Historical money of Tibet
Encyclopedia
The use of historical money in Tibet started in ancient times, when Tibet
had no coined currency
of its own. Barter
ing was common, gold
was a medium of exchange, and shell money and stone beads were used for very small purchases. A few coin
s from other countries were also occasionally in use.
Coins were first used in a more extensive way in the 17th century: these were silver
coins supplied by Nepal
. There were however various difficulties with this system. In 1763/64 and 1785 the first silver coins were struck in Tibet. In 1792 the first mass-produced silver coins were created under joint Chinese
and Tibetan authority. Coins bearing Tibetan inscriptions only were subsequently replaced by issues which had Chinese and Tibetan legends. This lasted until the 1830s. In 1840 purely Tibetan coinage was struck under Tibetan authority, and this coinage continued being made until 1954, with only two short interruptions when Sino-Tibetan coins were issued.
In 1910 the Tibetan Government started producing a large range of copper
and silver
coins of different denominations
, and in 1918 to 1921, gold coins were struck. Tibetan banknote
s were first issued in 1913.
From 1955 to 1959 no more Tibetan coins were created, although banknotes were still being printed, and by 1959 all of the money was gradually being replaced with Chinese currency
.
, the use of coins was insignificant. Tibet’s main neighbours, India
, Nepal
and China
had had their own coinage since time immemorial. Ancient Tibet however had no locally-struck coinage, although a certain amount of coins from India, Nepal, Chinese Turkestan
and China had reached Tibet by way of trade
, or as donations to important monasteries. Some of these foreign coins may have entered circulation, but they did not develop into an important instrument for transactions in daily life, because most of the trade within Tibet and also the foreign trade were carried out via barter
.
), which were traded for Chinese tea
. Tibet also exported medicinal herb
s, stag antler
s, musk
and gold
to China, and apart from tea
, the Tibetan traders imported silk
cloth, porcelain
and silver
from China.
The trade volume with Tibet's southern neighbours, India, Nepal and Bhutan
, was much smaller. The Tibetan traders mainly exchanged salt
and wool
for grain
(including rice
) with these countries. Traditionally one measure of salt was traded for one measure of grain at the border with Nepal and India. Other, less important export goods were yak
tails, musk
and live animals (goat
s and sheep). For the 17th century, the export of falcon
s to India is also recorded.
For large transactions within Tibet, gold dust (probably tied up in small leather bags) and Chinese silver ingot
s were used. These ingots came in different shapes; the most common kind resembled horseshoe
s or donkey shoes, and were named "rta rmig ma" in Tibetan.
For small transactions, various consumer goods (which had about the same standard value among the majority of the Tibetans) could be used. Among others, these were areca nuts, tobacco
, ceremonial scarves (khata
s, also named khadags; Tibetan
: kha btags) and tea Tea was usually traded in the form of tea brick
s (Tibetan: ja sbag). This developed into the most important medium of exchange in the 19th century, when a regular coinage had already been introduced into Tibet.
s which were mainly procured in the Maldive Islands and reached Tibet and China via Bengal
) and stone beads are recorded as being in use as money in ancient Tibet
We are well informed about this type of gold currency, which was called "gold sho" (Tibetan: gser sho) because officials of finance of the new Tibetan government received tax payments I the form of these small gold ingots. The officials had to convert these into the current monetary standard. In order to assess the fineness of these pieces one used a standardized gold weight unit, which was referred to as Sewa (Tibetan: se ba) The following types of gold pieces are recorded in lists of the finance officials:
Furthermore pieces designated as Tsangsho (Tib.: gtsang zho) are mentioned, but their gold weight is not specified.
Lastly a form of gold currency named Sertam (Tib.: gser tam) is mentioned which had a gold weight of 2 sewas. Fifteen Sertam corresponded to one standard Changsho (Chagsho Tshema; Tibetan: byang zho tshad ma). The currency unit Gursho (Tibetan: mgur-zho) was already mentioned by Sarat Chandra Das in his Tibetan-English Dictionary. According to this author 1 Gursho = 24 sewas.
) were used until the 20th century for larger transactions. They were referred to as rta rmig ma ("horse hoof") and normally weighed 50 tael
, or 50 srang (c. 185 grams). There existed also silver ingots of smaller size, named gyag rmig ma (yak hoof) and yet smaller ones, referred to as ra rmig ma (goat hoof). In the early 20th century the large ingots were worth about 60-70 Indian rupees, the ingots of medium size 12-14 rupees and the smallest ingots 2-3 rupees. Britisch-Indian authors occasionally refer to the silver bars found in Tibet, some of which were imported from Kashgar
, as "yambus", an expression which derives from Chinese yuanbao.
s and the first kings of the subsequent Shah dynasty
from about 1640 until 1791.
Tibet provided the silver for the striking of these coins and received coins at the same weight, the Nepalese reaping a handsome profit by alloying the pure silver with copper before the striking of the coins. Owing to a dispute between Nepal and Tibet regarding the fineness of the silver coins supplied by Nepal, the export of these coins was disrupted after the mid-eighteenth century.
In order to overcome the shortage of coins in Tibet at that time, the Tibetan Government
started striking its own coins, modelled on Nepalese prototype
s. This occurred in 1763-64 and again in 1785 without any interference by the Chinese government.
The Nepalese tried to carry on the very lucrative coin business during the Shah dynasty
which had been established by Prithvi Narayan Shah
in the Kathmandu Valley
in 1768. First the Nepalese supplied mohars (silver coins which weighed about 5.4 grams) of good silver, but wanted these to circulate at the rate of one new mohar for two of the old adulterated silver coins struck by the Malla kings. This would have meant a tremendous loss for the Tibetan traders, and so the Tibetan Government did not accept these terms.
The second Shah king, who ruled from Kathmandu, Pratap Singh Shah, supplied alloy
ed silver coins during the period 1775 until 1777. Thereafter, when the Nepalese again tried to introduce into Tibet coins of good silver, which should have circulated at a considerable premium compared with the Malla and Pratap Simha coins, the Tibetans refused which resulted into a disruption of trade between Nepal and Tibet. Tibet again experimented with its own coinage in 1785, in order to mitigate the shortage of silver coins.
The Chinese took this opportunity to tighten their grip on Tibet, and issued an edict which among other dispositions stipulated the introduction of a new silver coinage, struck in the name of Emperor Qian Long. In the same time it was from now on forbidden to import silver coins from Nepal.
In order to solve temporarily the shortage of coins in Tibet when the Chinese army arrived in 1791, the Chinese had allowed the striking of the so-called "Kong-par tangkas
" which were produced from alloyed silver and had a design copied from Nepalese prototype
s. These tangkas which first were produced in the Kongpo
province and later in Lhasa
, were the first mass-produced silver coins of Tibet and had about the same weight as their Nepalese counterparts, i.e. about 5.2 grams.
From 1793 new coins made from almost pure silver were struck in Lhasa
. These had both Tibetan and Chinese inscriptions. Meanwhile the striking of the Kong-par tangkas continued through the year 1792 and in early 1793. Both types of coins were authorised by the Chinese, and struck under joint Chinese and Tibetan supervision, but they were not part of the Chinese currency
system, as silver coinage was unknown in China during the 18th and early 19th century (with the exception of Xinjiang
province).
In 1791 it was originally planned by the Chinese authorities to cast copper cash coins in Tibet. Had this plan been carried out, the Tibetan coinage could have become part of the Chinese currency system. But this plan was abandoned because it was found to be too expensive to transport copper from China to Tibet in order to cast cash coinage in Lhasa.
Between 1791 and 1836 the Tibetan currency was largely decided on by the Chinese government in consultation with Tibetan authorities, and silver coins were struck to the sho (zho) standard (i.e. about 3.7 grams) in the 58th, 59th and 60th year of Qian Long (1793, 1794 and 1795).
A few silver coins were also struck in the 61st year of Qian Long (1796) who had abdicated towards the end of his 60th year in power. By the time the news of his abdication reached Lhasa, some silver coins of the 61st year had already been struck and released for circulation.
The only incident which interrupted the production of purely Tibetan coins occurred during the short period of 1909 to 1910 when the Tibetan Government struck copper and silver coins dated to the first year of the Xuan Tong era (1909), and in 1910 when the Chinese Amban
(representative of the Imperial Chinese Government) in Lhasa had silver and copper coins struck with legends in Chinese and Tibetan. These are the only coins minted in Tibet which can be considered as being part of the Chinese currency system of this period.
The only coin types which were produced in Lhasa between 1840 until 1908 were silver coins struck to the tangka standard of the newly created "Ganden tangka" (Rhodes, Nicholas: The Gaden Tangka of Tibet. Oriental Numismatic Society, Occasional Paper, no. 17, January 1983) and of the earlier "Kong-par tangka" type.
After the already mentioned interruption of the purely Tibetan coin production towards the end of the Qing dynasty
(1909/10), the Tibetan Government started producing a large selection of silver and copper coins in various denomination
s ranging from 2 ½ skar to 1 srang
. Later silver coins of higher denominations were introduced: 1 ½ and 3 srang (1933–1938 and 1946) From 1949 until 1952 coins with the denomination "10 srang" which contained only about 10% of silver, were struck; this is the highest denomination coin which was released for regular circulation in Tibet.
From 1918 until early 1921, gold coin
s of the denomination "20 srang" were struck in the Serkhang mint which was located near Norbulingka
, the summer residence of the Dalai Lama
s. These gold coins did not circulate very much in Tibet and were mainly used for storing wealth, or they were exported to India where a good profit could be obtained.
Silver tangkas of the "Ganden Tangka" design continued to be struck in the 20th century parallel to the various other denominations which were just mentioned. The last Tibetan silver coin of this design was produced in 1953/54; this was a special issue struck in fine silver for distribution to monk
s in the Lhasa area. These neatly machine-struck coins were valued at five srang.
From 1840 until 1932 Tibet's coins were struck by hand, and later with water-powered
or man-powered
locally-made machines, in different mint
s located in or near Lhasa
.
s. The exception were British Indian rupee
s, particularly the ones with the portrait of Queen Victoria, which widely circulated in Tibet and were mostly preferred to Tibetan coins. These rupees were of good silver and had a fixed value, exchanging for three tangkas until about 1920 and in later years of the 20th century they considerably increased in value.
The Chinese authorities saw the popularity of the Indian rupees among Tibetan traders with misgivings and in 1902 started striking their own rupees which were close copies of the Indian Victoria rupees, the portrait of the Queen being replaced by that of a Chinese mandarin, or, as most numismatists believe, of the Chinese emperor Guang Xu. The Chinese rupees were struck in Chengdu
and, starting in the 1930s also in Kangding
, the former Tibeto-Chinese border town in western Sichuan. The first issues were of good silver and could gain a certain popularity among the Tibetans, but later issues, particularly the ones minted in Kangding, had a considerable amount of alloy
, and were therefore not accepted by many traders.
In the early minting-period also a small amount of half and quarter rupees were struck in Chengdu. Since they often ended up as buttons or as parts of silver jewellery, their production was soon discontinued, and, when small change was needed, the whole rupees were cut in half or were quartered with the help of a sword and a hammer. The total mintage figure of the half rupees was 130,000 and that of the quarter rupees 120,000. It is estimated that between 25,500,000 and 27,500,000 Sichuan rupees were minted between 1902 and 1942.
s were first issued in January 1913 with the denominations of 5 tam
(green
or blue
) and 10 tam
(red
). These were dated to the year 1658 of the Tibetan Era (which began in AD 1912 and ended in early 1913).
Further issues followed later in AD 1913. All these notes are dated to the Tibetan Era year 1659, which began in February AD 1913. They are as follows: a 10 tam note (red), a 15 tam note (violet
), a 25 tam note (brown
or yellow
), and a 50 tam note (blue or purple
). Like the two earlier issues, they bear a red seal
representing the authority of the Dalai Lama
and a black
seal which has the following inscription in 'phags pa ( also called "seal script") Tibetan script
: gzhung dngul khang, and can be translated as "government treasury" or "government bank".
The five tam notes continued to be printed, but the date
on this notes was not changed, i.e. it remained T.E. (Tibetan Era) 1658. The early Tibetan notes were woodblock printed
on locally-produced paper and were hand-numbered with black ink by specially trained Tibetan calligraphists
. In the 1930s they were withdrawn from circulation
. They bear the following inscription on the obverse:
The highest denomination note (50 tam) was often forged
, and the Tibetan government decided to introduce a new multicoloured version printed in a more sophisticated manner. The legend
s on the obverse were printed from woodblocks, while the remaining design on both sides was machine-printed using several different metal blocks. The first notes of this new issue were dated T.E. 1672 (= AD 1926). New notes of this denomination were produced every year until T.E. 1687 (= AD 1941).
In 1937 or '38 new multicolored notes with the high denomination 100 tam srang were introduced. They bear the same octagonal red seal as the early "tam" denominated notes and a black seal of a new type which bears the following inscription: Srid zhi dpal ´bar.
This legend refers to the Tibetan government mint. The following translations have been suggested: "Two famous Governments"; "The Glory of both (lay and religious) Governments´ houses" "May every form of being augment the good" and "Government, peace and progress." A freer translation would read: "A peaceful government (generates) prosperity".
The denomination of these notes was soon changed from "tam srang" to "srang" and they were given a smaller circular red seal. The 100 srang notes are machine-printed and hand-numbered; they were regularly issued between 1939 and 1945 and again between 1951 and 1959 but bear no date. Numerous notes of this denomination have survived and they are relatively common on the numismatic
market.
Further machine-printed "srang" denominated notes followed. In 1940 saw the issue of "10 srang" notes bearing the date T.E. 1686. These were machine-printed in three colors (red, blue and black) and carried different T.E. dates until T.E. 1694 (= AD 1948). An undated "5 srang" note of small size was issued between 1942 and 1946. Finally, an undated "25 srang" note was introduced in 1950 and was issued until 1955.
All the Tibetan srang-denominated banknotes were machine-printed on locally made paper at the government mint of Trabshi Lekhung using inks imported from India. All denominations are hand-numbered.
In 1959 these issues were withdrawn from circulation and replaced by Chinese banknotes denominated in Renminbi Yuan
.
s in the early 20th century were one known by the name 'dod dpal (las khung) located in Shol, below the Potala Palace
, and one located about 10 kilometers north/northeast of Lhasa in the Dode valley
(dog bde or dog sde valley)
Another important mint was located in Trabshi (4 kilometers north of Lhasa on the way to Sera monastery). This mint was modernized in the early 1930s, all the machinery of the other mints was subsequently transferred to this establishment, which was operated as the only Tibetan Government mint from 1932 onwards It had the official name Trabshi Lotrü Lekhung (grwa bzhi glog ´khrul las khung, the "Trabshi electric machine factory"). Nowadays the huge compound of the former mint is occupied by one of Lhasa´s several prisons, known as "Trabshi Prison
".
Furthermore a mint named gser khang ("gold house"), located west of the Norbu Lingka, was in operation in the 1920s for the striking of gold and copper coins. A mint referred to as Mekyi (Tibetan me kyid; short for me tog skyid po meaning "enjoyable flowers") was located in the residence of the Chinese Amban
and was perhaps used by the Chinese in 1910 to strike Sino-Tibetan coins. It was taken over by the Tibetan government after the forced departure of the last Amban in 1913, and coins were minted there between 1914 and the early 1930s. An establishment located south of the Kyichu (river) near Lhasa, known as Tip Arsenal, is occasionally mentioned as mint", but there is no evidence that coins were struck there. A small facory destined for the production of copper blanks existed in the Chumbi valley about half way between Yatung and the Tibeto-Sikkimese border; its name was Norbu Tsoki (Tibetan: nor bu mthso dkyil) and it was operational between 1923 and 1928.
The coins of the 18th and 19th century were struck by hand and those of the early 20th century by locally built, water- or man-powered machines. From the 1920s coins were struck by machines imported from England
and from British India, first on an experimental basis in 1928 and 1929, and then on a large scale from 1932 to 1938, and again from 1946 to 1954. The electric power
for these machines was supplied by a hydroelectric power plant in the Dode valley which was set up between 1927 and 1928 with equipment which had been imported from England
in 1924.
In the early 1950s the Chinese restruck dollars with the portrait of Yuan Shikai in the Chengdu mint. These were introduced into Tibet to pay Tibetan workers involved in road building and to buy the goodwill of influential Tibetans. Many Yuan Shikai dollars were smuggled to India by Tibetan traders who bought western goods in Calcutta which they sold at considerable profits to Chinese Army members in Lhasa.
During the great exodus of Tibetans, by the middle of 1959, also the circulation of bank notes stopped, when the Chinese were introducing the Renminbi
currency into Tibet, eventually replacing the traditional Tibetan money.
According to Tibetan tradition, the Kalachakra
(dus kyi ‘khor lo) was introduced into Tibet from India in the year 1026. Therefore the dates
found on Tibetan coins record the number of years which have elapsed since this historical event. In order to convert a cycle date of a Tibetan coin into a western date one can use the following formula: (Number of cycles minus 1) times 60, plus number of years, plus 1026.
Example: rab byung 15 lo 43 means that 14 complete cycles plus 43 years of the 15th cycle have elapsed since the year 1026. This date can be converted as follows:
(15 – 1) × 60 + 43 + 1026 = AD 1909.
It is necessary to know that the Tibetan year
usually starts some time in what is the month of February according to the calendar of the Western World
. Therefore the coin of the above example cannot have been struck as early as January 1909, but may have been struck as late as January or early February 1910.
ed silver). The other was imported from China and its basic unit was the "srang" (Chinese liang, equivalent to 37.3 grams of silver). These two systems were used in Tibet concurrently from about 1640 until 1959.
The small units of ½ sho
and ½ tangka were only struck for circulation in small numbers in 1793. There also exist some ½ sho coins dated Qian Long
59. These however are extremely rare, and most of them probably have to be considered as patterns or prototypes.
In the 20th century, the following units were struck:
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
had no coined currency
Currency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
of its own. Barter
Barter
Barter is a method of exchange by which goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral, and usually exists parallel to monetary systems in most developed countries, though to a...
ing was common, gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
was a medium of exchange, and shell money and stone beads were used for very small purchases. A few coin
Coin
A coin is a piece of hard material that is standardized in weight, is produced in large quantities in order to facilitate trade, and primarily can be used as a legal tender token for commerce in the designated country, region, or territory....
s from other countries were also occasionally in use.
Coins were first used in a more extensive way in the 17th century: these were silver
Silver
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
coins supplied by Nepal
Nepal
Nepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked sovereign state located in South Asia. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India...
. There were however various difficulties with this system. In 1763/64 and 1785 the first silver coins were struck in Tibet. In 1792 the first mass-produced silver coins were created under joint Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and Tibetan authority. Coins bearing Tibetan inscriptions only were subsequently replaced by issues which had Chinese and Tibetan legends. This lasted until the 1830s. In 1840 purely Tibetan coinage was struck under Tibetan authority, and this coinage continued being made until 1954, with only two short interruptions when Sino-Tibetan coins were issued.
In 1910 the Tibetan Government started producing a large range of copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
and silver
Silver
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
coins of different denominations
Denomination (currency)
Denomination is a proper description of a currency amount, usually for coins or banknotes. Denominations may also be used with other means of payment like gift cards. See also Redenomination.-Subunit and super unit:...
, and in 1918 to 1921, gold coins were struck. Tibetan banknote
Banknote
A banknote is a kind of negotiable instrument, a promissory note made by a bank payable to the bearer on demand, used as money, and in many jurisdictions is legal tender. In addition to coins, banknotes make up the cash or bearer forms of all modern fiat money...
s were first issued in 1913.
From 1955 to 1959 no more Tibetan coins were created, although banknotes were still being printed, and by 1959 all of the money was gradually being replaced with Chinese currency
Chinese currency
The Renminbi is the official currency of the People's Republic of China . It is the legal tender in mainland China, but not in Hong Kong and Macau. It is abbreviated as RMB, and the units for the Renminbi are the Yuan , Jiao , and Fen : 1 Yuan = 10 Jiao = 100 Fen. Fen have almost disappeared, so...
.
Methods of exchange in ancient Tibet
In ancient TibetTibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
, the use of coins was insignificant. Tibet’s main neighbours, India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Nepal
Nepal
Nepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked sovereign state located in South Asia. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India...
and China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
had had their own coinage since time immemorial. Ancient Tibet however had no locally-struck coinage, although a certain amount of coins from India, Nepal, Chinese Turkestan
Turkestan
Turkestan, spelled also as Turkistan, literally means "Land of the Turks".The term Turkestan is of Persian origin and has never been in use to denote a single nation. It was first used by Persian geographers to describe the place of Turkish peoples...
and China had reached Tibet by way of trade
Trade
Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
, or as donations to important monasteries. Some of these foreign coins may have entered circulation, but they did not develop into an important instrument for transactions in daily life, because most of the trade within Tibet and also the foreign trade were carried out via barter
Barter
Barter is a method of exchange by which goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral, and usually exists parallel to monetary systems in most developed countries, though to a...
.
Bartering
Tibet had the biggest trade volume with China, the main barter items being horses from north-eastern Tibet (AmdoAmdo
Amdo is one of the three traditional regions of Tibet, the other two being Ü-Tsang and Kham; it is also the birth place of the 14th Dalai Lama. Amdo encompasses a large area from the Machu River to the Drichu river . While culturally and ethnically a Tibetan area, Amdo has been administered by a...
), which were traded for Chinese tea
Chinese tea
The practice of drinking tea has had a long history in China, having originated there. The Chinese drink tea during many parts of the day such as during meals for good health or for simple pleasure.-History:...
. Tibet also exported medicinal herb
Herb
Except in botanical usage, an herb is "any plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavoring, food, medicine, or perfume" or "a part of such a plant as used in cooking"...
s, stag antler
Antler
Antlers are the usually large, branching bony appendages on the heads of most deer species.-Etymology:Antler originally meant the lowest tine, the "brow tine"...
s, musk
Musk
Musk is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial substances with similar odors. Musk was a name originally given to a substance with a...
and gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
to China, and apart from tea
Tea
Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by adding cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant to hot water. The term also refers to the plant itself. After water, tea is the most widely consumed beverage in the world...
, the Tibetan traders imported silk
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...
cloth, porcelain
Porcelain
Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating raw materials, generally including clay in the form of kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between and...
and silver
Silver
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
from China.
The trade volume with Tibet's southern neighbours, India, Nepal and Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked state in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China...
, was much smaller. The Tibetan traders mainly exchanged salt
Salt
In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral...
and wool
Wool
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals, including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, vicuña, alpaca, camel from animals in the camel family, and angora from rabbits....
for grain
GRAIN
GRAIN is a small international non-profit organisation that works to support small farmers and social movements in their struggles for community-controlled and biodiversity-based food systems. Our support takes the form of independent research and analysis, networking at local, regional and...
(including rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
) with these countries. Traditionally one measure of salt was traded for one measure of grain at the border with Nepal and India. Other, less important export goods were yak
Yak
The yak, Bos grunniens or Bos mutus, is a long-haired bovine found throughout the Himalayan region of south Central Asia, the Tibetan Plateau and as far north as Mongolia and Russia. In addition to a large domestic population, there is a small, vulnerable wild yak population...
tails, musk
Musk
Musk is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial substances with similar odors. Musk was a name originally given to a substance with a...
and live animals (goat
Goat
The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...
s and sheep). For the 17th century, the export of falcon
Falcon
A falcon is any species of raptor in the genus Falco. The genus contains 37 species, widely distributed throughout Europe, Asia, and North America....
s to India is also recorded.
For large transactions within Tibet, gold dust (probably tied up in small leather bags) and Chinese silver ingot
Ingot
An ingot is a material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing. Non-metallic and semiconductor materials prepared in bulk form may also be referred to as ingots, particularly when cast by mold based methods.-Uses:...
s were used. These ingots came in different shapes; the most common kind resembled horseshoe
Horseshoe
A horseshoe, is a fabricated product, normally made of metal, although sometimes made partially or wholly of modern synthetic materials, designed to protect a horse's hoof from wear and tear. Shoes are attached on the palmar surface of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall...
s or donkey shoes, and were named "rta rmig ma" in Tibetan.
For small transactions, various consumer goods (which had about the same standard value among the majority of the Tibetans) could be used. Among others, these were areca nuts, tobacco
Tobacco
Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as a pesticide and, in the form of nicotine tartrate, used in some medicines...
, ceremonial scarves (khata
Khata
A khata, khada, khadag, or hada is a traditional ceremonial scarf common in Tibetan and Mongolian culture. It symbolizes purity and compassion. It is usually made of silk. Tibetan khatas are usually white symbolising the pure heart of the giver, though it is quite common to find yellow gold khatas...
s, also named khadags; Tibetan
Tibetan language
The Tibetan languages are a cluster of mutually-unintelligible Tibeto-Burman languages spoken primarily by Tibetan peoples who live across a wide area of eastern Central Asia bordering the Indian subcontinent, including the Tibetan Plateau and the northern Indian subcontinent in Baltistan, Ladakh,...
: kha btags) and tea Tea was usually traded in the form of tea brick
Tea brick
Tea bricks or compressed tea are blocks of whole or finely ground black tea, green tea, or post-fermented tea leaves that have been packed in molds and pressed into block form...
s (Tibetan: ja sbag). This developed into the most important medium of exchange in the 19th century, when a regular coinage had already been introduced into Tibet.
Shell money and stone bead money
For very small purchases, cowries (small seashellSeashell
A seashell or sea shell, also known simply as a shell, is a hard, protective outer layer created by an animal that lives in the sea. The shell is part of the body of the animal. Empty seashells are often found washed up on beaches by beachcombers...
s which were mainly procured in the Maldive Islands and reached Tibet and China via Bengal
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
) and stone beads are recorded as being in use as money in ancient Tibet
Gold currency before 1650
Before the government of the 5th Dalai Lama was established various small gold ingots circulated in Tibet, some of which were marked with stamps. So far there exists no consent whether these pieces could be regarded as coins.We are well informed about this type of gold currency, which was called "gold sho" (Tibetan: gser sho) because officials of finance of the new Tibetan government received tax payments I the form of these small gold ingots. The officials had to convert these into the current monetary standard. In order to assess the fineness of these pieces one used a standardized gold weight unit, which was referred to as Sewa (Tibetan: se ba) The following types of gold pieces are recorded in lists of the finance officials:
| Name | Gold Weight | Area were this Type circulated | Transcription according to Wylie | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Phagsho | 30 Sewa | Possibly Phag ri | phag zho |
| 2. | Gugsho | 27 Sewa | mNga´ris | gug zho |
| 3. | Tagsho | 27 Sewa | sPu hreng | stag zho |
| 4. | Losho | 27 Sewa | sPu hreng | glo zho |
| 5. | Changsho | 24 Sewa | lHa ngam | byang zho |
| 6. | Gursho | 23 Sewa | gTsang stod tshong ´dus | mgur zho |
| 7. | Üsho | 20 Sewa | dBus | dbus zho |
| 8. | Esho | 19 Sewa | dBus | e zho |
| 9. | Gosho | 32 Sewa | In the area of Tashilhunpo | mgo zho |
Furthermore pieces designated as Tsangsho (Tib.: gtsang zho) are mentioned, but their gold weight is not specified.
Lastly a form of gold currency named Sertam (Tib.: gser tam) is mentioned which had a gold weight of 2 sewas. Fifteen Sertam corresponded to one standard Changsho (Chagsho Tshema; Tibetan: byang zho tshad ma). The currency unit Gursho (Tibetan: mgur-zho) was already mentioned by Sarat Chandra Das in his Tibetan-English Dictionary. According to this author 1 Gursho = 24 sewas.
Silver Ingots
Chinese silver ingots (syceeSycee
A sycee was a type of silver or gold ingot currency used in China until the 20th century. The name derives from the Cantonese words meaning "fine silk"...
) were used until the 20th century for larger transactions. They were referred to as rta rmig ma ("horse hoof") and normally weighed 50 tael
Tael
Tael can refer to any one of several weight measures of the Far East. Most commonly, it refers to the Chinese tael, a part of the Chinese system of weights and currency....
, or 50 srang (c. 185 grams). There existed also silver ingots of smaller size, named gyag rmig ma (yak hoof) and yet smaller ones, referred to as ra rmig ma (goat hoof). In the early 20th century the large ingots were worth about 60-70 Indian rupees, the ingots of medium size 12-14 rupees and the smallest ingots 2-3 rupees. Britisch-Indian authors occasionally refer to the silver bars found in Tibet, some of which were imported from Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
, as "yambus", an expression which derives from Chinese yuanbao.
Earliest coinage, 17th and 18th centuries
The first coinage which was extensively used in southern Tibet was silver coins, which were supplied by the Nepalese Malla KingdomMalla Kingdom
Malla Kingdom was situated in the Gangatic plain between the Kosala and Videha. The epic Mahabharata speaks about a Malla conquered by the Pandava Bhima during his military campaign through the eastern kingdoms to collect tribute for King Yudhisthira's Rajasuya sacrifice.- Bhima's Military Campaign...
s and the first kings of the subsequent Shah dynasty
Shah dynasty
The Shah dynasty was the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Nepal.-The Rajput Lineage :The former royal family of Nepal claims descent from the Parmar Rajput dynasty of the Narsinghgarh state in Malwa . The famous kings of the Malwa region were Raja Bhrathari, Samrat Vikramaditya, and Raja Bhoj....
from about 1640 until 1791.
Tibet provided the silver for the striking of these coins and received coins at the same weight, the Nepalese reaping a handsome profit by alloying the pure silver with copper before the striking of the coins. Owing to a dispute between Nepal and Tibet regarding the fineness of the silver coins supplied by Nepal, the export of these coins was disrupted after the mid-eighteenth century.
In order to overcome the shortage of coins in Tibet at that time, the Tibetan Government
Central Tibetan Administration
The Central Tibetan Administration , is an organisation based in India with the stated goals of "rehabilitating Tibetan refugees and restoring freedom and happiness in Tibet". It was established by the 14th Dalai Lama in 1959 shortly after his exile from Tibet...
started striking its own coins, modelled on Nepalese prototype
Prototype
A prototype is an early sample or model built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from.The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον , "primitive form", neutral of πρωτότυπος , "original, primitive", from πρῶτος , "first" and τύπος ,...
s. This occurred in 1763-64 and again in 1785 without any interference by the Chinese government.
The Nepalese tried to carry on the very lucrative coin business during the Shah dynasty
Shah dynasty
The Shah dynasty was the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Nepal.-The Rajput Lineage :The former royal family of Nepal claims descent from the Parmar Rajput dynasty of the Narsinghgarh state in Malwa . The famous kings of the Malwa region were Raja Bhrathari, Samrat Vikramaditya, and Raja Bhoj....
which had been established by Prithvi Narayan Shah
Prithvi Narayan Shah
Prithvi Narayan Shah, King of Nepal was the first king of the House of Shahs to rule Nepal. He is credited for starting the campaign for a unified Nepal, which had been divided and weakened under Malla confederacy. He was the ninth generation descendant of Dravya Shah , the founder of the ruling...
in the Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu Valley
The Kathmandu Valley , located in Nepal, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of Asia, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several places of pilgrimage for the Hindus and the Buddhists. There are seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites within this valley.-Etymology:The city of...
in 1768. First the Nepalese supplied mohars (silver coins which weighed about 5.4 grams) of good silver, but wanted these to circulate at the rate of one new mohar for two of the old adulterated silver coins struck by the Malla kings. This would have meant a tremendous loss for the Tibetan traders, and so the Tibetan Government did not accept these terms.
The second Shah king, who ruled from Kathmandu, Pratap Singh Shah, supplied alloy
Alloy
An alloy is a mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may or may not be homogeneous in distribution, depending on thermal history...
ed silver coins during the period 1775 until 1777. Thereafter, when the Nepalese again tried to introduce into Tibet coins of good silver, which should have circulated at a considerable premium compared with the Malla and Pratap Simha coins, the Tibetans refused which resulted into a disruption of trade between Nepal and Tibet. Tibet again experimented with its own coinage in 1785, in order to mitigate the shortage of silver coins.
End of the 18th century
In order to resume the profitable coin export on their terms, the Nepalese invaded Tibet in 1788 and again in 1790/91. When the Tibetan Government turned to China for help, an imperial army was sent to Tibet. Together with the Tibetan army they managed to drive out the Nepalese by the autumn of 1792.The Chinese took this opportunity to tighten their grip on Tibet, and issued an edict which among other dispositions stipulated the introduction of a new silver coinage, struck in the name of Emperor Qian Long. In the same time it was from now on forbidden to import silver coins from Nepal.
In order to solve temporarily the shortage of coins in Tibet when the Chinese army arrived in 1791, the Chinese had allowed the striking of the so-called "Kong-par tangkas
Tibetan tangka
The tangka was a currency of Tibet until 1941. It was subdivided into 15 skar or 1½ sho and, from 1909, it circulated alongside the srang, worth 10 sho.-Coins:...
" which were produced from alloyed silver and had a design copied from Nepalese prototype
Prototype
A prototype is an early sample or model built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from.The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον , "primitive form", neutral of πρωτότυπος , "original, primitive", from πρῶτος , "first" and τύπος ,...
s. These tangkas which first were produced in the Kongpo
Kongpo
Kongpo is a Tibetan Autonomous Region in the Nyingchi Prefecture. It is situated on the river Yarlung Zangbo in the area of the Nyang River , a northern tributary river of the Yarlung Zangbo....
province and later in Lhasa
Lhasa
Lhasa is the administrative capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China and the second most populous city on the Tibetan Plateau, after Xining. At an altitude of , Lhasa is one of the highest cities in the world...
, were the first mass-produced silver coins of Tibet and had about the same weight as their Nepalese counterparts, i.e. about 5.2 grams.
From 1793 new coins made from almost pure silver were struck in Lhasa
Lhasa
Lhasa is the administrative capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China and the second most populous city on the Tibetan Plateau, after Xining. At an altitude of , Lhasa is one of the highest cities in the world...
. These had both Tibetan and Chinese inscriptions. Meanwhile the striking of the Kong-par tangkas continued through the year 1792 and in early 1793. Both types of coins were authorised by the Chinese, and struck under joint Chinese and Tibetan supervision, but they were not part of the Chinese currency
Currency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
system, as silver coinage was unknown in China during the 18th and early 19th century (with the exception of Xinjiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
province).
In 1791 it was originally planned by the Chinese authorities to cast copper cash coins in Tibet. Had this plan been carried out, the Tibetan coinage could have become part of the Chinese currency system. But this plan was abandoned because it was found to be too expensive to transport copper from China to Tibet in order to cast cash coinage in Lhasa.
Between 1791 and 1836 the Tibetan currency was largely decided on by the Chinese government in consultation with Tibetan authorities, and silver coins were struck to the sho (zho) standard (i.e. about 3.7 grams) in the 58th, 59th and 60th year of Qian Long (1793, 1794 and 1795).
A few silver coins were also struck in the 61st year of Qian Long (1796) who had abdicated towards the end of his 60th year in power. By the time the news of his abdication reached Lhasa, some silver coins of the 61st year had already been struck and released for circulation.
19th century
Further Sino-Tibetan silver coins were struck in the first six years of the Jia Qing era (1796–1801), as well as during the 8th and 9th year (1803–04) and during the last two years of this reign, the 24th and 25th year (1819–20). During the Dao Guang era which followed, silver coins were struck only in the first four years of this era (1821–24) and in the 15th and 16th year (1835–36).1840 to 1954, coinage of the Tibetan Government
Thereafter Chinese influence weakened in Tibet, and from 1840 until 1954 the Tibetan Government made decisions about Tibet's coinage system with just one incidental interference by the Chinese; the coins of this period had only Tibetan inscriptions and designs, and made no reference whatsoever to China.The only incident which interrupted the production of purely Tibetan coins occurred during the short period of 1909 to 1910 when the Tibetan Government struck copper and silver coins dated to the first year of the Xuan Tong era (1909), and in 1910 when the Chinese Amban
Amban
Amban is a Manchu word meaning "high official," which corresponds to a number of different official titles in the Qing imperial government...
(representative of the Imperial Chinese Government) in Lhasa had silver and copper coins struck with legends in Chinese and Tibetan. These are the only coins minted in Tibet which can be considered as being part of the Chinese currency system of this period.
The only coin types which were produced in Lhasa between 1840 until 1908 were silver coins struck to the tangka standard of the newly created "Ganden tangka" (Rhodes, Nicholas: The Gaden Tangka of Tibet. Oriental Numismatic Society, Occasional Paper, no. 17, January 1983) and of the earlier "Kong-par tangka" type.
After the already mentioned interruption of the purely Tibetan coin production towards the end of the Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
(1909/10), the Tibetan Government started producing a large selection of silver and copper coins in various denomination
Denomination (currency)
Denomination is a proper description of a currency amount, usually for coins or banknotes. Denominations may also be used with other means of payment like gift cards. See also Redenomination.-Subunit and super unit:...
s ranging from 2 ½ skar to 1 srang
Tibetan srang
The srang was a currency of Tibet between 1909 and 1959. It circulated alongside the tangka until the 1950s. It was divided into 10 sho, each of 10 skar, with the tangka equal to 15 skar ....
. Later silver coins of higher denominations were introduced: 1 ½ and 3 srang (1933–1938 and 1946) From 1949 until 1952 coins with the denomination "10 srang" which contained only about 10% of silver, were struck; this is the highest denomination coin which was released for regular circulation in Tibet.
From 1918 until early 1921, gold coin
Gold coin
A gold coin is a coin made mostly or entirely of gold. Gold has been used for coins practically since the invention of coinage, originally because of gold's intrinsic value...
s of the denomination "20 srang" were struck in the Serkhang mint which was located near Norbulingka
Norbulingka
Norbulingka is a palace and surrounding park in Lhasa, Tibet, built from 1755. It served as the traditional summer residence of the successive Dalai Lamas from the 1780s up until the 14th Dalai Lama's exile in 1959...
, the summer residence of the Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama is a high lama in the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" branch of Tibetan Buddhism. The name is a combination of the Mongolian word далай meaning "Ocean" and the Tibetan word bla-ma meaning "teacher"...
s. These gold coins did not circulate very much in Tibet and were mainly used for storing wealth, or they were exported to India where a good profit could be obtained.
Silver tangkas of the "Ganden Tangka" design continued to be struck in the 20th century parallel to the various other denominations which were just mentioned. The last Tibetan silver coin of this design was produced in 1953/54; this was a special issue struck in fine silver for distribution to monk
Monk
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
s in the Lhasa area. These neatly machine-struck coins were valued at five srang.
From 1840 until 1932 Tibet's coins were struck by hand, and later with water-powered
Water power engine
A Water power engine includes prime movers driven by water and which may be classified under 3 categories.*Water pressure motors, having a piston and cylinder with inlet and outlet valves: their action is that analogous of a steam- or gas-engine with water as the working fluid - see water...
or man-powered
Human resources
Human resources is a term used to describe the individuals who make up the workforce of an organization, although it is also applied in labor economics to, for example, business sectors or even whole nations...
locally-made machines, in different mint
Mint (coin)
A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins for currency.The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins. One difference is that the history of the mint is usually closely tied to the political situation of an era...
s located in or near Lhasa
Lhasa
Lhasa is the administrative capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China and the second most populous city on the Tibetan Plateau, after Xining. At an altitude of , Lhasa is one of the highest cities in the world...
.
The Circulation of Foreign Coins and the Sichuan Rupee
During the second part of the 19th and the first third of the 20th century numerous foreign silver coins circulated in Tibet. Most of them were traded by weight, such as Mexican and Spanish American silver dollars, Russian roubles and German markGerman gold mark
The Goldmark was the currency used in the German Empire from 1873 to 1914.-History:Before unification, the different German states issued a variety of different currencies, though most were linked to the Vereinsthaler, a silver coin containing 16⅔ grams of pure silver...
s. The exception were British Indian rupee
Rupee
The rupee is the common name for the monetary unit of account in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan, Mauritius, Seychelles, Maldives, and formerly in Burma, and Afghanistan. Historically, the first currency called "rupee" was introduced in the 16th century...
s, particularly the ones with the portrait of Queen Victoria, which widely circulated in Tibet and were mostly preferred to Tibetan coins. These rupees were of good silver and had a fixed value, exchanging for three tangkas until about 1920 and in later years of the 20th century they considerably increased in value.
The Chinese authorities saw the popularity of the Indian rupees among Tibetan traders with misgivings and in 1902 started striking their own rupees which were close copies of the Indian Victoria rupees, the portrait of the Queen being replaced by that of a Chinese mandarin, or, as most numismatists believe, of the Chinese emperor Guang Xu. The Chinese rupees were struck in Chengdu
Chengdu
Chengdu , formerly transliterated Chengtu, is the capital of Sichuan province in Southwest China. It holds sub-provincial administrative status...
and, starting in the 1930s also in Kangding
Kangding
Kangding or Dardo is the name of a county in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in western Sichuan Province, China. It is administrated at the city of Kangding...
, the former Tibeto-Chinese border town in western Sichuan. The first issues were of good silver and could gain a certain popularity among the Tibetans, but later issues, particularly the ones minted in Kangding, had a considerable amount of alloy
Alloy
An alloy is a mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may or may not be homogeneous in distribution, depending on thermal history...
, and were therefore not accepted by many traders.
In the early minting-period also a small amount of half and quarter rupees were struck in Chengdu. Since they often ended up as buttons or as parts of silver jewellery, their production was soon discontinued, and, when small change was needed, the whole rupees were cut in half or were quartered with the help of a sword and a hammer. The total mintage figure of the half rupees was 130,000 and that of the quarter rupees 120,000. It is estimated that between 25,500,000 and 27,500,000 Sichuan rupees were minted between 1902 and 1942.
Tibetan banknotes
Tibetan banknoteBanknote
A banknote is a kind of negotiable instrument, a promissory note made by a bank payable to the bearer on demand, used as money, and in many jurisdictions is legal tender. In addition to coins, banknotes make up the cash or bearer forms of all modern fiat money...
s were first issued in January 1913 with the denominations of 5 tam
TAM
-Finance:* Total addressable market, a financial term used to reference the revenue opportunity available for a product or service- Military :* TAM – Transporte Aéreo Militar , an airline in Bolivia...
(green
Green
Green is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nanometres. In the subtractive color system, it is not a primary color, but is created out of a mixture of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; it is considered...
or blue
Blue
Blue is a colour, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 440–490 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colours. On the HSV Colour Wheel, the complement of blue is yellow; that is, a colour corresponding to an equal...
) and 10 tam
TAM
-Finance:* Total addressable market, a financial term used to reference the revenue opportunity available for a product or service- Military :* TAM – Transporte Aéreo Militar , an airline in Bolivia...
(red
Red
Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths of light discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 630–740 nm. Longer wavelengths than this are called infrared , and cannot be seen by the naked eye...
). These were dated to the year 1658 of the Tibetan Era (which began in AD 1912 and ended in early 1913).
Further issues followed later in AD 1913. All these notes are dated to the Tibetan Era year 1659, which began in February AD 1913. They are as follows: a 10 tam note (red), a 15 tam note (violet
Violet (color)
As the name of a color, violet is synonymous with a bluish purple, when the word "purple" is used in the common English language sense of any color between blue and red, not including either blue or red...
), a 25 tam note (brown
Brown
Brown is a color term, denoting a range of composite colors produced by a mixture of orange, red, rose, or yellow with black or gray. The term is from Old English brún, in origin for any dusky or dark shade of color....
or yellow
Yellow
Yellow is the color evoked by light that stimulates both the L and M cone cells of the retina about equally, with no significant stimulation of the S cone cells. Light with a wavelength of 570–590 nm is yellow, as is light with a suitable mixture of red and green...
), and a 50 tam note (blue or purple
Purple
Purple is a range of hues of color occurring between red and blue, and is classified as a secondary color as the colors are required to create the shade....
). Like the two earlier issues, they bear a red seal
Seal (device)
A seal can be a figure impressed in wax, clay, or some other medium, or embossed on paper, with the purpose of authenticating a document ; but the term can also mean the device for making such impressions, being essentially a mould with the mirror image of the design carved in sunken- relief or...
representing the authority of the Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama is a high lama in the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" branch of Tibetan Buddhism. The name is a combination of the Mongolian word далай meaning "Ocean" and the Tibetan word bla-ma meaning "teacher"...
and a black
Black
Black is the color of objects that do not emit or reflect light in any part of the visible spectrum; they absorb all such frequencies of light...
seal which has the following inscription in 'phags pa ( also called "seal script") Tibetan script
Tibetan script
The Tibetan alphabet is an abugida of Indic origin used to write the Tibetan language as well as the Dzongkha language, Denzongkha, Ladakhi language and sometimes the Balti language. The printed form of the alphabet is called uchen script while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday...
: gzhung dngul khang, and can be translated as "government treasury" or "government bank".
The five tam notes continued to be printed, but the date
Calendar date
A date in a calendar is a reference to a particular day represented within a calendar system. The calendar date allows the specific day to be identified. The number of days between two dates may be calculated. For example, "24 " is ten days after "14 " in the Gregorian calendar. The date of a...
on this notes was not changed, i.e. it remained T.E. (Tibetan Era) 1658. The early Tibetan notes were woodblock printed
Woodblock printing
Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper....
on locally-produced paper and were hand-numbered with black ink by specially trained Tibetan calligraphists
Tibetan calligraphy
Tibetan calligraphy refers to the calligraphic traditions used to write the Tibetan language. As in other parts of East Asia, nobles, high lamas, and persons of high rank were expected to have high abilities in calligraphy. However, unlike calligraphy in China, Japan, and Korea, calligraphy was...
. In the 1930s they were withdrawn from circulation
Circulation (currency)
The social system in which we live has usually developed to the stage for money to be used as the medium for the exchange of goods and services. Hence the money is an important aspect of the general social or macroeconomics system...
. They bear the following inscription on the obverse:
- "Gangs ljongs bod rgyal khab chen po´i lugs zung chab
- "Srid dbu brnyes kyi lo chig stong drug brgya bcu nga brgyad
- "Phun tshogs sde bzhi´i dpal mnga´ phan bde´i spyi nor
- "Chos srid gnyis ldan gyi rab byung bco lnga pa´i[ba ´i] shog dngul."
- The following translation has been suggested for this legend:
- 1658 years from the founding of the religiousReligionReligion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
-secularSecularitySecularity is the state of being separate from religion.For instance, eating and bathing may be regarded as examples of secular activities, because there may not be anything inherently religious about them...
form of government in the great country of Tibet, the land of snows, paper money (shog dngul) of the 15th cycle (rab byung bco lnga) of the government of religion and politics (chos srid gnyis ldan), the universal jewel (spyi nor) of benefit and bless, endowed with the four types of auspiciousness.
The highest denomination note (50 tam) was often forged
Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: '"cold," "warm," or "hot" forging. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580 metric tons...
, and the Tibetan government decided to introduce a new multicoloured version printed in a more sophisticated manner. The legend
Legend
A legend is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude...
s on the obverse were printed from woodblocks, while the remaining design on both sides was machine-printed using several different metal blocks. The first notes of this new issue were dated T.E. 1672 (= AD 1926). New notes of this denomination were produced every year until T.E. 1687 (= AD 1941).
In 1937 or '38 new multicolored notes with the high denomination 100 tam srang were introduced. They bear the same octagonal red seal as the early "tam" denominated notes and a black seal of a new type which bears the following inscription: Srid zhi dpal ´bar.
This legend refers to the Tibetan government mint. The following translations have been suggested: "Two famous Governments"; "The Glory of both (lay and religious) Governments´ houses" "May every form of being augment the good" and "Government, peace and progress." A freer translation would read: "A peaceful government (generates) prosperity".
The denomination of these notes was soon changed from "tam srang" to "srang" and they were given a smaller circular red seal. The 100 srang notes are machine-printed and hand-numbered; they were regularly issued between 1939 and 1945 and again between 1951 and 1959 but bear no date. Numerous notes of this denomination have survived and they are relatively common on the numismatic
Numismatics
Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, and related objects. While numismatists are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, the discipline also includes the broader study of money and other payment media used to resolve debts and the...
market.
Further machine-printed "srang" denominated notes followed. In 1940 saw the issue of "10 srang" notes bearing the date T.E. 1686. These were machine-printed in three colors (red, blue and black) and carried different T.E. dates until T.E. 1694 (= AD 1948). An undated "5 srang" note of small size was issued between 1942 and 1946. Finally, an undated "25 srang" note was introduced in 1950 and was issued until 1955.
All the Tibetan srang-denominated banknotes were machine-printed on locally made paper at the government mint of Trabshi Lekhung using inks imported from India. All denominations are hand-numbered.
In 1959 these issues were withdrawn from circulation and replaced by Chinese banknotes denominated in Renminbi Yuan
Chinese yuan
The yuan is the base unit of a number of modern Chinese currencies. The yuan is the primary unit of account of the Renminbi.A yuán is also known colloquially as a kuài . One yuán is divided into 10 jiǎo or colloquially máo...
.
The Tibetan mints
Among the most important mintMint (coin)
A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins for currency.The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins. One difference is that the history of the mint is usually closely tied to the political situation of an era...
s in the early 20th century were one known by the name 'dod dpal (las khung) located in Shol, below the Potala Palace
Potala Palace
The Potala Palace is located in Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region, China. It was named after Mount Potala, the abode of Chenresig or Avalokitesvara...
, and one located about 10 kilometers north/northeast of Lhasa in the Dode valley
Dodé Valley
The Dodé Valley or Dog bde is a northern suburb of Lhasa, Tibet. A number of historical hermitages belonging to Sera Monastery are located here including the Purbuchok Hermitage and Sera Utsé Hermitage. The hills around the valley are known as the Purbuchok mountains. It is a common location for...
(dog bde or dog sde valley)
Another important mint was located in Trabshi (4 kilometers north of Lhasa on the way to Sera monastery). This mint was modernized in the early 1930s, all the machinery of the other mints was subsequently transferred to this establishment, which was operated as the only Tibetan Government mint from 1932 onwards It had the official name Trabshi Lotrü Lekhung (grwa bzhi glog ´khrul las khung, the "Trabshi electric machine factory"). Nowadays the huge compound of the former mint is occupied by one of Lhasa´s several prisons, known as "Trabshi Prison
Drapchi Prison
Drapchi Prison, or Lhasa Prison No. 1 is the largest prison in Tibet, located in Lhasa.Originally built as a Tibetan military garrison, Drapchi was transformed into a prison after the 1959 Tibetan uprising....
".
Furthermore a mint named gser khang ("gold house"), located west of the Norbu Lingka, was in operation in the 1920s for the striking of gold and copper coins. A mint referred to as Mekyi (Tibetan me kyid; short for me tog skyid po meaning "enjoyable flowers") was located in the residence of the Chinese Amban
Amban
Amban is a Manchu word meaning "high official," which corresponds to a number of different official titles in the Qing imperial government...
and was perhaps used by the Chinese in 1910 to strike Sino-Tibetan coins. It was taken over by the Tibetan government after the forced departure of the last Amban in 1913, and coins were minted there between 1914 and the early 1930s. An establishment located south of the Kyichu (river) near Lhasa, known as Tip Arsenal, is occasionally mentioned as mint", but there is no evidence that coins were struck there. A small facory destined for the production of copper blanks existed in the Chumbi valley about half way between Yatung and the Tibeto-Sikkimese border; its name was Norbu Tsoki (Tibetan: nor bu mthso dkyil) and it was operational between 1923 and 1928.
The coins of the 18th and 19th century were struck by hand and those of the early 20th century by locally built, water- or man-powered machines. From the 1920s coins were struck by machines imported from England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
and from British India, first on an experimental basis in 1928 and 1929, and then on a large scale from 1932 to 1938, and again from 1946 to 1954. The electric power
Electric power
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt.-Circuits:Electric power, like mechanical power, is represented by the letter P in electrical equations...
for these machines was supplied by a hydroelectric power plant in the Dode valley which was set up between 1927 and 1928 with equipment which had been imported from England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
in 1924.
1955 to 1959
After the invasion of Tibet in 1950-51 the renewed interference of the Chinese resulted in a situation where no more coins were struck from 1955 and 1959. However, paper notes of 100 srang were still printed.In the early 1950s the Chinese restruck dollars with the portrait of Yuan Shikai in the Chengdu mint. These were introduced into Tibet to pay Tibetan workers involved in road building and to buy the goodwill of influential Tibetans. Many Yuan Shikai dollars were smuggled to India by Tibetan traders who bought western goods in Calcutta which they sold at considerable profits to Chinese Army members in Lhasa.
During the great exodus of Tibetans, by the middle of 1959, also the circulation of bank notes stopped, when the Chinese were introducing the Renminbi
Renminbi
The Renminbi is the official currency of the People's Republic of China . Renminbi is legal tender in mainland China, but not in Hong Kong or Macau. It is issued by the People's Bank of China, the monetary authority of the PRC...
currency into Tibet, eventually replacing the traditional Tibetan money.
The dates on Tibetan coins
Except for the Sino-Tibetan coins, the early undated tangkas of the 18th century, and the undated Ganden tangka issues, all Tibetan coins are inscribed with the cycle and the year in which they were struck. Each cycle comprises 60 years. The first year of the first cycle corresponds to the western year AD 1027.According to Tibetan tradition, the Kalachakra
Kalachakra
Kalachakra is a Sanskrit term used in Tantric Buddhism that literally means "time-wheel" or "time-cycles".The spelling Kalacakra is also correct....
(dus kyi ‘khor lo) was introduced into Tibet from India in the year 1026. Therefore the dates
Calendar date
A date in a calendar is a reference to a particular day represented within a calendar system. The calendar date allows the specific day to be identified. The number of days between two dates may be calculated. For example, "24 " is ten days after "14 " in the Gregorian calendar. The date of a...
found on Tibetan coins record the number of years which have elapsed since this historical event. In order to convert a cycle date of a Tibetan coin into a western date one can use the following formula: (Number of cycles minus 1) times 60, plus number of years, plus 1026.
Example: rab byung 15 lo 43 means that 14 complete cycles plus 43 years of the 15th cycle have elapsed since the year 1026. This date can be converted as follows:
(15 – 1) × 60 + 43 + 1026 = AD 1909.
It is necessary to know that the Tibetan year
Tibetan calendar
The Tibetan calendar is a lunisolar calendar, that is, the Tibetan year is composed of either 12 or 13 lunar months, each beginning and ending with a new moon. A thirteenth month is added every two or three years, so that an average Tibetan year is equal to the solar year.The Tibetan New Year...
usually starts some time in what is the month of February according to the calendar of the Western World
Gregorian calendar
The Gregorian calendar, also known as the Western calendar, or Christian calendar, is the internationally accepted civil calendar. It was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by a decree signed on 24 February 1582, a papal bull known by its opening words Inter...
. Therefore the coin of the above example cannot have been struck as early as January 1909, but may have been struck as late as January or early February 1910.
Tibetan currency units
Tibet had a dual and therefore complicated system of currency units. One was imported from Nepal and its basic unit was the "tangka" (also called "trangka" "tam" or "tamga"; equivalent to about 5.4 to 5.6 grams of alloyAlloy
An alloy is a mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may or may not be homogeneous in distribution, depending on thermal history...
ed silver). The other was imported from China and its basic unit was the "srang" (Chinese liang, equivalent to 37.3 grams of silver). These two systems were used in Tibet concurrently from about 1640 until 1959.
| Calculating respective values of currency units | The subdivisions of the srang | Silver coins, solely struck in the 18th and 19th century |
|---|---|---|
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The small units of ½ sho
Sho
Sho can refer to:* Sho , a Tibetan board game with dices* Sho , a Tibetan currency unit * Shodo, a Japanese calligraphy* Sho , a letter of the Greek alphabet as used to write Bactrian...
and ½ tangka were only struck for circulation in small numbers in 1793. There also exist some ½ sho coins dated Qian Long
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
59. These however are extremely rare, and most of them probably have to be considered as patterns or prototypes.
In the 20th century, the following units were struck:
| Copper | Silver or billon Billon (alloy) Billon is an alloy of a precious metal with a majority base metal content . It is used chiefly for making coins, medals, and token coins.The word comes from the French bille.... |
Gold |
|---|---|---|
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See also
- Nepalese moharNepalese moharThe mohar was the currency of Nepal from the second half of the 17th century until 1932. Silver and gold mohars were issued, each subdivided into 128 dams. Copper dams were also issued, together with copper paisa worth 4 copper dams. The values of the copper, silver and gold coinages relative to...
External links
- Wolfgang Bertsch: A Survey of Tibetan Paper Currency. In: Bulletin of Tibetology, 3, S. 3–22, 1996.http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_1996_03_01.pdf
- http://picasaweb.google.com/clmarabu
- http://home.hccnet.nl/jwm.sanders/
- http://snowlandcoins.com/
- http://www.tibetancoins.com/Tibet_Chapters.htm
- Tibetan coinage 2
- Tibetan coinage 4
- Tibetan paper money
- Tibetan 100 Tam Srang Note
- http://www.tibet-encyclopedia.de/tibetische-muenzen.html
- http://gorila.netlab.cz/coins/Tibet/ONS_TangkaTibet.pdf