Histories (Herodotus)
Encyclopedia
The Histories of Herodotus
is considered one of the seminal works of history in Western literature
. Written from the 450s to the 420s BC in the Ionic dialect of classical Greek, The Histories serves as a record of the ancient traditions, politics, geography, and clashes of various cultures that were known around the Mediterranean
and Western Asia at that time. It is not an impartial record but it remains one of the West's most important sources regarding these affairs. Moreover, it established without precedent the genre
and study of history
in the Western world, although historical records and chronicle
s existed beforehand.
Perhaps most importantly, it stands as one of the first, and surviving, accounts of the rise of the Persian Empire, the events of, and causes for, the Greco-Persian Wars
between the Achaemenid Empire
and the Greek city-states
in the 5th century BC. Herodotus
portrays the conflict as one between the forces of slavery (the Persians) on the one hand, and freedom (the Athenians and the confederacy of Greek city-states which united against the invaders) on the other.
The Histories was at some point through the ages divided into the nine books of modern editions, conventionally named after the Muses.
Herodotus seems to have travelled extensively around the ancient world
, conducting interviews and collecting stories for his book. At the beginning of The Histories, Herodotus sets out his reasons for writing it:
Book I (Clio
Book II (Euterpe
Book IV (Melpomene
Book V (Terpsichore
Book VI (Erato
Book VII (Polymnia
Book VIII (Urania
Book IX (Calliope
Herodotus
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the 5th century BC . He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
is considered one of the seminal works of history in Western literature
Western literature
Western literature refers to the literature written in the languages of Europe, including the ones belonging to the Indo-European language family as well as several geographically or historically related languages such as Basque, Hungarian, and so forth...
. Written from the 450s to the 420s BC in the Ionic dialect of classical Greek, The Histories serves as a record of the ancient traditions, politics, geography, and clashes of various cultures that were known around the Mediterranean
History of the Mediterranean region
The history of the Mediterranean region is the history of the interaction of the cultures and people of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea —the central superhighway of transport, trade and cultural exchange between diverse peoples...
and Western Asia at that time. It is not an impartial record but it remains one of the West's most important sources regarding these affairs. Moreover, it established without precedent the genre
Genre
Genre , Greek: genos, γένος) is the term for any category of literature or other forms of art or culture, e.g. music, and in general, any type of discourse, whether written or spoken, audial or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria. Genres are formed by conventions that change over time...
and study of history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
in the Western world, although historical records and chronicle
Chronicle
Generally a chronicle is a historical account of facts and events ranged in chronological order, as in a time line. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred, seen from the perspective of the...
s existed beforehand.
Perhaps most importantly, it stands as one of the first, and surviving, accounts of the rise of the Persian Empire, the events of, and causes for, the Greco-Persian Wars
Greco-Persian Wars
The Greco-Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and city-states of the Hellenic world that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC. The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when Cyrus...
between the Achaemenid Empire
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire , sometimes known as First Persian Empire and/or Persian Empire, was founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation...
and the Greek city-states
Polis
Polis , plural poleis , literally means city in Greek. It could also mean citizenship and body of citizens. In modern historiography "polis" is normally used to indicate the ancient Greek city-states, like Classical Athens and its contemporaries, so polis is often translated as "city-state."The...
in the 5th century BC. Herodotus
Herodotus
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the 5th century BC . He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
portrays the conflict as one between the forces of slavery (the Persians) on the one hand, and freedom (the Athenians and the confederacy of Greek city-states which united against the invaders) on the other.
The Histories was at some point through the ages divided into the nine books of modern editions, conventionally named after the Muses.
Herodotus seems to have travelled extensively around the ancient world
Ancient history
Ancient history is the study of the written past from the beginning of recorded human history to the Early Middle Ages. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, with Cuneiform script, the oldest discovered form of coherent writing, from the protoliterate period around the 30th century BC...
, conducting interviews and collecting stories for his book. At the beginning of The Histories, Herodotus sets out his reasons for writing it:
Book I (ClioCliothumb|Clio—detail from [[The Art of Painting|The Allegory of Painting]] by [[Johannes Vermeer]]In Greek mythology, Clio or Kleio, is the muse of history. Like all the muses, she is a daughter of Zeus and Mnemosyne...
)
- The rulers of LydiaLydiaLydia was an Iron Age kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the modern Turkish provinces of Manisa and inland İzmir. Its population spoke an Anatolian language known as Lydian....
(on the west coast of modern TurkeyTurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
): CandaulesCandaulesCandaules , also known as Myrsilos was a king of the ancient Kingdom of Lydia from 735 BC to 718 BC. He succeeded Meles and was followed by Gyges...
, GygesGyges of LydiaGyges was the founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings and reigned from 716 BC to 678 BC . He was succeeded by his son Ardys II.-Allegorical accounts of Gyges' rise to power:...
, SadyattesSadyattesSadyattes, son of Ardys II, of the house of the Mermnadae was King of Lydia from 624 BC to 619 BC. He was succeeded by his son Alyattes II.Sadyattes began a twelve year war with the Ionian Greek maritime city of Miletus that was continued by his son Alyattes II.-Sources:* Nos ancêtres de...
, AlyattesAlyattesAlyattes may refer to:* Alyattes I, king of Lydia * Alyattes II, king of Lydia,...
, CroesusCroesusCroesus was the king of Lydia from 560 to 547 BC until his defeat by the Persians. The fall of Croesus made a profound impact on the Hellenes, providing a fixed point in their calendar. "By the fifth century at least," J.A.S...
(–7) - How Gyges took the kingdom from CandaulesCandaulesCandaules , also known as Myrsilos was a king of the ancient Kingdom of Lydia from 735 BC to 718 BC. He succeeded Meles and was followed by Gyges...
(–13) - The singer ArionArionArion was a kitharode in ancient Greece, a Dionysiac poet credited with inventing the dithyramb: "As a literary composition for chorus dithyramb was the creation of Arion of Corinth," The islanders of Lesbos claimed him as their native son, but Arion found a patron in Periander, tyrant of Corinth...
's ride on the dolphinDolphinDolphins are marine mammals that are closely related to whales and porpoises. There are almost forty species of dolphin in 17 genera. They vary in size from and , up to and . They are found worldwide, mostly in the shallower seas of the continental shelves, and are carnivores, mostly eating...
(–24) - SolonSolonSolon was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens...
's answer to Croesus's question that TellusTellus (Ancient Athens)Tellus was an Athenian statesman featured in Herodotus's Histories, in which the wise man Solon describes him as the happiest man ever. To quote Herodotus:...
was the happiest person in the world (–33) - Croesus's efforts to protect his son AtysAtys son of CroesusAtys was the son of Croesus, father of Pythius, a king of Lydia. According to book one of the Histories by Herodotus, his father had a dream, in this dream he saw his son Atys being killed by a spear. As a result Croesus, seeking to prevent or stave off the foreseen fate, had his son married...
, his son's accidental death by AdrastusAdrastusAdrastus or Adrestus , traditionally translated as "nonparticipant" or "uncooperative", was a legendary king of Argos during the war of the Seven Against Thebes.-Mythological tradition:...
(–44) - Croesus's test of the oracles (–54)
- The answer from the Oracle of Delphi concerning whether Croesus should attack the Persians (famous for its ambiguity): If you attack you will destroy a great empire (–56)
- Peisistratos' rises and falls from power as tyrant of Athens (–64)
- The rise of SpartaSpartaSparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
(–68) - Croesus's defeat by Cyrus II of Persia, and how he later became Cyrus's advisor (–92)
- The rulers of the MedesMedesThe MedesThe Medes...
: DeiocesDeiocesDeioces, Diyako or Deiokes was the first king of the Medes according to Herodotus. In the late 8th century BC there was a Daiukku or Dayukku who was a Mannaean provincial governor...
, PhraortesPhraortesPhraortes , son of Diyako, was the second king of the Median Empire....
, CyaxaresCyaxaresCyaxares, Cyaxares the Great or Hvakhshathra , the son of King Phraortes, was the first king of Media. According to Herodotus, Cyaxares, grandson of Deioces, had a far greater military reputation than his father or grandfather, therefore he is often being described as the first official Median...
, AstyagesAstyagesAstyages Astyages Astyages (spelled by Herodotus as Ἀστυάγης - Astyages; by Ctesias as Astyigas; by Diodorus as Aspadas; Akkadian: Ištumegu, was the last king of the Median Empire, r...
, Cyrus II of Persia (–144) - The rise of Deioces over the Medes
- AstyagesAstyagesAstyages Astyages Astyages (spelled by Herodotus as Ἀστυάγης - Astyages; by Ctesias as Astyigas; by Diodorus as Aspadas; Akkadian: Ištumegu, was the last king of the Median Empire, r...
's attempt to destroy Cyrus, and Cyrus's rise to power - HarpagusHarpagusHarpagus, also known as Harpagos or Hypargus , was a Median general from the 6th century BCE, credited by Herodotus as having put Cyrus the Great on the throne through his defection during the battle of Pasargadae.-Biography:According to Herodotus' Histories, Harpagus was a member of the Median...
tricked into eating his son, his revenge against Astyages by assisting Cyrus - The culture of the PersiansCulture of IranTo best understand Iran, Afghanistan, their related societies and their people, one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of their culture. It is in the study of this area where the Persian identity optimally expresses itself...
- The history and geography of the IoniaIoniaIonia is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements...
ns, and the attacks on it by Harpagus - Pactyes' convinces the Lydians to revolt. Rebellion fails and he seeks refuge from Mazares in Cyme (Aeolis)Cyme (Aeolis)Cyme was an Aeol city in Aeolis close to the kingdom of Lydia. The Aeolians regarded Cyme as the largest and most important of their twelve cities, which were located on the coastline of Asia Minor...
- The culture of AssyriaAssyriaAssyria was a Semitic Akkadian kingdom, extant as a nation state from the mid–23rd century BC to 608 BC centred on the Upper Tigris river, in northern Mesopotamia , that came to rule regional empires a number of times through history. It was named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur...
, especially the design and improvement of the city of BabylonBabylonBabylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
and the ways of its people - Cyrus's attack on Babylon, including his revenge on the river Gyndes and his famous method for entering the city
- Cyrus's ill-fated attack on the Massagetæ
Book II (EuterpeEuterpeIn Greek mythology, Euterpe + τέρπειν terpein ) was one of the Muses, the daughters of Mnemosyne, fathered by Zeus. Called the "Giver of delight", when later poets assigned roles to each of the Muses, she was the muse of music. In late Classical times she was named muse of lyric poetry and...
)
- The proof of the antiquity of the Phrygians by the use of children unexposed to language
- The geography of EgyptEgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
- Speculations on the NileNileThe Nile is a major north-flowing river in North Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. It is long. It runs through the ten countries of Sudan, South Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Egypt.The Nile has two major...
river - The religious practices of Egypt, especially as they differ from the Greeks
- The animals of Egypt: cats, dogs, crocodileCrocodileA crocodile is any species belonging to the family Crocodylidae . The term can also be used more loosely to include all extant members of the order Crocodilia: i.e...
s, hippopotamusHippopotamusThe hippopotamus , or hippo, from the ancient Greek for "river horse" , is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae After the elephant and rhinoceros, the hippopotamus is the third largest land mammal and the heaviest...
es, otterOtterThe Otters are twelve species of semi-aquatic mammals which feed on fish and shellfish, and also other invertebrates, amphibians, birds and small mammals....
s, phoenixesPhoenix (mythology)The phoenix or phenix is a mythical sacred firebird that can be found in the mythologies of the Arabian, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Chinese, Indian and Phoenicians....
, sacred serpentsSerpent (symbolism)Serpent in Latin means: Rory Collins :&, in turn, from the Biblical Hebrew word of: "saraf" with root letters of: which refers to something burning-as, the pain of poisonous snake's bite was likened to internal burning.This word is commonly used in a specifically mythic or religious context,...
, winged snakeSnakeSnakes are elongate, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales...
s, ibisIbisThe ibises are a group of long-legged wading birds in the family Threskiornithidae....
es - The culture of Egypt: medicine, funeral rites, food, boats
- The kings of Egypt: MenesMenesMenes was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the early dynastic period, credited by classical tradition with having united Upper and Lower Egypt, and as the founder of the first dynasty ....
, NitocrisNitocrisNitocris has been claimed to have been the last pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty. Her name is found in the Histories of Herodotus and writings of Manetho but her historicity is questionable. She might have been an interregnum queen...
, Mœris, SesostrisSesostrisSesostris was the name of a legendary king of ancient Egypt who led a military expedition into parts of Europe, as related by Herodotus.-Account of Herodotus:...
, PheronPheronPheron, mentioned in The History by Herodotus, was a king of ancient Egypt. He had been made blind for ten years after attacking a river with a spear. Then he was told the only cure would be to wash his eyes with the urine of a woman who was faithful to her husband. After several women's urine...
, ProteusProteus of EgyptProteus was an ancient Egyptian king who is mostly known for his involvement in an alternate version of the story of Helen of Troy.In book II of The History by Greek historian Herodotus, Proteus is said to be from Memphis, succeeded Pheron to the throne, and was succeeded by Rhampsinitus... - Helen and ParisParis (mythology)Paris , the son of Priam, king of Troy, appears in a number of Greek legends. Probably the best-known was his elopement with Helen, queen of Sparta, this being one of the immediate causes of the Trojan War...
' stay in Egypt during the Trojan WarTrojan WarIn Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, the king of Sparta. The war is among the most important events in Greek mythology and was narrated in many works of Greek literature, including the Iliad... - More kings of Egypt: RhampsinitusRamesses IIIUsimare Ramesses III was the second Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty and is considered to be the last great New Kingdom king to wield any substantial authority over Egypt. He was the son of Setnakhte and Queen Tiy-Merenese. Ramesses III is believed to have reigned from March 1186 to April 1155 BCE...
(and the story of the clever thief), CheopsKhufuKhufu , also known as Cheops or, in Manetho, Suphis , was a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's Old Kingdom. He reigned from around 2589 to 2566 BC. Khufu was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. He is generally accepted as being the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of...
(and the building of the Great Pyramid of GizaGreat Pyramid of GizaThe Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact...
), ChephrenKhafraKhafra — also Khafre — was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty, who had his capital at Memphis. According to some authors he was the son and successor of Khufu, but it is more commonly accepted that Djedefre was Khufu's successor and Khafra was Djedefre's...
, MycerinusMenkauraMenkaure was a pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt who ordered the construction of the third and smallest of the Pyramids of Giza. His name means "Eternal like the Souls of Re"...
, AsychisShoshenq IHedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq I , , also known as Sheshonk or Sheshonq I , was a Meshwesh Berber king of Egypt—of Libyan ancestry—and the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty...
, AnysisAnysisAnysis is a king of Egypt, mentioned only in book II of The History by Herodotus. Herodotus says he came from a city after which he was named. He was blind and was deposed by Ethiopians led by Sabacos...
, SethôsSeti IMenmaatre Seti I was a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt , the son of Ramesses I and Queen Sitre, and the father of Ramesses II... - The line of priests
- The Labyrinth
- More kings of Egypt: the twelve, PsammetichusPsammetichus IPsamtik I , was the first of three kings of that name of the Saite, or Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt. His prenomen, Wah-Ib-Re, means "Constant [is the] Heart [of] Re." The story in Herodotus of the Dodecarchy and the rise of Psamtik is fanciful...
(and his rise to power), NecôsNecho IINecho II was a king of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt .Necho II is most likely the pharaoh mentioned in several books of the Bible . The Book of Kings states that Necho met King Josiah of the Kingdom of Judah at Megiddo and killed him...
, Psammis, ApriesApriesApries is the name by which Herodotus and Diodorus designate Wahibre Haaibre, Ουαφρης , a pharaoh of Egypt , the fourth king of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt. He was equated with the Waphres of Manetho, who correctly records that he reigned for 19 years...
, Amasis IIAmasis IIAmasis II or Ahmose II was a pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest.-Life:...
(and his rise to power)
Book III (Thalia)
- Cambyses II of PersiaCambyses II of PersiaCambyses II son of Cyrus the Great , was a king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire. Cambyses's grandfather was Cambyses I, king of Anshan. Following Cyrus the Great's conquest of the Near East and Central Asia, Cambyses II further expanded the empire into Egypt during the Late Period by defeating...
's (son of Cyrus II and king of Persia) attack on Egypt, and the defeat of the Egyptian king Psammetichus IIIPsammetichus IIIPsamtik III was the last Pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt from 526 BC to 525 BC. Most of what is known about his reign and life was documented by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century...
. - Cambyses's abortive attack on EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
- The madness of Cambyses
- The good fortune of PolycratesPolycratesPolycrates , son of Aeaces, was the tyrant of Samos from c. 538 BC to 522 BC.He took power during a festival of Hera with his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, but soon had Pantagnotus killed and exiled Syloson to take full control for himself. He then allied with Amasis II, pharaoh of Egypt, as...
king of SamosSamos IslandSamos is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of Asia Minor, from which it is separated by the -wide Mycale Strait. It is also a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region, and the only municipality of the regional... - PerianderPerianderPeriander was the second tyrant of Corinth, Greece in the 7th century BC. He was the son of the first tyrant, Cypselus. Periander succeeded his father in 627 BC. He died in 585 BC....
, the king of CorinthCorinthCorinth is a city and former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit...
and Corcyra, and his obstinate son - The revolt of the two MagiMagiMagi is a term, used since at least the 4th century BC, to denote a follower of Zoroaster, or rather, a follower of what the Hellenistic world associated Zoroaster with, which...
in PersiaAchaemenid EmpireThe Achaemenid Empire , sometimes known as First Persian Empire and/or Persian Empire, was founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation...
and the death of Cambyses - The conspiracy of the seven to remove the Magi
- The rise of Darius I of PersiaDarius I of PersiaDarius I , also known as Darius the Great, was the third king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire...
. - The twenty satrapSatrapSatrap was the name given to the governors of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as the Sassanid Empire and the Hellenistic empires....
ies - The culture of IndiaIndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
and their method of collecting gold - The culture of Arabia and their method of collecting spices
- The flooded valley with five gates
- Orœtes's (governor of SardisSardisSardis or Sardes was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart in Turkey's Manisa Province...
) scheme against Polycrates - The physician DemocêdesDemocedesDemocedes of Croton, described in The Histories of Herodotus as "the most skillful physician of his time".-Democedes's Background:Democedes was a Greek physician and a part of the court of Darius I. He was born in Croton, in southern Italy. His father was Calliphon, a priest as part of Asclepius....
- The rise of SylosonSylosonSyloson was the brother of Polycrates of Samos.When Polycrates became tyrant of the island he exiled Syloson where he stayed in Egypt. Syloson would stay in Egypt until a "flame-coloured mantle" he was selling brought him in contact with Darius I of Persia. At the time Darius I of Persia was a...
governor of Samos - The revolt of BabylonBabylonBabylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
and its defeat by the scheme of ZopyrusZopyrusZopyrus was a Persian nobleman mentioned in Herodotus' Histories.He was son of Megabyzus, who helped Darius I in his ascension. When Babylon revolted against the rule of Darius I, Zopyrus devised a plan to regain control of the vital city. By cutting off his own nose and ears, and then having...
Book IV (MelpomeneMelpomeneMelpomene , initially the Muse of Singing, she then became the Muse of Tragedy, for which she is best known now. Her name was derived from the Greek verb melpô or melpomai meaning "to celebrate with dance and song." She is often represented with a tragic mask and wearing the cothurnus, boots...
)
- The history of the ScythiaScythiaIn antiquity, Scythian or Scyths were terms used by the Greeks to refer to certain Iranian groups of horse-riding nomadic pastoralists who dwelt on the Pontic-Caspian steppe...
ns (from the land north of the Black SeaBlack SeaThe Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
) - The miraculous poet AristeasAristeasAristeas was a semi-legendary Greek poet and miracle-worker, a native of Proconnesus in Asia Minor, active ca. 7th century BCE. In book IV of The Histories, Herodotus reports...
- The geography of Scythia
- The inhabitants of regions beyond Scythia: Sauromatae, BudiniBudiniThe Budini were an ancient people who lived in Scythia, in what is today Ukraine.Herodotus wrote in his Histories :...
, ThyssagetaeThyssagetaeThyssagetae were an ancient tribe described by Herodotus as occupying a district to the north-east of Scythia separated from the Budini by a desert seven days journey broad. From their land four rivers flowed into the Maeotis, but as one of them, the Oarus, is almost certainly the Volga, there...
, ArgippaeansArgippaeansThe Argippaeans or Argippaei are a people mentioned by Herodotus in his The Histories. He mentions them as north of the Scythians and much of the scholarship points to them being a tribe near the Ural Mountains.-In Herodotus:-The People:...
, IssedonesIssedonesThe Issedones were an ancient people of Central Asia at the end of the trade route leading north-east from Scythia, described in the lost Arimaspeia of Aristeas, by Herodotus in his History and by Ptolemy in his Geography...
, ArimaspiArimaspiThe Arimaspi were a legendary people of northern Scythia who lived in the foothills of the Riphean Mountains, variously identified with the Ural Mountains or the Carpathians...
, Hyperboreans - A comparison of Libya (Africa), Asia, and Europe
- The rivers of Scythia: the IsterDanubeThe Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
, the TyrasDniesterThe Dniester is a river in Eastern Europe. It runs through Ukraine and Moldova and separates most of Moldova's territory from the breakaway de facto state of Transnistria.-Names:...
, the Hypanis, the BorysthenesDnieper RiverThe Dnieper River is one of the major rivers of Europe that flows from Russia, through Belarus and Ukraine, to the Black Sea.The total length is and has a drainage basin of .The river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations...
, the PanticapesInhulInhul is a left tributary of the Southern Bug river of Ukraine. It rises North of Kirovohrad, flowing South into the Southern Bug at Mykolayiv, at the place where the Southern Bug empties into the Black Sea. It is about 300 km long....
, the Hypacyris, the Gerrhus, and the TanaisTanaisTanais is the ancient name for the River Don in Russia. Strabo regarded it as the boundary between Europe and Asia.In antiquity, Tanais was also the name of a city in the Don river delta that reaches into the northeasternmost part of the Sea of Azov, which the Greeks called Lake Maeotis... - The culture of the Scythians: religion, burial rites, xenophobiaXenophobiaXenophobia is defined as "an unreasonable fear of foreigners or strangers or of that which is foreign or strange". It comes from the Greek words ξένος , meaning "stranger," "foreigner" and φόβος , meaning "fear."...
(the stories of AnacharsisAnacharsisAnacharsis was a Scythian philosopher who travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the Black Sea to Athens in the early 6th century BCE and made a great impression as a forthright, outspoken "barbarian", apparently a forerunner of the Cynics, though none of his works have...
and Scylas), population - The beginning of DariusDarius I of PersiaDarius I , also known as Darius the Great, was the third king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire...
's attack on Scythia, including the bridge over the BosphorusBosporusThe Bosphorus or Bosporus , also known as the Istanbul Strait , is a strait that forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with the Dardanelles... - The brutal worship of ZalmoxisZalmoxisZalmoxis , is a divinity of the Getae, mentioned by Herodotus in his Histories IV, 93-96...
by the GetaeGetaeThe Getae was the name given by the Greeks to several Thracian tribes that occupied the regions south of the Lower Danube, in what is today northern Bulgaria, and north of the Lower Danube, in Romania... - The customs of the surrounding peoples: TauriTauriThe Tauri , also Scythotauri, Tauri Scythae, Tauroscythae were a people settling on the southern coast of the Crimea peninsula, inhabiting the Crimean Mountains and the narrow strip of land between the mountains and the Black Sea...
, AgathyrsiAgathyrsiAgathyrsi were a people of Scythian, Thracian, or mixed Thraco-Scythic origin, who in the time of Herodotus occupied the plain of the Maris , in the mountainous part of ancient Dacia now known as Transylvania, Romania...
, NeuriNeuriAccording to Herodotus the Neuri were a tribe living beyond the Scythian cultivators, one of the nations along the course of the river Ὕπανις Hypanis , West of the Βορυσθένης Borysthenes , roughly the area of modern Belarus and Eastern Poland.-Herodotus's Account:In Herodotus's account, he states...
, AndrophagiAndrophagiAndrophagi was an ancient nation of cannibals north of Scythia , probably in the forests between the upper waters of the Dnepr and Don...
(man-eaters), MelanchlaeniMelanchlaeniMelanchlaeni may refer to two ancient tribes. One is a tribe mentioned by Herodotus that lived north of Scythia. They have been identified by some with various Finnic tribes .The other tribe is mentioned by Pliny the Elder....
, Geloni, BudiniBudiniThe Budini were an ancient people who lived in Scythia, in what is today Ukraine.Herodotus wrote in his Histories :...
, Sauromatae - The wooing of the AmazonsAmazonsThe Amazons are a nation of all-female warriors in Greek mythology and Classical antiquity. Herodotus placed them in a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia...
by the Scyths, forming the Sauromatae - Darius's failed attack on Scythia and consequent retreat
- The story of the Minyæ (descendants of the ArgonautsArgonautsThe Argonauts ) were a band of heroes in Greek mythology who, in the years before the Trojan War, accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, the Argo, which was named after its builder, Argus. "Argonauts", therefore, literally means...
) and the founding of CyreneCyrene, LibyaCyrene was an ancient Greek colony and then a Roman city in present-day Shahhat, Libya, the oldest and most important of the five Greek cities in the region. It gave eastern Libya the classical name Cyrenaica that it has retained to modern times.Cyrene lies in a lush valley in the Jebel Akhdar... - The kings of Cyrene: Battus IBattus I of CyreneBattus I of Cyrene was the founder of the Greek colony of Cyrenaica and its capital, Cyrene. He was the first king of Cyrenaica, the first Greek king in Africa, and the founder of the Battiad dynasty.-Background:...
, Arcesilaus IArcesilaus I of CyreneArcesilaus I or Arcesilaus I of Cyrene was the second Greek king of Cyrenaica and the second king of the Battiad dynasty.-Ancestry:...
, Battus IIBattus II of CyreneBattus II of Cyrene, sometimes called Eudaimon or the Latin equivalent Felix, was the third Greek king Cyrenaica and Cyrene and a member of the Battiad dynasty.-Ancestry:...
, Arcesilaus IIArcesilaus II of CyreneArcesilaus II of Cyrene or Arcesilaus II also known as Arcesilaus II The Oppressor, The Tough, The Severe or The Harsh. Arcesilaus was the fourth Greek Cyrenaean King and was a member of the Battiad dynasty...
, Battus IIIBattus III of CyreneBattus III of Cyrene or Battus III, surnamed The Lame was the fifth Greek Cyrenaean king and a member of the Battiad dynasty....
(and the reforms of Demonax), Arcesilaus IIIArcesilaus III of CyreneArcesilaus III of Cyrene or Arcesilaus III was the sixth Greek Cyrenaean King and was a member of the Battiad dynasty.-Ancestry:...
(and his flight, restoration, and assassination), Battus IVBattus IV of CyreneBattus IV of Cyrene or Battus IV, surnamed The Handsome or The Fair was the seventh and second to last Greek Cyrenaean King of the Battiads dynasty...
, and Arcesilaus IVArcesilaus IV of CyreneArcesilaus IV of Cyrene or Arcesilaus IV was the eighth and last Greek Cyrenaean King and last Greek Cyrenaean King to serve as a client king under Persian rule...
(his revolt and death) - The peoples of Libya from east to west
- The revenge of Arcesilaus' mother PheretimaPheretima (Cyrenaean Queen)Pheretima or Pheretime was the wife of the Greek Cyrenaean King Battus III and the last recorded queen of the Battiad dynasty in Cyrenaica....
Book V (TerpsichoreTerpsichoreIn Greek mythology, Terpsichore "delight of dancing" was one of the nine Muses, ruling over dance and the dramatic chorus. She lends her name to the word "terpsichorean" which means "of or relating to dance". She is usually depicted sitting down, holding a lyre, accompanying the dancers' choirs...
)
- The attack on the ThraciansThraciansThe ancient Thracians were a group of Indo-European tribes inhabiting areas including Thrace in Southeastern Europe. They spoke the Thracian language – a scarcely attested branch of the Indo-European language family...
by MegabazusMegabazusMegabazus was a highly regarded Persian general under Darius. Most information about him comes from The Histories by Herodotus. Troops left behind in Europe after a failed attempt to conquer the Scythians were put under the command of Megabazus. He was given a mission to conquer Thrace, in... - The removal of the Paeonians to Asia
- The slaughter of the Persian envoys by Alexander I of MacedonAlexander I of Macedon- Biography :Alexander was the son of Amyntas I and Queen Eurydice.According to Herodotus, he was unfriendly to Persia, and had the envoys of Darius I killed when they arrived at the court of his father during the Ionian Revolt...
- The failed attack on the NaxiansNaxos (island)Naxos is a Greek island, the largest island in the Cyclades island group in the Aegean. It was the centre of archaic Cycladic culture....
by AristagorasAristagorasAristagoras was the leader of Miletus in the late 6th century BC and early 5th century BC.- Background :Aristagoras served as deputy governor of Miletus, a polis on the western coast of Anatolia around 500 BC. He was the son of Molpagoras, and son-in-law of Histiaeus, whom the Persians had set up...
, tyrant of MiletusMiletusMiletus was an ancient Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia , near the mouth of the Maeander River in ancient Caria... - The revolt of Miletus against Persia
- The background of Cleomenes ICleomenes ICleomenes or Kleomenes was an Agiad King of Sparta in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC. During his reign, which started around 520 BC, he pursued an adventurous and at times unscrupulous foreign policy aimed at crushing Argos and extending Sparta's influence both inside and outside the...
, king of Sparta, and his half brother Dorieus - The description of the Persian Royal RoadRoyal RoadThe Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius the Great of the Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BC. Darius built the road to facilitate rapid communication throughout his very large empire from Susa to Sardis...
from SardisSardisSardis or Sardes was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart in Turkey's Manisa Province...
to SusaSusaSusa was an ancient city of the Elamite, Persian and Parthian empires of Iran. It is located in the lower Zagros Mountains about east of the Tigris River, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers.... - The introduction of writingWritingWriting is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols . It is distinguished from illustration, such as cave drawing and painting, and non-symbolic preservation of language via non-textual media, such as magnetic tape audio.Writing most likely...
to Greece by the Phoenicians - The freeing of AthensAthensAthens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
by SpartaSpartaSparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
, and its subsequent attacks on Athens - The reorganizing of the Athenian tribes by CleisthenesCleisthenesCleisthenes was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family. He is credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508/7 BC...
- The attack on Athens by the Thebans and EginetansAeginaAegina is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the island. During ancient times, Aegina was a rival to Athens, the great sea power of the era.-Municipality:The municipality...
- The backgrounds of the tyrants of CorinthCorinthCorinth is a city and former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit...
, CypselusCypselusCypselus was the first tyrant of Corinth in the 7th century BC.With increased wealth and more complicated trade relations and social structures, Greek city-states tended to overthrow their traditional hereditary priest-kings; Corinth, the richest archaic polis, led the way...
and his son PerianderPerianderPeriander was the second tyrant of Corinth, Greece in the 7th century BC. He was the son of the first tyrant, Cypselus. Periander succeeded his father in 627 BC. He died in 585 BC.... - Aristagoras's failed request for help from Sparta, and successful attempt with Athens
- The burning of Sardis, and Darius's vow for revenge against the Athenians
- Persia's attempts to quell the IoniaIoniaIonia is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements...
n revolt
Book VI (EratoEratoIn Greek mythology, Erato is one of the Greek Muses. The name would mean "desired" or "lovely", if derived from the same root as Eros, as Apollonius of Rhodes playfully suggested in the invocation to Erato that begins Book III of his Argonautica....
)
- The fleeing of HistiaeusHistiaeusHistiaeus , the son of Lysagoras, was the tyrant of Miletus in the late 6th century BC.Histiaeus owed his status as tyrant of Miletus to Darius I, king of Persia, who had subjugated Miletus and the other Ionian states in Asia Minor....
to ChiosChiosChios is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated in the Aegean Sea, seven kilometres off the Asia Minor coast. The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait. The island is noted for its strong merchant shipping community, its unique mastic gum and its medieval villages... - The training of the IoniaIoniaIonia is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements...
n fleet by Dionysius of Phocaea - The abandonment of the Ionian fleet by the SamiansSamos IslandSamos is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of Asia Minor, from which it is separated by the -wide Mycale Strait. It is also a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region, and the only municipality of the regional...
during battle - The defeat of the Ionian fleet by the Persians
- The capture and death of Histiaeus by HarpagusHarpagusHarpagus, also known as Harpagos or Hypargus , was a Median general from the 6th century BCE, credited by Herodotus as having put Cyrus the Great on the throne through his defection during the battle of Pasargadae.-Biography:According to Herodotus' Histories, Harpagus was a member of the Median...
- The invasion of GreeceGreeceGreece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
under MardoniusMardoniusMardonius was a leading Persian military commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the early 5th century BC.-Early years:Mardonius was the son of Gobryas, a Persian nobleman who had assisted the Achaemenid prince Darius when he claimed the throne...
and enslavement of MacedonMacedonMacedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.... - The destruction of 300 ships in Mardonius's fleet near AthosAthosAthos may refer to:* Athos , one of the Gigantes in Greek mythologyAthos may also refer to:-Places:* Athos, a village in France, part of the commune Athos-Aspis...
- The order of Darius that the Greeks provide him earth and water, in which most consent, including AeginaAeginaAegina is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the island. During ancient times, Aegina was a rival to Athens, the great sea power of the era.-Municipality:The municipality...
- The Athenian request for assistance of CleomenesCleomenes ICleomenes or Kleomenes was an Agiad King of Sparta in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC. During his reign, which started around 520 BC, he pursued an adventurous and at times unscrupulous foreign policy aimed at crushing Argos and extending Sparta's influence both inside and outside the...
of Sparta in dealing with the traitors - The history behind Sparta having two kings and their powers
- The dethronement of DemaratusDemaratusDemaratus was a king of Sparta from 515 until 491 BC, of the Eurypontid line, successor to his father Ariston. As king, he is known chiefly for his opposition to the other, co-ruling Spartan king, Cleomenes I.-Biography:...
, the other king of Sparta, due to his supposed false lineage - The arrest of the traitors in Aegina by Cleomenes and the new king Leotychides
- The suicide of Cleomenes in a fit of madness, possibly caused by his war with ArgosArgosArgos is a city and a former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. It is 11 kilometres from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour...
, drinking unmixed wine, or his involvement in dethroning Demaratus - The battle between Aegina and Athens
- The taking of EretriaEretriaErétria was a polis in Ancient Greece, located on the western coast of the island of Euboea, south of Chalcis, facing the coast of Attica across the narrow Euboean Gulf. Eretria was an important Greek polis in the 6th/5th century BC. However, it lost its importance already in antiquity...
by the Persians after the Eretrians sent away Athenian help - PheidippidesPheidippidesPheidippides , hero of Ancient Greece, is the central figure in a story which was the inspiration for a modern sporting event, the marathon.-The story:...
's encounter with the god PanPan (mythology)Pan , in Greek religion and mythology, is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, nature, of mountain wilds, hunting and rustic music, as well as the companion of the nymphs. His name originates within the Greek language, from the word paein , meaning "to pasture." He has the hindquarters, legs,...
on a journey to Sparta to request aid - The assistance of the Plataeans, and the history behind their alliance with Athens
- The Athenian win at the Battle of MarathonBattle of MarathonThe Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC, during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. It was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to subjugate...
, led by MiltiadesMiltiades the YoungerMiltiades the Younger or Miltiades IV was the son of one Cimon, a renowned Olympic chariot-racer. Miltiades considered himself a member of the Aeacidae, and is known mostly for his role in the Battle of Marathon; as well as his rather tragic downfall afterwards. His son Cimon was a major Athenian...
and other strategoi - The Spartans late arrival to assist Athens
- The history of the AlcmaeonidaeAlcmaeonidaeThe Alcmaeonidae or Alcmaeonids were a powerful noble family of ancient Athens, a branch of the Neleides who claimed descent from the mythological Alcmaeon, the great-grandson of Nestor....
and how they came about their wealth and status - The death of Miltiades after a failed attack on ParosParosParos is an island of Greece in the central Aegean Sea. One of the Cyclades island group, it lies to the west of Naxos, from which it is separated by a channel about wide. It lies approximately south-east of Piraeus. The Municipality of Paros includes numerous uninhabited offshore islets...
and the successful taking of LemnosLemnosLemnos is an island of Greece in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within the Lemnos peripheral unit, which is part of the North Aegean Periphery. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Myrina...
Book VII (PolymniaPolyhymniaPolyhymnia , was in Greek mythology the Muse of sacred poetry, sacred hymn and eloquence as well as agriculture and pantomime. She is depicted as very serious, pensive and meditative, and often holding a finger to her mouth, dressed in a long cloak and veil and resting her elbow on a pillar...
)
- The amassing of an army by DariusDarius I of PersiaDarius I , also known as Darius the Great, was the third king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire...
after learning about the defeat at MarathonBattle of MarathonThe Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC, during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. It was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to subjugate... - The quarrel between which son should succeed Darius in which Xerxes I of PersiaXerxes I of PersiaXerxes I of Persia , Ḫšayāršā, ), also known as Xerxes the Great, was the fifth king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire.-Youth and rise to power:...
is chosen - The death of Darius in 486 BC486 BCYear 486 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Viscellinus and Rutilus...
- The defeat of the Egyptian rebels by Xerxes
- The advice given to Xerxes on invading Greece: MardoniusMardoniusMardonius was a leading Persian military commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the early 5th century BC.-Early years:Mardonius was the son of Gobryas, a Persian nobleman who had assisted the Achaemenid prince Darius when he claimed the throne...
for invasion, ArtabanusArtabanusArtabanus may refer to several rulers of ancient Parthia:* Artabanus of Persia, reportedly Regent of Persia for a few months in 465 BC–464 B* King Arsaces II of Parthia c. 211–191 BC, called Artabanus by some early scholars...
against (9-10) - The dreams of Xerxes in which a phantom frightens him and Artabanus into choosing invasion
- The preparations for war, including a canal and bridge across the Hellespont
- The offer by PythiusPythiusPythius is a Lydian mentioned in book VII of Herodotus' Histories, chh. 27-29 and 38-39.Xerxes I of Persia, son of Darius I of Persia, and king of Persia, encounters Pythius on his way to invade Greece c. 480 BC. Pythius entertains him and offers to provide money for the expenses of war...
to give Xerxes all his money, in which Xerxes rewards him - The request by Pythius to allow one son to stay at home, Xerxes' anger, and the march out between the butchered halves of Pythius's son
- The destruction and rebuilding of the bridges built by the EgyptiansAncient EgyptAncient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
and PhoeniciaPhoeniciaPhoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
ns at AbydosAbydos, HellespontFor other uses, see Abydos Abydos , an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated at Nara Burnu or Nagara Point on the best harbor on the Asiatic shore of the Hellespont. Across Abydos lies Sestus on the European side marking the shortest point in the Dardanelles, scarcely a mile broad... - The siding with Persia of many Greek states, including ThessalyThessalyThessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
, ThebesThebes, GreeceThebes is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. It played an important role in Greek myth, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus and others...
, Melia, and ArgosArgosArgos is a city and a former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. It is 11 kilometres from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour... - The refusal of aid after negotiations by GeloGeloGelo , son of Deinomenes, was a 5th century BC ruler of Gela and Syracuse and first of the Deinomenid rulers.- Early life :...
of SyracuseSyracuse, ItalySyracuse is a historic city in Sicily, the capital of the province of Syracuse. The city is notable for its rich Greek history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture, and as the birthplace of the preeminent mathematician and engineer Archimedes. This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in...
, and the refusal from CreteCreteCrete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits... - The destruction of 400 Persian ships due to a storm
- The small Greek force (appox. 6000) led by Leonidas ILeonidas ILeonidas I was a hero-king of Sparta, the 17th of the Agiad line, one of the sons of King Anaxandridas II of Sparta, who was believed in mythology to be a descendant of Heracles, possessing much of the latter's strength and bravery...
, sent to ThermopylaeThermopylaeThermopylae is a location in Greece where a narrow coastal passage existed in antiquity. It derives its name from its hot sulphur springs. "Hot gates" is also "the place of hot springs and cavernous entrances to Hades"....
to delay the Persian army (~5,283,220 (Herodotus) ) - The Battle of ThermopylaeBattle of ThermopylaeThe Battle of Thermopylae was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I over the course of three days, during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place simultaneously with the naval battle at Artemisium, in August...
in which the Greeks hold the pass for 3 days - The secret pass divulged by Ephialtes of Trachis in which HydarnesHydarnesHydarnes was an eminent Persian, the commander of the "Ten Thousand Immortals" during the time of king Xerxes invasion of Greece.Perhaps the most famous episode involving Satrap Hydarnes and his Immortals came at the Thermopylae in 480 BC, when they came into contact with Leonidas of...
uses to lead forces around the mountains to encircle the Greeks - The retreat of all but the Spartans, ThespiansThespiaeThespiae was an ancient Greek city in Boeotia. It stood on level ground commanded by the low range of hills which runs eastward from the foot of Mount Helicon to Thebes, near modern Thespies.-History:...
, and Thebans (forced to stay by the Spartans). - The Greek defeat and order by Xerxes to remove Leonidas' head and attach his torso to a cross
Book VIII (UraniaUraniaUrania was, in Greek mythology, the muse of astronomy. Some accounts list her as the mother of the musician Linus. She is usually depicted with a globe in her left hand. She is able to foretell the future by the arrangement of the stars...
)
- Greek fleet is led by EurybiadesEurybiadesEurybiades was the Spartan commander in charge of the Greek navy during the Persian Wars.He was the son of Eurycleides, and was chosen as commander in 480 BC because the Peloponnesian city-states led by Sparta, worried about the growing power of Athens, did not want to serve under an Athenian,...
, a Spartan - The destruction by storm of two hundred ships sent to block the Greeks from escaping
- The retreat of the Greek fleet after word of a defeat at ThermopylaeBattle of ThermopylaeThe Battle of Thermopylae was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I over the course of three days, during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place simultaneously with the naval battle at Artemisium, in August...
- The supernatural rescue of DelphiDelphiDelphi is both an archaeological site and a modern town in Greece on the south-western spur of Mount Parnassus in the valley of Phocis.In Greek mythology, Delphi was the site of the Delphic oracle, the most important oracle in the classical Greek world, and a major site for the worship of the god...
from a Persian attack - The evacuation of AthensAthensAthens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
assisted by the fleet - The reinforcement of the Greek fleet at Salamis IslandSalamis IslandSalamis , is the largest Greek island in the Saronic Gulf, about 1 nautical mile off-coast from Piraeus and about 16 km west of Athens. The chief city, Salamina , lies in the west-facing core of the crescent on Salamis Bay, which opens into the Saronic Gulf...
, bringing the total ships to 378 - The destruction of Athens by the Persian land force after difficulties with those who remained
- The Battle of SalamisBattle of SalamisThe Battle of Salamis was fought between an Alliance of Greek city-states and the Persian Empire in September 480 BCE, in the straits between the mainland and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens...
, the Greeks have the advantage due to better organization, and less loss due to ability to swim - The description of the AngarumAngarumAngarum was the name of the royal riding post in the Persian Empire during the Achaemenid period.In book 8.98, Herodotus talks about the couriers: "Nothing mortal travels so fast as these Persian messengers. The entire plan is a Persian invention; and this is the method of it...
, the Persian riding post - The rise in favor of ArtemisiaArtemisia- Botany :* Artemisia , a genus of plants including the sagebrush and wormwood- Geography :* Artemisia Geyser in Yellowstone National Park* Artemissia, Messinia, a Greek village west of Taygetus mountain in the Peloponnese...
, the Persian woman commander, and her council to Xerxes in favor returning to Persia - The vengeance of HermotimusHermotimus of PedasaHermotimus of Pedasa was Xerxes the Great's favored royal eunuch during the Persian Wars against Greece .As a eunuch, not much factually is known about Hermotimus, because he was not as important to contemporary historians. Anecdotes still survive regarding the castration of Panionius in the winter...
, Xerxes' chief eunuchEunuchA eunuch is a person born male most commonly castrated, typically early enough in his life for this change to have major hormonal consequences...
, against Panionius - The attack on AndrosAndrosAndros, or Andro is the northernmost island of the Greek Cyclades archipelago, approximately south east of Euboea, and about north of Tinos. It is nearly long, and its greatest breadth is . Its surface is for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered valleys. The area is...
by ThemistoclesThemistoclesThemistocles ; c. 524–459 BC, was an Athenian politician and a general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, along with his great rival Aristides...
, the Athenian fleet commander and most valiant Greek at Salamis - The escape of Xerxes and leaving behind of 300,000 picked troops under MardoniusMardoniusMardonius was a leading Persian military commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the early 5th century BC.-Early years:Mardonius was the son of Gobryas, a Persian nobleman who had assisted the Achaemenid prince Darius when he claimed the throne...
in ThessalyThessalyThessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey.... - The ancestry of Alexander I of MacedonAlexander I of Macedon- Biography :Alexander was the son of Amyntas I and Queen Eurydice.According to Herodotus, he was unfriendly to Persia, and had the envoys of Darius I killed when they arrived at the court of his father during the Ionian Revolt...
, including PerdiccasPerdiccas I of Macedon.Perdiccas I was king of Macedon from about 700 BC to about 678 BC. Herodotus stated:-References:... - The refusal of an attempt by Alexander to seek a Persian alliance with Athens
Book IX (CalliopeCalliopeIn Greek mythology, Calliope was the muse of epic poetry, daughter of Zeus and Mnemosyne, and is now best known as Homer's muse, the inspiration for the Odyssey and the Iliad....
)
- The second taking of an evacuated AthensAthensAthens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
- The evacuation to ThebesThebes, GreeceThebes is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. It played an important role in Greek myth, as the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus and others...
by MardoniusMardoniusMardonius was a leading Persian military commander during the Persian Wars with Greece in the early 5th century BC.-Early years:Mardonius was the son of Gobryas, a Persian nobleman who had assisted the Achaemenid prince Darius when he claimed the throne...
after the sending of Lacedaemonian troops - The slaying of MasistiusMasistiusMasistius was a Persian cavalry commander best known for his role in the second Persian invasion of Greece.-Biography:...
, leader of the Persian cavalry, by the Athenians - The warning from AlexanderAlexander I of Macedon- Biography :Alexander was the son of Amyntas I and Queen Eurydice.According to Herodotus, he was unfriendly to Persia, and had the envoys of Darius I killed when they arrived at the court of his father during the Ionian Revolt...
to the Greeks of an impending attack - The death of Mardonius by AeimnestusAeimnestus*Aeimnestus was the Spartan soldier who killed the Persian general Mardonius by hurling a boulder onto Mardonius' head during the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC, as told in book 9 of the Histories of Herodotus...
- The Persian retreat to Thebes where they are afterwards slaughtered (Battle of PlataeaBattle of PlataeaThe Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place in 479 BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia, and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city-states, including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and Megara, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes...
) - The description and dividing of the spoils
- The speedy escape of ArtabazusArtabazusArtabazus was the name of a satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia , under the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia....
into Asia. - The Persian defeat in IoniaIoniaIonia is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements...
by the Greek fleet (Battle of MycaleBattle of MycaleThe Battle of Mycale was one of the two major battles that ended the second Persian invasion of Greece during the Greco-Persian Wars. It took place on or about August 27, 479 BC on the slopes of Mount Mycale, on the coast of Ionia, opposite the island of Samos...
), and the Ionian revolt - The mutilation of the wife of MasistesMasistesMasistes was a Persian prince of the Achaemenid Dynasty, son of king Darius I and of his wife Atossa, and full brother of king Xerxes I...
ordered by AmestrisAmestrisAmestris or Amastris was the wife of Xerxes I of Persia, mother of king Artaxerxes I of Persia. She was known to have been poorly regarded by ancient Greek historians....
, wife of Xerxes - The death of Masistes after his intent to rebel
- The Athenian blockade of SestosSestos200px|200px|thumb|The Ancient Map of Gallipoli PeninsulaSestos was an ancient Greek town of the Thracian Chersonese, the modern Gallipoli peninsula in European Turkey. Situated on the Hellespont opposite Abydos, it was the home of Hero in the legend of Hero and Leander, where according to legend...
and the capture of ArtayctesArtayctesArtaÿctes is a historical figure described in Herodotus' The Histories. According to Herodotus, Artayctes was a Persian General, who was in command of the Mossonoikan and Makronian forces in the army of Xerxes during the second Persian invasion of Greece...
Translations of the Histories
- George RawlinsonGeorge RawlinsonCanon George Rawlinson was a 19th century English scholar, historian, and Christian theologian. He was born at Chadlington, Oxfordshire, and was the younger brother of Sir Henry Rawlinson....
, 1858: in classics.mit.edu full text of all books (Book I to Book IX) - George Campbell MacaulayGeorge Campbell MacaulayGeorge Campbell Macaulay , also known as G. C. Macaulay, was a noted English Classical scholar. He was the father of the well-known English author Rose Macaulay.-Family:...
, 1904: full text, vol. 1, full text, vol. 2 Project GutenbergProject GutenbergProject Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks". Founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart, it is the oldest digital library. Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books... - Alfred Denis GodleyA. D. GodleyAlfred Denis Godley was a classical scholar and author of humorous poems. From 1910 to 1920 he was Public Orator at the University of Oxford, a post that involved composing citations in Latin for the recipients of honorary degrees. One of these was for Thomas Hardy who received an Honorary D. Litt...
, 1921: full text, librivox audiobook, vol. 1, librivox audiobook, vol. 2, librivox audiobook, vol. 3 - Aubrey de SélincourtAubrey de SelincourtAubrey de Sélincourt was an English writer, classical scholar and translator. Educated at the Dragon School and Rugby School, he won an open classical scholarship to University College, Oxford...
, 1954 excerpts;2003, revised by John Marincola - Harry Carter, 1958
- David GreneDavid GreneDavid Grene was a professor of classics at the University of Chicago from 1937 until his death. He was a co-founder of the Committee on Social Thought and is best known for his translations of ancient Greek literature.-Life:...
, 1985 - Walter Blanco and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, 1992
- Robin WaterfieldRobin WaterfieldRobin Anthony Herschel Waterfield is a British classical scholar, translator, editor, and writer of children's fiction.-Career:Waterfield was born in 1952, and studied Classics at Manchester University, where he achieved a first class degree in 1974...
, 1998 - Shlomo Felberbaum, 2003 – work in progress: full text
- Andrea L. Purvis, 2007
Manuscripts
- Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 18Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 18Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 18 is a fragment of the first book of the Histories of Herodotus , written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the third century. It is housed in the British Library...
- Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 19Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 19Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 19 is a fragment of the first book of the Histories of Herodotus , written in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the second or third century. It is housed in Princeton University Library...
- Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2099, early 2nd century AD - fragment of Book VIII
See also
- SteganographySteganographySteganography is the art and science of writing hidden messages in such a way that no one, apart from the sender and intended recipient, suspects the existence of the message, a form of security through obscurity...
- Historical novelHistorical novelAccording to Encyclopædia Britannica, a historical novel is-Development:An early example of historical prose fiction is Luó Guànzhōng's 14th century Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which covers one of the most important periods of Chinese history and left a lasting impact on Chinese culture.The...
s sourcing material from Herodotus:- PharaohPharaoh (novel)Pharaoh is the fourth and last major novel by the Polish writer Bolesław Prus . Composed over a year's time in 1894–95, it was the sole historical novel by an author who had earlier disapproved of historical novels on the ground that they inevitably distort history.Pharaoh has been described...
, by Bolesław Prus, incorporating the LabyrinthLabyrinthIn Greek mythology, the Labyrinth was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at Knossos...
scenes inspired by Herodotus' description in Book II of The Histories - CreationCreation (novel)Creation is an epic historical fiction novel by Gore Vidal which was published in 1981. In 2002, he published a restored version, adding four chapters that a previous editor had cut...
, by Gore VidalGore VidalGore Vidal is an American author, playwright, essayist, screenwriter, and political activist. His third novel, The City and the Pillar , outraged mainstream critics as one of the first major American novels to feature unambiguous homosexuality...
, interpreting many scenes from the Persian viewpoint. - Gates of FireGates of FireGates of Fire is a 1998 historical fiction novel by Steven Pressfield that recounts the Battle of Thermopylae through Xeones, a Spartan Helot and the sole Greek survivor of the battle....
, by Stephen Pressfield, has the Battle of ThermopylaeBattle of ThermopylaeThe Battle of Thermopylae was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I over the course of three days, during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place simultaneously with the naval battle at Artemisium, in August...
(Book VII) as its centrepiece. - Travels with HerodotusTravels with HerodotusTravels with Herodotus is a non-fiction book written by the Polish journalist, Ryszard Kapuściński, published in 2004 and now available in English translation....
by Ryszard KapuścińskiRyszard KapuscinskiRyszard Kapuściński was a Polish journalist and writer whose dispatches in book form brought him a global reputation. Also a photographer and poet, he was born in Pińsknow in Belarusin the Kresy Wschodnie or eastern borderlands of the second Polish Republic, into poverty: he would say later that...
- Pharaoh
External links
- AD. Godley translation with footnotes: The Histories,
- LibriVoxLibriVoxLibriVox is an online digital library of free public domain audiobooks, read by volunteers and is probably, since 2007, the world's most prolific audiobook publisher...
audiobook recording of Herodotus' Histories - The Histories unabridged online audiobook.
- Herodotus' Histories: the 28 logoi