
is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake
. Earthquake
s, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosion
s (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings
, meteorite impacts
and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.
Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer.
365 A tsunami devastates the city of Alexandria, Egypt. The tsunami is caused by an earthquake estimated to be 8.0 on the Richter Scale. 5,000 people perished in Alexandria, and 45,000 more died outside the city.
1343 A tsunami, caused by the earthquake in the Tyrrhenian Sea, devastates Naples (Italy) and the Maritime Republic of Amalfi, among other places.
1755 Lisbon earthquake: In Portugal, Lisbon is destroyed by a massive earthquake and tsunami, killing between sixty thousand and ninety thousand people.
1833 A massive undersea earthquake, estimated magnitude between 8.7-9.2 rocks Sumatra, producing a massive tsunami all along the Indonesian coast.
1906 A typhoon with tsunami kills an estimated 10,000 people in Hong Kong.
1929 1929 Grand Banks earthquake: Off the south coast of Newfoundland in the Atlantic Ocean, a Richter magnitude 7.2 submarine earthquake, centered on Grand Banks, breaks 12 submarine transatlantic telegraph cables and triggers a tsunami that destroys many south coast communities in the Burin Peninsula.
1946 Aleutian Island earthquake: A 7.8 magnitude earthquake near the Aleutian Islands creates a tsunami that strikes the Hawaiian Islands killing 159, mostly in Hilo.
1957 A magnitude 8.3 earthquake in the Andreanof Islands, Alaska triggers a Pacific-wide tsunami causing extensive damage to Hawaii and Oahu.
1983 A strong 7.7 magnitude earthquake strikes Japan, triggering a tsunami that kills at least 104 people and injures thousands. Many people go missing and thousands of buildings are destroyed.
1997 The Soufriere Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat explodes, creating a small tsunami offshore.
is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake
. Earthquake
s, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosion
s (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings
, meteorite impacts
and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.
Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves, because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide
, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with period
s ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "wave train". Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with over 230,000 people killed in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean
.
The Greek
historian Thucydides
suggested in 426 B.C. that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquake
s, but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th century and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include trying to determine why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and also to forecast how tsunami waves would interact with specific shorelines.
Etymology

津 (tsu) meaning "harbor
" and 波 (nami), meaning "wave
". (For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese.)
Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves. In recent years, this term has fallen out of favor, especially in the scientific community, because tsunami actually have nothing to do with tide
s. The once-popular term derives from their most common appearance, which is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore
. Tsunami and tides both produce waves of water that move inland, but in the case of tsunami the inland movement of water is much greater and lasts for a longer period, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. Although the meanings of "tidal" include "resembling" or "having the form or character of" the tides, and the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsunami are not limited to harbours, use of the term tidal wave is discouraged by geologist
s and oceanographers.
There are only a few other languages that have an equivalent native word. In the Tamil language
, the word is aazhi peralai. In the Acehnese language
, it is ië beuna or alôn buluëk (Depending on the dialect. Note that in the fellow Austronesian language of Tagalog
, a major language in the Philippines
, alon means "wave".) On Simeulue
island, off the western coast of Sumatra in Indonesia, in the Defayan language
the word is smong, while in the Sigulai language
it is emong.
History
As early as 426 B.C.the Greek
historian Thucydides
inquired in his book History of the Peloponnesian War
about the causes of tsunami, and was the first to argue that ocean earthquakes must be the cause.
The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen.
The Roman
historian Ammianus Marcellinus
(Res Gestae 26.10.15-19) described the typical sequence of a tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave, after the 365 A.D. tsunami
devastated Alexandria
.
While Japan may have the longest recorded history of tsunamis, the sheer destruction caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami event mark it as the most devastating of its kind in modern times, killing around 230,000 people. The Sumatran region is not unused to tsunamis either, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island.
Generation mechanisms
The principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions,glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity. Tides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis.
Tsunami generated by seismicity
Tsunami can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the Earth's crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. More specifically, a tsunami can be generated when thrust faults associated with convergent
or destructive plate boundaries move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, owing to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on normal faults will also cause displacement of the seabed, but the size of the largest of such events is normally too small to give rise to a significant tsunami.
Tsunamis have a small amplitude
(wave height) offshore, and a very long wavelength
(often hundreds of kilometers long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 millimetres (11.8 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a wave shoaling
process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas.
On April 1, 1946, a magnitude-7.8 (Richter Scale) earthquake
occurred near the Aleutian Islands, Alaska
. It generated a tsunami which inundated Hilo on the island of Hawai'i with a 14 metres (45.9 ft) high surge. The area where the earthquake
occurred is where the Pacific Ocean
floor is subducting (or being pushed downwards) under Alaska
.
Examples of tsunami originating at locations away from convergent boundaries
include Storegga about 8,000 years ago, Grand Banks
1929, Papua New Guinea
1998 (Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis came from earthquakes which destabilized sediments, causing them to flow into the ocean and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before traveling transoceanic distances.
The cause of the Storegga sediment failure is unknown. Possibilities include an overloading of the sediments, an earthquake or a release of gas hydrates (methane etc.)
The 1960 Valdivia earthquake (Mw
9.5) (19:11 hrs UTC), 1964 Alaska earthquake (Mw 9.2), 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
(Mw 9.2) (00:58:53 UTC) and 2011 Tōhoku earthquake
(Mw9.0) are recent examples of powerful megathrust earthquake
s that generated tsunamis (known as teletsunamis) that can cross entire oceans. Smaller (Mw 4.2) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (called local and regional tsunamis) that can only devastate nearby coasts, but can do so in only a few minutes.
Tsunami generated by landslides
In the 1950s, it was discovered that larger tsunamis than had previously been believed possible could be caused by giant landslides. Underwater landslides that generate tsunamis are called sciorrucks. These phenomena rapidly displace large water volumes, as energy from falling debris or expansion transfers to the water at a rate faster than the water can absorb. Their existence was confirmed in 1958, when a giant landslide in Lituya Bay, Alaska
, caused the highest wave ever recorded, which had a height of 524 metres (over 1700 feet). The wave didn't travel far, as it struck land almost immediately. Two people fishing in the bay were killed, but another boat amazingly managed to ride the wave. Scientists named these waves megatsunami
.
Scientists discovered that extremely large landslides from volcanic island collapses can generate megatsunamis that can cross oceans.
Meteotsunamis
Some meteorological conditions, such as deep depressions that cause tropical cyclones, can generate a storm surge, called a meteotsunami
, which can raise tide
s several metres above normal levels. The displacement comes from low atmospheric pressure
within the centre of the depression. As these storm surges reach shore, they may resemble (though are not) tsunamis, inundating vast areas of land.
Characteristics

While everyday wind waves have a wavelength
(from crest to crest) of about 100 metres (328.1 ft) and a height of roughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean has a wavelength of about 200 kilometres (124.3 mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres per hour (497.1 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about 1 metres (3.3 ft). This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water. Ships rarely notice their passage.
This is the reason for the Japanese name "harbor wave": sometimes a village's fishermen would sail out, and encounter no unusual waves while out at sea fishing, and come back to land to find their village devastated by a huge wave.
As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow, wave shoaling
compresses the wave and its velocity slows below 80 kilometres per hour (49.7 mph). Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometres (12.4 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously. Since the wave still has the same very long period
, the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for the very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not break
, but rather appears like a fast-moving tidal bore
. Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front.
When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed run up. Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run up.
About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions glacier calvings, and bolides.
Drawback
If the first part of a tsunami to reach land is a trough—called a drawback—rather than a wave crest, the water along the shoreline recedes dramatically, exposing normally submerged areas.A drawback occurs because the water propagates outwards with the trough of the wave at its front. Drawback begins before the wave arrives at an interval equal to half of the wave's period. Drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and people unaware of the danger sometimes remain near the shore to satisfy their curiosity or to collect fish from the exposed seabed.
Scales of intensity and magnitude
As with earthquakes, several attempts have been made to set up scales of tsunami intensity or magnitude to allow comparison between different events.Intensity scales
The first scales used routinely to measure the intensity of tsunami were the Sieberg-Ambraseys scale, used in the Mediterranean Seaand the Imamura-Iida intensity scale, used in the Pacific Ocean
. The latter scale was modified by Soloviev, who calculated the Tsunami intensity I according to the formula

where

Magnitude scales
The first scale that genuinely calculated a magnitude for a tsunami, rather than an intensity at a particular location was the ML scale proposed by Murty & Loomis based on the potential energy. Difficulties in calculating the potential energy of the tsunami mean that this scale is rarely used. Abe introduced the tsunami magnitude scale

where h is the maximum tsunami-wave amplitude (in m) measured by a tide gauge at a distance R from the epicenter, a, b & D are constants used to make the Mt scale match as closely as possible with the moment magnitude scale.
Warnings and predictions
Drawbacks can serve as a brief warning. People who observe drawback (many survivors report an accompanying sucking sound), can survive only if they immediately run for high ground or seek the upper floors of nearby buildings. In 2004, ten-year old Tilly Smithof Surrey
, England
, was on Maikhao beach in Phuket
, Thailand
with her parents and sister, and having learned about tsunamis recently in school, told her family that a tsunami might be imminent. Her parents warned others minutes before the wave arrived, saving dozens of lives. She credited her geography teacher, Andrew Kearney.
In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
drawback was not reported on the African coast or any other eastern coasts it reached. This was because the wave moved downwards on the eastern side of the fault line and upwards on the western side. The western pulse hit coastal Africa and other western areas.
A tsunami cannot be precisely predicted, even if the magnitude and location of an earthquake is known. Geologist
s, oceanographers, and seismologists analyse each earthquake and based on many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and automated systems can provide warnings immediately after an earthquake in time to save lives. One of the most successful systems uses bottom pressure sensors, attached to buoys, which constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column.
Regions with a high tsunami risk typically use tsunami warning system
s to warn the population before the wave reaches land. On the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs indicate evacuation routes. In Japan, the community is well-educated about earthquakes and tsunamis, and along the Japanese shorelines the tsunami warning signs are reminders of the natural hazards together with a network of warning sirens, typically at the top of the cliff of surroundings hills.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning System
is based in Honolulu, Hawaii
. It monitors Pacific Ocean seismic activity. A sufficiently large earthquake magnitude and other information triggers a tsunami warning. While the subduction zones around the Pacific are seismically active, not all earthquakes generate tsunami. Computers assist in analysing the tsunami risk of every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining land masses.


Computer models can predict tsunami arrival, usually within minutes of the arrival time. Bottom pressure sensors relay information in real time
. Based on these pressure readings and other seismic information and the seafloor's shape (bathymetry
) and coastal topography
, the models estimate the amplitude and surge height of the approaching tsunami. All Pacific Rim
countries collaborate in the Tsunami Warning System and most regularly practice evacuation and other procedures. In Japan, such preparation is mandatory for government, local authorities, emergency services and the population.
Some zoologists hypothesise that some animal species have an ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves from an earthquake or a tsunami. If correct, monitoring their behavior could provide advance warning of earthquakes, tsunami etc. However, the evidence is controversial and is not widely accepted. There are unsubstantiated claims about the Lisbon quake that some animals escaped to higher ground, while many other animals in the same areas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted by media sources in Sri Lanka
in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
. It is possible that certain animals (e.g., elephant
s) may have heard the sounds of the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants' reaction was to move away from the approaching noise. By contrast, some humans went to the shore to investigate and many drowned as a result.
Along the United States west coast, in addition to sirens, warnings are sent on television & radio via the National Weather Service
, using the Emergency Alert System
.
Forecast of tsunami attack probability
Kunihiko Shimazaki (University of Tokyo), a member of Earthquake Research committee of The Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion of Japanese government, mentioned the plan to public announcement of tsunami attack probability forecast at Japan National Press Club
on 12 May 2011. The forecast includes tsunami height, attack area and occurrence probability within 100 years ahead. The forecast would integrate the scientific knowledge of recent interdisciplinarity
and aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
. As the plan, announcement will be available from 2014.
Mitigation
In some tsunami-prone countries earthquake engineeringmeasures have been taken to reduce the damage caused onshore. Japan
, where tsunami science and response measures first began following a disaster in 1896
, has produced ever-more elaborate countermeasures and response plans. That country has built many tsunami walls of up to 4.5 metres (14.8 ft) to protect populated coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgate
s and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunami often overtop the barriers. For instance, the Okushiri, Hokkaidō tsunami which struck Okushiri Island
of Hokkaidō
within two to five minutes of the earthquake on July 12, 1993
created waves as much as 30 metres (98.4 ft) tall—as high as a 10-story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.
As a weapon
There have been studies and at least one attempt to create tsunami waves as a weapon. In World War II, the New Zealand Military Forces
initiated Project Seal
, which attempted to create small tsunamis with explosives in the area of today's Shakespear Regional Park
; the attempt failed.
See also
External links
- Animation of DART tsunami detection system
- Can HF Radar detect Tsunamis? – University of Hamburg HF-Radar.
- Envirtech Tsunami Warning System – Based on seabed seismics and sea level gauges.
- Geology.com The highest tsunami was caused by rockfall
- IOC Tsunami Glossary by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic CommissionIntergovernmental Oceanographic CommissionThe Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission was established by resolution 2.31 adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO. It first met in Paris at Unesco Headquarters from 19 to 27 October 1961. Initially, 40 States became members of the Commission.The IOC is composed of its Member States ,...
(IOC) at the International Tsunami Information Centre (ITIC) of UNESCOUNESCOThe United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations... - How to survive a tsunami – Guide for children and youth
- International Centre for Geohazards (ICG)
- ITSU – Coordination Group for the Pacific Tsunami Warning System.
- Jakarta Tsunami Information Centre
- National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program Coordinated U.S. Federal/State effort
- NOAA Center for Tsunami Research (NCTR)
- NOAA Tsunami – General description of tsunamis and the United States agency NOAA's role
- NOVA: Wave That Shook The World – Site and special report shot within days of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
- Pacific Tsunami Museum
- Science of Tsunami Hazards journal
- Tsunami scientific publications list
- Scientific American Magazine (January 2006 Issue) Tsunami: Wave of Change What we can learn from the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004.
- Social & Economic Costs of Tsunamis in the United States from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative
- Tsunami Centers – United States National Weather Service.
- Tsunami database with detailed statistics
- Interactive map of recent and historical tsunami events with links to graphics, animations and data
- Tsunami Warning – Tsunami warnings via mobile phone.
- Tsunamis and Earthquakes
- USGS: Surviving a tsunami (United States)
- Impact of Tsunami on groundwater resources IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre
- Tsunami Surges on Dry Coastal Plains: Application of Dam Break Wave Equations, Coastal Engineering JournalCoastal Engineering JournalCoastal Engineering Journal is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering achievements and engineering practices in the fields of coastal, harbor and offshore engineering...
, 48 4: 355-370
Images, video, and animations
- Tsunami videos on YouTube from the NOAA Center for Tsunami Research
- Amateur Camcorder Video Streams of the December 26, 2004 tsunami that hit Sri Lanka, Thailand and Indonesia (search on tsunamis)
- Animation of 1960 tsunami originating outside coast of Chile
- Animations of actual and simulated tsunami events from the NOAA Center for Tsunami Research
- CBC Digital Archives – Canada's Earthquakes and Tsunamis
- Computer-generated animation of a tsunami
- Origin of a Tsunami – animation showing how the shifting of continental plates in the Indian Ocean created the catastrophe of December 26, 2004.
- Photos and Videos of Humanitarian Assistance to Tsunami-hit areas by the Singapore Armed ForcesSingapore Armed ForcesThe Singapore Armed Forces is the military arm of the Total Defence of the Republic of Singapore; as well as the military component of the Ministry of Defence. The SAF comprises three branches: the Singapore Army, the Republic of Singapore Air Force and the Republic of Singapore Navy...
- Tsunami Aftermath in Penang and Kuala Muda, Kedah.
- Satellite Images of Tsunami Affected Areas High resolution satellite images showing the effects of the 2004 tsunami on the affected areas in Indonesia, Thailand and Nicobar island of India.
- The Survivors – A moving travelogue full of stunning images along the tsunami ravaged South-Western Coast of India (Unavailable)
- Animations of tsunami propagation model results for actual tsunami events
- 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami at YouTubeYouTubeYouTube is a video-sharing website, created by three former PayPal employees in February 2005, on which users can upload, view and share videos....
- Raw Video: Tsunami Slams Northeast Japan, a video of the 2011 Tōhoku (Japan) earthquake tsunami2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunamiThe 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tohoku, also known as the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, or the Great East Japan Earthquake, was a magnitude 9.0 undersea megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14:46 JST on Friday, 11 March 2011, with the epicenter approximately east...
by Associated PressAssociated PressThe Associated Press is an American news agency. The AP is a cooperative owned by its contributing newspapers, radio and television stations in the United States, which both contribute stories to the AP and use material written by its staff journalists...
at YouTube, showing the wave from a tsunami engulfing a town and farmlands.