andy Tielman
Andy Tielman
Andy Tielman was an influential Indo artist. Nicknamed the "Godfather of Indorock", he was the iconic frontman of the music style called Indorock and is considered one of the most important figures in Dutch Pop music.He was known for his wide vocal range and virtuoso guitar playing as well as...
most Indos compliantly focused on civil integration. In what is described in literature as ‘the great silence’ the supposedly ‘noiseless Indo’ disappeared from Dutch consciousness. Throughout the assimilation process of the first decennia much historic and cultural awareness faded even from the community itself.
Third-generation
Although third- and fourth-generation Indos are part of a fairly large minority community in the Netherlands, the path of assimilation ventured by their parents and grandparents has left them with little knowledge of their actual roots and history, even to the point that they find it hard to recognise their own cultural features. Some Indos find it hard to grasp the concept of their Eurasian identity and either tend to disregard their Indonesian roots or on the contrary attempt to profile themselves as Indonesian.In recent years however the reinvigorated search for roots and identity has also produced several academic studies.
In her master thesis published in 2010 Dutch scholar Nora Iburg argues that for third-generation Indos in the Netherlands there is no need to define the essence of a common Indo group identity and concludes that for them there is in fact no true essence of Indo identity except for its hybrid nature.
’Third generation Indos in the Netherlands are nomadic thinkers, concentrating on a consciousness (and evolution) of Indo identity […], instead of the illusion that the essence of Indo identity can be determined. This nomadic consciousness enables them to re-think and re-invent static categories. Nomadism gives its subject energy to fade out borders without burning bridges.’ Nora Iburg, 2010.
However to be able to do this there can not be disregard of history and she mentions the re-construction of family history as the first step.
'Only by doing justice to history and acknowledging the memories and emotions of the first generation, the next generations will be able to construct their own identities.' Nora Iburg, 2010
Other Eurasian peoples
- Anglo-Burmese people
- Anglo-IndianAnglo-IndianAnglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry, or people of British descent born or living in India, now mainly historical in the latter sense. British residents in India used the term "Eurasians" for people of mixed European and Indian descent...
- Burgher peopleBurgher peopleThe Burghers are a Eurasian ethnic group, historically from Sri Lanka, consisting for the most part of male-line descendants of European colonists from the 16th to 20th centuries and local women, with some minorities of Swedish, Norwegian, French and Irish.Today the mother tongue of the Burghers...
- Eurasian SingaporeanEurasian SingaporeanThe community of Eurasians in Singapore is descended from Europeans who intermarried with local Asians. Their ancestry can be traced to emigrants of countries that span the length and breadth of Europe, although Eurasian migrants to Singapore in the 19th century came largely from other colonies in...
- Filipino mestizoFilipino mestizoFilipino mestizo is a term used in the Philippines to describe people of mixed Filipino and foreign ancestry. The word mestizo is of Spanish origin, and was originally used in the Americas to only describe people of mixed European and Native American ancestry.- History :Spanish periodThe Spanish...
- Kristang peopleKristang peopleThe Kristang are a creole ethnic group of people of mixed Portuguese and Malaccan descent based in Malaysia and Singapore. People of this ethnicity have strong Dutch heritage, some British as well as Chinese and Indian heritage due to intermarriage, which was common among the Kristang...
- Macanese peopleMacanese peopleThe Macanese-born Portuguese people or simply the Macanese people refer to an ethnic group which originated in Macau since the 16th century, consisting mostly of people with some Portuguese ancestry.-Culture:...
Indo authors
- Louis CouperusLouis CouperusLouis Marie-Anne Couperus was a Dutch novelist and poet during the Belle Époque. There is a wide variety of genres in his oeuvre, which contains poetry, fairy tales, psychological novels, and historical novels...
(1863–1923) - Victor IdoVictor IdoVictor Ido is the main alias of the Indo Dutch language writer and journalist Hans van de Wall. Born in Surabaya, Dutch East Indies from a Dutch father and Indo mother...
(1869-1948) - Ernest Douwes DekkerErnest Douwes DekkerErnest François Eugène Douwes Dekker was an Indonesian freedom fighter and politician of Indo descent. He was related to the famous Dutch writer, Multatuli, whose real name was Eduard Douwes Dekker. In his youth, he took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa on the Boer side...
(1879–1950) - Maria DermoûtMaria DermoûtMaria Dermoût , was an Indo novelist, considered one of the greats of Dutch literature and as such an important proponent of Dutch Indies literature...
(1888–1962) - Edgar du PerronEdgar du PerronCharles Edgar du Perron, more commonly known as E. du Perron, was a famous and influential Dutch poet and author of Indo-European descent. Best known for his literary acclaimed master piece ‘Land van herkomst’ of 1935...
(1899–1940) - Beb VuykBeb VuykElizabeth Vuyk was a Dutch writer of Indo descent. Her Indo father was born in the Dutch East Indies and had a mother from Madura, but was ‘repatriated’ to the Netherlands on a very young age. He married into a typically Calvinist Dutch family and lived in the port city of Rotterdam...
(1905–1991) - Rob NieuwenhuysRob NieuwenhuysRob Nieuwenhuys was a Dutch writer of Indo descent. The son of a 'Totok' Dutchman and an Indo-European mother, he and his younger brother Roelof, grew up in Batavia, where his father was the managing director of the renowned Hotel des Indes .His Indies childhood profoundly influenced his life...
(1908–1999) - Adriaan van DisAdriaan van DisAdriaan van Dis is a Dutch author, with Indo roots, who debuted in 1983 with the novella Nathan Sid. He is also known as the host of his own television show.-Youth:...
(1946- ) - Ernst JanszErnst JanszErnst Gideon Jansz is one of the founding members and frontmen of Doe Maar. Doe Maar is a Dutch 1980s ska/reggae band, and is considered one of the most successful bands in Dutch pop history....
(1948- ) - Marion BloemMarion BloemMarion Bloem is a Dutch writer and film maker of Indo descent, best known as author of the literary acclaimed book Geen gewoon Indisch meisje and director of the 2008 feature film Ver van familie .Bloem is a second generation Indo immigrant born into a family of four...
(1952- ) - Dutch Indies literatureDutch Indies literatureDutch Indies literature or Dutch East Indies literature is a section of Dutch literature encompassing Dutch language literature inspired by colonial and post-colonial Insulinde from the Dutch Golden Age to the present day. It includes Dutch, Indo-European and Indonesian authors...
Indo organisations
- Indische PartyIndische PartyThe Indische Party or Indies Party was a short lived but influential political organisation founded in 1912 by the Indo-European journalist E.F.E. Douwes Dekker and the Javanese physicians Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Soewardi Soerjaningrat...
est. 1912 - Insulinde (Political Party)Insulinde (Political Party)Political party Insulinde , a direct successor of the Indische Party and later renamed the Nationale Indische Party , was a political organization that represented efforts by some Indo Eurasians to identify and cooperate with the Indigenous educated élite of the Dutch East Indies in an effort to...
est. 1913 - Indo Europeesch VerbondIndo Europeesch VerbondThe Indo Europeesch Verbond or Indo European Alliance was a social movement and political organisation founded in 1919 by the Indo-European community of the Dutch East Indies that fought for race equality and political say in late colonial Indonesia during the early 20th century.It was one of the...
est. 1919 - Freemasonry in the Dutch East Indies
Miscellaneous
- Pasar Malam BesarPasar Malam BesarThe Tong Tong Fair is the largest festival in the world for Indo culture, held annually in The Netherlands. In 2009 it was renamed to 'Tong Tong Fair'. Established in 1959 it is one of the oldest festivals and the fourth largest grand fair in The Netherlands...
- Indies MonumentIndies MonumentThe ‘Indies Monument’ is a memorial in The Hague in memory of all Dutch citizens and soldiers killed during the Second World War as victims of the Japanese occupation and Bersiap in the former Dutch East Indies. It is dedicated to all who died in battle, in prison camps or during forced labor...
- BersiapBersiapBersiap is the name given by the Dutch to a violent and chaotic phase of Indonesia's revolutionary period following the end of World War II. The Indonesian word bersiap means 'get ready' or 'be prepared'...
- List of Dutch Indos
- List of Indonesian Indos
- Bataviaasch NieuwsbladBataviaasch NieuwsbladThe Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad, was one of the leading and largest daily newspapers in the Dutch East Indies. Based in Batavia on Java, but read throughout the archipel...
- Hotel des Indes (Batavia)Hotel des Indes (Batavia)Hotel des Indes was one of the oldest and most prestigious hotels in Asia. Located in Batavia , in the Dutch East Indies . The hotel had accommodated countless famous patrons throughout its existence from 1829 to 1971...
- Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)A People's Council for the Dutch East Indies was provided for by law in 1916. But was procrastinated until the actual installation of the Council in 1918. It was a hesitant and slow attempt at democratisation of the Dutch East Indies. The power of the Volksraad was limited as it only had advisory...
- Stranger King (Concept)
External links
- Assimilation Out:Europeans, Indo-Europeans and Indonesians seen through sugar from the 1880s to the 1950s
- Culture, structure and beyond
- Dutch East Indies, website dedicated to Dutch-Indonesian community 'Indie Tabe' Master Thesis Erasmus University by Kirsten Vos about the Indo repatriation (1950–1958).
- The Indo Project is dedicated to the preservation, promotion and celebration of Indo culture and history through education and raising public awareness.