Weapon dance
Encyclopedia
The weapon dance employs weapon
s—or stylized versions of weapons—traditionally used in combat
in order to simulate, recall, or reenact combat or the moves of combat in the form of dance
, usually for some ceremonial
purpose. Such dancing is quite common to folk ritual
in many parts of the world. Weapon dancing is certainly ancient; among the earliest historical references we have are those that refer to the pyrrhic, a weapon dance in ancient Sparta
, in which the dance was used as a kind of ritual training for battle.
There are virtually no parts of the world left where the weapon dance is directly connected with imminent or recent combat. This is especially true of Europe
an states, which have long since moved away from the tribalism
that usually gives rise to such folk dances. It is, however, also true of parts of the world where tribal traditions have succumbed only quite recently to colonialism
and the forces of globalism
. The dances that one sees today are often part of general movements to preserve and rejuvenate tribal or local traditions. Some of these movements are quite strong now, such as those among native North American tribes and the aboriginal peoples of Australia.
Related to weapon dances and war dances is the dance of the hunt. A very early reference to a weapon dance of the hunt comes in the form of a rock
engraving
at Çatal Höyük
, the large neolithic
settlement in south-central Anatolia
. It depicts a hunting ritual involving dancers holding their bows; one figure has a bow in each hand, two perform artistic leaps and another holds a horn-shaped stick and is striking a frame drum
.
peoples and the Anglo-Saxon
tribes. The Sutton Hoo
is thought to show figures dancing with spears.
Other references to such traditions include that in "Constantine VII Porphrogenitus’ Book of Ceremonies" (from c.953) which describes the Varangian Guard
(a group made up of Norse and later English and Anglo-Danish warriors) dancing in two circles, with some wearing skins or masks, along with chants of “Toúl!” and clashing staves on shields.
Sword dancing exists in some parts of Europe. The weapon may be used to act out mock combat during the dance, or may be incorporated as an element of the dance itself, intertwining with other swords. In some places, sticks are used instead of swords. Iberian stick dances (paulitos, paloteos, ball de bastons
) display two opposite rows of dancers. A common sword dance in Europe is the moresca
in Spain, in which the dance recalls the strife between Christians and Muslims
in that country from the 12th-15th century.
The gun parade of Moros y Cristianos
also celebrates these battles, as does the British morris dance
.
In Macedonia
and Northern Italy, weapon dances may be used to exorcise evil spirits before a wedding. Sabre dancing exists in the Balkans; the most famous of these is from Albania
, where two male rivals simulate a duel over a woman. Northern-Portuguese jogo do pau
involves two rivals with long sticks. Other weapons, such as axes (or wooden versions thereof) may be used in some places. In parts of Europe, there are lance dances, dagger dances, and even rifle dances.
In the Scottish Highlands
, there are dances that used the Lochaber axe
, the broadsword
, targe
& dirk, and the flail. The Highland Dirk
Dance, resembles a combative dance similar to those of Indonesian pencak silat
, which has the performer executing knife techniques combined with wrestling style kicks, trips, and sweeps.
Hilt-and-point sword dances exist in many places in Europe. In this kind of dance the swords interlock to form a “rose,” or “lock,” that is placed around the neck of a participant to simulate decapitation. As well, crossed-sword dances are common in Europe. Typically, dancers execute complicated patterns of steps over and between the swords. In some variations, clay pipes may replace the swords. Many European sword dances were appropriated by trade guilds, with tools replacing the swords. In Turkey and Greece there exists a butchers’ dance called the hassapikos. It is now a social dance, but goes back to a battle mime in the Middle Ages performed with swords and performed by members of by the butchers' guild. Also in Turkey are the so-called “guerrilla dances”, performed by dances arranged in a circle who make swishing and whiffling sounds with their swords (possibly to clear the area of evil spirits), followed by mock combat.
Chain-sword dance is a group dance in which the dancers first use a sword or other implement (stick, stave, etc.) to link themselves in a chain. In the Hungarian tradition
, the Erdőbénye
cooper dance represents this form of dance.
Moreška
, a sword dance on the Croatian island of Korčula
in the Adriatic, recalls combat between Christians and Moros (Moors
), though in the 19th century the dance changed from Christians vs. Moors to Turks vs. Moors.
Historically, the Hungarian heyduck dance was a soldiers' dance that involved virtuoso whirling of weapons and free-form compositions with battle practice motifs. Such dances also appear in Gypsy, Slovak
, Ruthenian
, and Transylvanian folklore. In many of these areas, the so-called "stick dancing" of shepherds is a reenactment of combat with real weapons.
In a few isolated sections of Europe, a rather savage male combat dance survives. In the villages of the Transylvania
Alps and Carpathian
mountains, before Twelfth Night
and Whitsun
day, nine men from nine villages assemble for the Joc de căluşari
or căluş, a rite of initiation. The men engage in fierce battle with sticks, which formerly was bloody and sometimes fatal.
Some of the Basque dance
s feature weapons.
The ezpatadantza ("sword dance") comes from the Durango area and is danced for authorities and in the feast of Corpus Christi
.
After the dance, both opposing rows of dancers raise their weapons and form a corridor for the authorities.
The ezpatadantza and the makildantza ("stick dance") employs makila
(traditional Basque walking sticks), and ends with the dancers raising one of them, lying as a fallen warrior, over their heads.
In the Basque
province of Gipuzkoa in Spain, the Okrabario Dantza is performed in Legazpi
—a sword dance in which a participant dances atop a grid of crossed swords held aloft. In Tolosa
, on Midsummer Day, the Bordon-Dantza ("walking stick
dance") is performed with the figures of the ezpatadantza; some point its origins to the border fights in the Middle Ages, when the Castilian troops from Gipuzkoa won an important victory over the troops from Navarre
at the Battle of Beotibar
. Sticks simulate some weapons, and halberd
s—a combination of a spear and a battle-axe—are also used.
, in which a solo dancer depicts the feelings of a young warrior prior to battle. Originally, Baris was performed as a religious ritual. The dancer may bear a kris
, a spear, a bow, or other weapons, depending on the variant performed. The word "Baris" literally means "line" or "file", and referred to the line of soldiers who served the raja
s of Bali. The dance is usually performed by men in a group with as few as four dancers and as many as
sixty. The ritualistic function of the dance is to show physical maturity by demonstrating military skills, particularly the use of weapons.
The development of art dance, in general, in China
reached its peak during the Tang dynasty
and then was largely integrated into Chinese Opera
practice. Tribal weapon dancing, thus, does not play a part in this tradition. It may, however, be present among the original aboriginal tribes on Taiwan
(The Republic of China).
The Dayak people
of Borneo
are renowned for their solo sword dances, which show the skill of a young man using a sharp manda. Also on the island of Borneo one finds the Lotud
, an indigenous
ethnic group
residing in Sabah
. The Lotud are well known for their very colourful costumes and their dances, one of which is the Bakanjar, a war-like dance with a man holding a sword and a shield, originally performed to portray the sword fight and heroic exploits of the headhunting days.
In India, the sword dance Choliya or Saraon of the Kumaon
region of the hills of the Indian state of Uttarakhand
started partly due to their long martial tradition and also to give protection to marriage processions. It was also held auspicious and, according to Hindu tradition, warded off evil spirits. It has a very beautiful and graceful form and has techniques which give it the status of a martial art.
Among the traditional weapon dances of India
is the Shad Sukmynsiem, performed in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya
. Both Christians and Hindus may take part as long as they belong to Khasi community. Young lads clad in colourful silk dhotis dance around with a sword or spear in one hand and a plume in the other. The move in a protective circle around an inner circle of young maidens. A popular dance in Mizoram
in the north-east corner of India is Sawlakin, a word that "means spirit of the slain." Traditionally, the dance was led by the warrior who had hunted a big game or killed a man. He would wear his best clothes and a plume of red feather. He would wield a gun or dao and a shield. He would be followed by other dancers in a row, who would also carry weapons, or cymbals or gongs.
The Pashtuns
of Afghanistan practice a wide range of weapon dances, including the Khattak Wal Atanrh ( named after the Khattak tribe) and the Mahsood Wal Atanrh (which, in modern times, involves the juggling of loaded rifles). A sub-type of the Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great skill to successfully execute.
prior to going out on a raid; the object of the dance was to "warm up" for combat to come. Also, on the Arabian peninsula a dance named ard recalls pre-Islamic tribal battles. Two rows of men face one another, clapping, singing, and dancing in a lively manner, accompanied by large frame drums. At the peak of the dance two swordsmen perform a duel between the rows of dancers. The Assyrian
minority in Syria
have a dramatic folk dance called the Shora which commemorates the bloody battles fought by the Ancient Assyrians back in their time consisting of a leader (usually a man) in front with a sword otherwise known as a saypa and a line of men joining together. Generally speaking, a number of dances (also known as razfah or ayyala) of Bedouin
origin use weapons and have achieved modern popularity in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf
and are associated with festive occasions among the non-Bedouin sedentary population.
In Iran there exists the Çûb-Bâzî ("stick game"; or raqs-e çûb, "stick dance"), a dance form that probably has its origins in reenactments of combat. Essentially, an attacker and a defender duel with poles. The çûb-bâzî is “…both a dance and a show of skill and bravery; participants are judged by their abilities in the combat aspects, as well as by their grace in executing the dance movements.”
is reflected in demonstrations of stick fighting (umshiza) with which the male teenagers and men settle their personal differences in a public duel.
The Jerusema (or Mbenede) dance of the Zezuru people in Zimbabwe
is an interesting kind of hybrid war dance—"hybrid" in the sense that music and dance formed a part of the actual battle-field preparations, themselves, as well as of the ritual dance recalling the battle. (The Zezuru are one of the Shona people
s who were the builders of the great monuments of the Monomotapa kingdom in Zimbabwe between the 10th and 15th centuries.) The dance is a re-creation of a battle strategy developed by the Zezuru in the 19th century against incursions of other tribes in the wake of colonialist expansion of the Boers. The dance, itself, recalls the music and dance used as a diversionary tactic on the battlefield to distract the enemy while Zezuru warriors maneuvered into position; thus, the ritual dance involves the music and dance of the “distractors” as well as warriors with weapons moving into position.
Ethiopia
has a long, historical reputation as a place where the weapon dance plays an important cultural role. According to Lucian
, a Greek writer from the 2nd century, “The Ethiopians dance also during the battle. The Ethiopian never shoots his arrow without dancing and making a menacing gesture beforehand. He wants to frighten the enemy by his dance beforehand.” The broad range of weapon dances includes the hota jumping dance of Amharic males; the attack dance of the Hailefo; the stick-dance of the Kullo; the Beroronsi Hama Haban, a dramatic dagger dance of the Esa; and the shire, the saber dance of the Tigrean
nomadic shepherds.
In Australia
, there are aboriginal
dances that reenact hunting and combat using traditional weapons such as the boomerang. Sometimes two boomerangs are clapped together as a musical instrument to provide sounds for dances.
In New Zealand
, Maori have raised the martial art associated with the taiaha
and mere
to the level of a weapon dance. The haka
could also be considered as a weapon dance, as it includes elements of warlike challenge to chanting and musical (sung) accompaniment.
The Nifo oti, or Samoan fire knife dance, is also a kind of weapon dance. The kailao is a standing male war dance of Tonga
. The kailao is performed by men (less commonly women also perform it with the men as a mixed dance), who carry clubs or fighting sticks. The performers dance in a fierce manner to emulate combat, all to the accompaniment of a slit drum or a tin box. Additional idiophonic percussion is provided by strung rattles worn on the anklets of the dancers, and the clashing together of the wooden implements of war, which today are either sticks or mock weapons. The dance is unusual for Tonga in that it lacks recited poetry as accompaniment, which fact is taken to mean that it was imported to Tonga from elsewhere.
dance group who recreate Cherokee dances, including the war dance, do research and offer dance workshops for their community. A dance such as the Comanche
Sun Dance
of the 1870s was an invocation of invulnerability to the White Man's bullets; the dance was a preliminary ritual to battle and would be a war dance and, hence, a weapon dance.
Also, the moresca (or morisca) (above) exists in some areas in the Americas that used to be Spanish colonies—Mexico, for example.
In the Jamiltepec region of Mexico
, there exists perhaps the most colorful version of that kind of dance, the Chareos dance. It represents a battle between Moors
, led by Pilate, and Christians, led by James, the apostle. Sixteen male dancers take part and the dancer who plays the part of James appears as a horse rider and wears a costume that incorporates a white horse. The dancers wear ostrich feathers on their heads, a peacock feather at the front, white cotton square over their shoulders, velvet trousers decorated with gold brocade over white cotton pants and carry a machete. In addition, the leader has a hat with a small mirror and a white feather headdress. Two men at the front carry two red flags and two white flags, red
symbolizing the blood spilt by James' soldiers and white
symbolizing the peace that reigned after the Christian victory. The sounds of drums and flutes accompany the dance. These dances that pit Christian against Moor are almost certainly Christianized versions of earlier, pre-Cortez
dances that ritualized the battle between the tiger and the eagle.
Similar to the Moor-Christian confrontation of the morisca—whether in Spain or in transplanted versions in Central America—there are also elaborate ritual dances in Mexico such as the Danza de la Pluma that exploit the trauma of the Spanish conquest of indigenous America. Weapons employed may be swords (and shields) whips, even firearms. These representations take place over a large area of Mesoamerica and, in part, are an obvious adaptation of Spanish tradition, but in Mexico will pit the native Aztec against the Spanish invader. The most interesting aspect of these dances is that—depending on where one sees them and under what conditions—it is plausible to read into the dances an outcome other than the historical Spanish victory. That is, indigenous performers may take inspiration from the fact that the natives of Spain drove out the Moorish invaders; thus, the natives of Mesoamerica, too, shall one day drive out the invaders.
Some dances that abound at Carnival and Corpus Christi
fiestas go back to pre-Conquest ritual combat dances of the Aztecs. For example, during the 15th month of the Aztec calendar
, Huitzilopochtli
, god of the sun and war was honored by real duels between slave victims and mimed battles among masked boy votaries.
Also, among the Náhuatl
-speaking people in the Pacific Ocean region of Michoacán
, there is the cuauileros dance (the cudgelers' dance). The performance of this dance represents a battle between Aztecs and Spaniards, and dancers perform with rattles made of thin metal plates and wooden cudgels.
The landscape of all dance in a large country such as Brazil is rich and complex due to the mixing of three separate traditions—Indian native, Black African, and Portuguese. In Brazil
, the African influence on Brazilian folkdances is considerable. For example, capoeira—a dance-like fighting style—and the maculelê fighting dance are strongly reminiscent of African dances. Capoeira
is of particular interest. In the 19th century, Capoeira was played mostly by African slaves who had been brought from West Central Africa, making them the original capoeristas and making the art a complex form of social interaction, expressing the participants' physical skills and spiritual essence, involving the gods and the spirits of the ancestral fathers. The participants played during festivals and holidays, jumping and leaping in front of musical bands, military troops, and religious processions. This dance “game” was considered dangerous to public order and was eventually criminalized in the late 19th century.
Today, capoeira has staged somewhat of a comeback and is even studied in dance academies as part of a general movement to rejuvenate folk traditions. Capoeira may be played unarmed or with blades held in the hands or feet.
The sticks used as mock weapons in some of these dances also serve as percussion instruments. In the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul
, the machete
, a tool used to cut jungle brush, is used in a dance called dança dos facões (dance of the machetes). In this dance (historically performed only by men, although this trend changes as the dance spreads), the dancers knock their machetes while dancing, simulating a battle. Machete are sometimes used in place of sticks in Maculelê
.
) employ highly choreographed sword-fight/dance sequences.
Additionally, there is overlap between weapon dance and stylized forms of stage combat, i.e., choreographed enactments of “real fights,” from bar-room brawls to sword-fighting to large-scale battle scenes. Stage combat uses the services of professionals called “fight directors,” “weapon choreographers,” etc. An early example of this kind of staged combat in Europe was in Italy in the late 19th century, where the term tramagnini came to be used generically in the sense of “extra” or “stunt man” for those who fought on the stage in enactments of battle scenes in grand opera, for example. Tramagnini was originally a family name in Florence and referred to members of the family who started a gymnastics club and soon wound up appearing on stage in enactments of fighting, both bare-handed and with weapons.
Elsewhere, the Kabuki
theater tradition in Japan employs ritualized representations of violence on the stage. While Kabuki is technically theater and not dance, the movements, for example, of the sword-fighting termed tachimawari in Kabuki are gymnastic to the point even of employing somersaults, and elaborate fight scenes are so deliberate and stylized that they provide at least an area of overlap between theater and dance.
Also, the Communist revolution
in China produced the view that art—including dance—must support the “armed struggle of the proletariat.” By the 1970s, weapons commonly appeared in such works as "Red Detachment of Women,’’ a ballet about a women’s revolutionary armed force in the 1930s in China.
Interesting, perhaps, in the use of weapons in these recent “revolutionary” works is that they are, generally speaking, not reenactments of traditional folk dances. The introduction of weaponry into Chinese ballet—regardless of the revolutionary message—was, itself, a revolution.
Weapon
A weapon, arm, or armament is a tool or instrument used with the aim of causing damage or harm to living beings or artificial structures or systems...
s—or stylized versions of weapons—traditionally used in combat
Combat
Combat, or fighting, is a purposeful violent conflict meant to establish dominance over the opposition, or to terminate the opposition forever, or drive the opposition away from a location where it is not wanted or needed....
in order to simulate, recall, or reenact combat or the moves of combat in the form of dance
Dance
Dance is an art form that generally refers to movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music, used as a form of expression, social interaction or presented in a spiritual or performance setting....
, usually for some ceremonial
Ceremony
A ceremony is an event of ritual significance, performed on a special occasion. The word may be of Etruscan origin.-Ceremonial occasions:A ceremony may mark a rite of passage in a human life, marking the significance of, for example:* birth...
purpose. Such dancing is quite common to folk ritual
Ritual
A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value. It may be prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. The term usually excludes actions which are arbitrarily chosen by the performers....
in many parts of the world. Weapon dancing is certainly ancient; among the earliest historical references we have are those that refer to the pyrrhic, a weapon dance in ancient Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
, in which the dance was used as a kind of ritual training for battle.
There are virtually no parts of the world left where the weapon dance is directly connected with imminent or recent combat. This is especially true of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an states, which have long since moved away from the tribalism
Tribalism
The social structure of a tribe can vary greatly from case to case, but, due to the small size of tribes, it is always a relatively simple role structure, with few significant social distinctions between individuals....
that usually gives rise to such folk dances. It is, however, also true of parts of the world where tribal traditions have succumbed only quite recently to colonialism
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
and the forces of globalism
Globalization
Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. Most often, it refers to economics: the global distribution of the production of goods and services, through reduction of barriers to international trade such as tariffs, export fees, and import...
. The dances that one sees today are often part of general movements to preserve and rejuvenate tribal or local traditions. Some of these movements are quite strong now, such as those among native North American tribes and the aboriginal peoples of Australia.
Related to weapon dances and war dances is the dance of the hunt. A very early reference to a weapon dance of the hunt comes in the form of a rock
Rock (geology)
In geology, rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids.The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. In general rocks are of three types, namely, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic...
engraving
Engraving
Engraving is the practice of incising a design on to a hard, usually flat surface, by cutting grooves into it. The result may be a decorated object in itself, as when silver, gold, steel, or glass are engraved, or may provide an intaglio printing plate, of copper or another metal, for printing...
at Çatal Höyük
Çatalhöyük
Çatalhöyük was a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BCE to 5700 BCE...
, the large neolithic
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
settlement in south-central Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
. It depicts a hunting ritual involving dancers holding their bows; one figure has a bow in each hand, two perform artistic leaps and another holds a horn-shaped stick and is striking a frame drum
Frame drum
A frame drum is a drum that has a drumhead width greater than its depth. Usually the single drumhead is made of rawhide or man-made materials. Shells are traditionally constructed of bent wood scarf jointed together; plywood and man-made materials are also used. Some frame drums have mechanical...
.
Function of the weapon dance
In the modern world, dance has come to be regarded as something one does for recreation, thus distancing dance from the important place it has held in many human cultures throughout history—that is, a method of expression, preservation and transmission of the culture and history of a people. Many of the activities that humans have engaged in for millennia (religion and courtship, for example) have traditionally found expression in various kinds of dance. Another activity—combat—has obviously been central to the life of most human cultures; thus, one expects to find dances that celebrate skill in the use of weapons. Indeed, there is a wide range of such weapon dances in the world; they vary from general displays of prowess in the use of weapons to reenactments of real episodes of combat specific to a given culture.Europe
Early examples of sword and spear dances can be found amongst the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe, such as those mentioned by Tacictus, the NorseNorsemen
Norsemen is used to refer to the group of people as a whole who spoke what is now called the Old Norse language belonging to the North Germanic branch of Indo-European languages, especially Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese, Swedish and Danish in their earlier forms.The meaning of Norseman was "people...
peoples and the Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon may refer to:* Anglo-Saxons, a group that invaded Britain** Old English, their language** Anglo-Saxon England, their history, one of various ships* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term...
tribes. The Sutton Hoo
Sutton Hoo
Sutton Hoo, near to Woodbridge, in the English county of Suffolk, is the site of two 6th and early 7th century cemeteries. One contained an undisturbed ship burial including a wealth of Anglo-Saxon artefacts of outstanding art-historical and archaeological significance, now held in the British...
is thought to show figures dancing with spears.
Other references to such traditions include that in "Constantine VII Porphrogenitus’ Book of Ceremonies" (from c.953) which describes the Varangian Guard
Varangian Guard
The Varangian Guard was an elite unit of the Byzantine Army in 10th to the 14th centuries, whose members served as personal bodyguards of the Byzantine Emperors....
(a group made up of Norse and later English and Anglo-Danish warriors) dancing in two circles, with some wearing skins or masks, along with chants of “Toúl!” and clashing staves on shields.
Sword dancing exists in some parts of Europe. The weapon may be used to act out mock combat during the dance, or may be incorporated as an element of the dance itself, intertwining with other swords. In some places, sticks are used instead of swords. Iberian stick dances (paulitos, paloteos, ball de bastons
Ball de bastons
Ball de bastons is the name of a ritual weapon dance spread throughout Europe and the rest of the Iberian area . English and Welsh Morris dances are well-known relatives to these traditions. Most melodies are based on easy 2/4 rhythms...
) display two opposite rows of dancers. A common sword dance in Europe is the moresca
Moresca
Moresca or Mauresque is a 15th/16th century pantomime dance in which the executants wore Moorish costumes. One such is the concluding music of Monteverdi's L'Orfeo...
in Spain, in which the dance recalls the strife between Christians and Muslims
Reconquista
The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...
in that country from the 12th-15th century.
The gun parade of Moros y Cristianos
Moros y cristianos
Moros y Cristianos or Moros i Cristians literally in English Moors and Christians, is a set of festival activities which are celebrated in many towns and cities of Spain, mainly in the southern Valencian Community; according to popular tradition the festivals commemorate the battles, combats and...
also celebrates these battles, as does the British morris dance
Morris dance
Morris dance is a form of English folk dance usually accompanied by music. It is based on rhythmic stepping and the execution of choreographed figures by a group of dancers. Implements such as sticks, swords, handkerchiefs and bells may also be wielded by the dancers...
.
In Macedonia
Republic of Macedonia
Macedonia , officially the Republic of Macedonia , is a country located in the central Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. It is one of the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, from which it declared independence in 1991...
and Northern Italy, weapon dances may be used to exorcise evil spirits before a wedding. Sabre dancing exists in the Balkans; the most famous of these is from Albania
Albania
Albania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
, where two male rivals simulate a duel over a woman. Northern-Portuguese jogo do pau
Jogo do Pau
Jogo do Pau is a Portuguese martial art which developed in the northern regions of Portugal , focusing on the use of a staff of fixed measures and characteristics. The origins of this martial art are uncertain, but its purpose was primarily self-defence...
involves two rivals with long sticks. Other weapons, such as axes (or wooden versions thereof) may be used in some places. In parts of Europe, there are lance dances, dagger dances, and even rifle dances.
In the Scottish Highlands
Scottish Highlands
The Highlands is an historic region of Scotland. The area is sometimes referred to as the "Scottish Highlands". It was culturally distinguishable from the Lowlands from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Scots replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands...
, there are dances that used the Lochaber axe
Lochaber axe
The Lochaber axe was a halberd that came into use in Scotland around 1300. The name of the weapon derives from Lochaber, an area in the western Scottish Highlands, as the weapon was employed principally by the Scottish highlanders, who required armament against cavalry.The axe itself is similar to...
, the broadsword
Broadsword
Broadsword may refer to:*Broadsword , a military sword used by heavy cavalry during the 17th to early 19th centuriesIn more modern times, it has also been used to refer to:...
, targe
Targe
Targe was a general word for shield in late Old English. Its diminutive, target, came to mean an object to be aimed at in the 18th century....
& dirk, and the flail. The Highland Dirk
Dirk
A dirk is a short thrusting dagger, sometimes a cut-down sword blade mounted on a dagger hilt rather than a knife blade. It was historically used as a personal weapon for officers engaged in naval hand-to-hand combat during the Age of Sail.-Etymology:...
Dance, resembles a combative dance similar to those of Indonesian pencak silat
Pencak Silat
Pencak silat is an umbrella term for the indigenous martial arts created in Indonesia. The leading organization of pencak silat in Indonesia is IPSI...
, which has the performer executing knife techniques combined with wrestling style kicks, trips, and sweeps.
Chain-sword dance is a group dance in which the dancers first use a sword or other implement (stick, stave, etc.) to link themselves in a chain. In the Hungarian tradition
Culture of Hungary
The culture of Hungary has a distinctive style of its own in Hungary, diverse and varied, starting from the capital city of Budapest on the Danube, to the Great Plain bordering Ukraine. Hungary was formerly one half of Austria-Hungary. Hungary has a rich folk tradition, for example: embroideries,...
, the Erdőbénye
Erdobénye
The village Erdőbénye has 1600 inhabitants and is located 20 km from the town of Tokaj in Northern Hungary. It lies in a valley surrounded by mountains and vineyards, in the middle of the famous wine-region ‘Tokaj-Hegyalja’, in Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen County. The village is one of the centres...
cooper dance represents this form of dance.
Moreška
Moreška
Moreška is a traditional sword dance from the town of Korčula, on the Croatian island of the same name in the Adriatic. Dating back hundreds of years, the Moreška is an elaborate production involving two groups of dancers, engaging in a mock battle over the fate of a veiled young woman...
, a sword dance on the Croatian island of Korčula
Korcula
Korčula is an island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Dubrovnik-Neretva County of Croatia. The island has an area of ; long and on average wide — and lies just off the Dalmatian coast. Its 16,182 inhabitants make it the second most populous Adriatic island after Krk...
in the Adriatic, recalls combat between Christians and Moros (Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
), though in the 19th century the dance changed from Christians vs. Moors to Turks vs. Moors.
Historically, the Hungarian heyduck dance was a soldiers' dance that involved virtuoso whirling of weapons and free-form compositions with battle practice motifs. Such dances also appear in Gypsy, Slovak
Slovaks
The Slovaks, Slovak people, or Slovakians are a West Slavic people that primarily inhabit Slovakia and speak the Slovak language, which is closely related to the Czech language.Most Slovaks today live within the borders of the independent Slovakia...
, Ruthenian
Ruthenians
The name Ruthenian |Rus']]) is a culturally loaded term and has different meanings according to the context in which it is used. Initially, it was the ethnonym used for the East Slavic peoples who lived in Rus'. Later it was used predominantly for Ukrainians...
, and Transylvanian folklore. In many of these areas, the so-called "stick dancing" of shepherds is a reenactment of combat with real weapons.
In a few isolated sections of Europe, a rather savage male combat dance survives. In the villages of the Transylvania
Transylvania
Transylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
Alps and Carpathian
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
mountains, before Twelfth Night
Twelfth Night (holiday)
Twelfth Night is a festival in some branches of Christianity marking the coming of the Epiphany and concluding the Twelve Days of Christmas.It is defined by the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary as "the evening of the fifth of January, preceding Twelfth Day, the eve of the Epiphany, formerly the...
and Whitsun
Whitsun
Whitsun is the name used in the UK for the Christian festival of Pentecost, the seventh Sunday after Easter, which commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Christ's disciples...
day, nine men from nine villages assemble for the Joc de căluşari
Calusari
The Căluşari were the members of a Romanian fraternal secret society who practiced a ritual acrobatic dance known as the căluş. According to the Romanian historian Mircea Eliade, the Calusari were known for "their ability to create the impression of flying in the air" which he believed represented...
or căluş, a rite of initiation. The men engage in fierce battle with sticks, which formerly was bloody and sometimes fatal.
Basque dances
Basque dance
Basque dance is the folk dance by Basque people of Basque Country , -History:From one part of the Basque country to another the music, steps and costumes change, but the collective reveals the Basques’ deep love of dance. There are approximately 400 distinct Basque folk dances, each with its own...
s feature weapons.
The ezpatadantza ("sword dance") comes from the Durango area and is danced for authorities and in the feast of Corpus Christi
Corpus Christi (feast)
Corpus Christi is a Latin Rite solemnity, now designated the solemnity of The Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ . It is also celebrated in some Anglican, Lutheran and Old Catholic Churches. Like Trinity Sunday and the Solemnity of Christ the King, it does not commemorate a particular event in...
.
After the dance, both opposing rows of dancers raise their weapons and form a corridor for the authorities.
The ezpatadantza and the makildantza ("stick dance") employs makila
Makila
The makila is a traditional Basque walking stick, and is notable as both a practical tool and a cultural symbol of authority and strength.-Etymology:...
(traditional Basque walking sticks), and ends with the dancers raising one of them, lying as a fallen warrior, over their heads.
In the Basque
Basque Country (autonomous community)
The Basque Country is an autonomous community of northern Spain. It includes the Basque provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa, also called Historical Territories....
province of Gipuzkoa in Spain, the Okrabario Dantza is performed in Legazpi
Legazpi, Spain
Legazpi is a city in the Gipuzkoa province of the Autonomous Community of Basque Country, northern Spain.Legazpi is a town of about 9000 inhabitants located on top of Urola valley, in Guipuzcoa...
—a sword dance in which a participant dances atop a grid of crossed swords held aloft. In Tolosa
Tolosa, Spain
Tolosa is a town and municipality to the south of Donostia-San Sebastián in the Basque province of Gipuzkoa, Spain. It is located in a valley of the river Oria and overlooked by Uzturre, a white cross-topped mountain.-Famous people from Tolosa:...
, on Midsummer Day, the Bordon-Dantza ("walking stick
Makila
The makila is a traditional Basque walking stick, and is notable as both a practical tool and a cultural symbol of authority and strength.-Etymology:...
dance") is performed with the figures of the ezpatadantza; some point its origins to the border fights in the Middle Ages, when the Castilian troops from Gipuzkoa won an important victory over the troops from Navarre
Navarre
Navarre , officially the Chartered Community of Navarre is an autonomous community in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Country, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and Aquitaine in France...
at the Battle of Beotibar
Beotibar
Beotibar is a Spanish locality near Tolosa in the Gipuzkoa province of northern Spain, in the northeastern part of the autonomous community of the Basque Country...
. Sticks simulate some weapons, and halberd
Halberd
A halberd is a two-handed pole weapon that came to prominent use during the 14th and 15th centuries. Possibly the word halberd comes from the German words Halm , and Barte - in modern-day German, the weapon is called Hellebarde. The halberd consists of an axe blade topped with a spike mounted on...
s—a combination of a spear and a battle-axe—are also used.
Asia
Baris is a traditional dance of BaliBali
Bali is an Indonesian island located in the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, lying between Java to the west and Lombok to the east...
, in which a solo dancer depicts the feelings of a young warrior prior to battle. Originally, Baris was performed as a religious ritual. The dancer may bear a kris
Kris
The kris or keris is an asymmetrical dagger or sword nowadays most strongly associated with the culture of Indonesia, but also indigenous to Malaysia, Southern Thailand and Brunei. It is known as kalis in the southern Philippines. The kris is famous for its distinctive wavy blade , but many have...
, a spear, a bow, or other weapons, depending on the variant performed. The word "Baris" literally means "line" or "file", and referred to the line of soldiers who served the raja
Raja
Raja is an Indian term for a monarch, or princely ruler of the Kshatriya varna...
s of Bali. The dance is usually performed by men in a group with as few as four dancers and as many as
sixty. The ritualistic function of the dance is to show physical maturity by demonstrating military skills, particularly the use of weapons.
The development of art dance, in general, in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
reached its peak during the Tang dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
and then was largely integrated into Chinese Opera
Chinese opera
Chinese opera is a popular form of drama and musical theatre in China with roots going back as far as the third century CE...
practice. Tribal weapon dancing, thus, does not play a part in this tradition. It may, however, be present among the original aboriginal tribes on Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
(The Republic of China).
The Dayak people
Dayak people
The Dayak or Dyak are the native people of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic subgroups, located principally in the interior of Borneo, each with its own dialect, customs, laws, territory and culture, although common distinguishing traits are readily...
of Borneo
Borneo
Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located north of Java Island, Indonesia, at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia....
are renowned for their solo sword dances, which show the skill of a young man using a sharp manda. Also on the island of Borneo one finds the Lotud
Lotud
The Lotud are an indigenous ethnic group residing in Sabah, eastern Malaysia on the island of Borneo. They reside mainly in the Tuaran District to as far as Kampung Sukoli, Telipok in the West Coast Division of Sabah. Their population was estimated at 5,000 in the year 1985 but now believed to be...
, an indigenous
Indigenous peoples of Oceania
The indigenous peoples of Oceania are those peoples identified as indigenous peoples, as per the modern global definition of the term.Many of the present-day Pacific Island nations in the Oceania region were originally populated by Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian peoples over the course of...
ethnic group
Ethnic group
An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy...
residing in Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
. The Lotud are well known for their very colourful costumes and their dances, one of which is the Bakanjar, a war-like dance with a man holding a sword and a shield, originally performed to portray the sword fight and heroic exploits of the headhunting days.
In India, the sword dance Choliya or Saraon of the Kumaon
Kumaon Division
For Kumaoni/Kumauni People see Kumauni PeopleKumaon or Kumaun is one of the two regions and administrative divisions of Uttarakhand, a mountainous state of northern India, the other being Garhwal. It includes the districts of Almora, Bageshwar, Champawat, Nainital, Pithoragarh, and Udham Singh Nagar...
region of the hills of the Indian state of Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand , formerly Uttaranchal, is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the Land of Gods due to the many holy Hindu temples and cities found throughout the state, some of which are among Hinduism's most spiritual and auspicious places of pilgrimage and worship...
started partly due to their long martial tradition and also to give protection to marriage processions. It was also held auspicious and, according to Hindu tradition, warded off evil spirits. It has a very beautiful and graceful form and has techniques which give it the status of a martial art.
Among the traditional weapon dances of India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
is the Shad Sukmynsiem, performed in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya
Meghalaya
Meghalaya is a state in north-eastern India. The word "Meghalaya" literally means the Abode of Clouds in Sanskrit and other Indic languages. Meghalaya is a hilly strip in the eastern part of the country about 300 km long and 100 km wide, with a total area of about 8,700 sq mi . The...
. Both Christians and Hindus may take part as long as they belong to Khasi community. Young lads clad in colourful silk dhotis dance around with a sword or spear in one hand and a plume in the other. The move in a protective circle around an inner circle of young maidens. A popular dance in Mizoram
Mizoram
Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India, sharing borders with the states of Tripura, Assam, Manipur and with the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Burma. Mizoram became the 23rd state of India on 20 February 1987. Its capital is Aizawl. Mizoram is located in the...
in the north-east corner of India is Sawlakin, a word that "means spirit of the slain." Traditionally, the dance was led by the warrior who had hunted a big game or killed a man. He would wear his best clothes and a plume of red feather. He would wield a gun or dao and a shield. He would be followed by other dancers in a row, who would also carry weapons, or cymbals or gongs.
The Pashtuns
Pashtun people
Pashtuns or Pathans , also known as ethnic Afghans , are an Eastern Iranic ethnic group with populations primarily between the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan and the Indus River in Pakistan...
of Afghanistan practice a wide range of weapon dances, including the Khattak Wal Atanrh ( named after the Khattak tribe) and the Mahsood Wal Atanrh (which, in modern times, involves the juggling of loaded rifles). A sub-type of the Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great skill to successfully execute.
Middle East and Asia Minor
There are a number of Arab weapon dances, including the Razha. It was originally practiced at Manga in MuscatMuscat, Oman
Muscat is the capital of Oman. It is also the seat of government and largest city in the Governorate of Muscat. As of 2008, the population of the Muscat metropolitan area was 1,090,797. The metropolitan area spans approximately and includes six provinces called wilayats...
prior to going out on a raid; the object of the dance was to "warm up" for combat to come. Also, on the Arabian peninsula a dance named ard recalls pre-Islamic tribal battles. Two rows of men face one another, clapping, singing, and dancing in a lively manner, accompanied by large frame drums. At the peak of the dance two swordsmen perform a duel between the rows of dancers. The Assyrian
Assyrian people
The Assyrian people are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia...
minority in Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
have a dramatic folk dance called the Shora which commemorates the bloody battles fought by the Ancient Assyrians back in their time consisting of a leader (usually a man) in front with a sword otherwise known as a saypa and a line of men joining together. Generally speaking, a number of dances (also known as razfah or ayyala) of Bedouin
Bedouin
The Bedouin are a part of a predominantly desert-dwelling Arab ethnic group traditionally divided into tribes or clans, known in Arabic as ..-Etymology:...
origin use weapons and have achieved modern popularity in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf
Arab states of the Persian Gulf
"Arab states of the Persian Gulf" or "Arab Persian Gulf states" or "Persian Gulf Arab states" or "Arabic Persian Gulf states" or "Arab States of The Gulf", are terms that refer to the six Arab states of Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and Oman, bordering the Persian Gulf....
and are associated with festive occasions among the non-Bedouin sedentary population.
In Iran there exists the Çûb-Bâzî ("stick game"; or raqs-e çûb, "stick dance"), a dance form that probably has its origins in reenactments of combat. Essentially, an attacker and a defender duel with poles. The çûb-bâzî is “…both a dance and a show of skill and bravery; participants are judged by their abilities in the combat aspects, as well as by their grace in executing the dance movements.”
Africa
In South Africa, such dances as the Zulu Indlamu, the traditional dance most often associated with Zulu culture, is performed with drums and full traditional attire and is derived from the war dances of the warriors. Also, the military influence of the warrior King ShakaShaka
Shaka kaSenzangakhona , also known as Shaka Zulu , was the most influential leader of the Zulu Kingdom....
is reflected in demonstrations of stick fighting (umshiza) with which the male teenagers and men settle their personal differences in a public duel.
The Jerusema (or Mbenede) dance of the Zezuru people in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
is an interesting kind of hybrid war dance—"hybrid" in the sense that music and dance formed a part of the actual battle-field preparations, themselves, as well as of the ritual dance recalling the battle. (The Zezuru are one of the Shona people
Shona people
Shona is the name collectively given to two groups of people in the east and southwest of Zimbabwe, north eastern Botswana and southern Mozambique.-Shona Regional Classification:...
s who were the builders of the great monuments of the Monomotapa kingdom in Zimbabwe between the 10th and 15th centuries.) The dance is a re-creation of a battle strategy developed by the Zezuru in the 19th century against incursions of other tribes in the wake of colonialist expansion of the Boers. The dance, itself, recalls the music and dance used as a diversionary tactic on the battlefield to distract the enemy while Zezuru warriors maneuvered into position; thus, the ritual dance involves the music and dance of the “distractors” as well as warriors with weapons moving into position.
Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
has a long, historical reputation as a place where the weapon dance plays an important cultural role. According to Lucian
Lucian
Lucian of Samosata was a rhetorician and satirist who wrote in the Greek language. He is noted for his witty and scoffing nature.His ethnicity is disputed and is attributed as Assyrian according to Frye and Parpola, and Syrian according to Joseph....
, a Greek writer from the 2nd century, “The Ethiopians dance also during the battle. The Ethiopian never shoots his arrow without dancing and making a menacing gesture beforehand. He wants to frighten the enemy by his dance beforehand.” The broad range of weapon dances includes the hota jumping dance of Amharic males; the attack dance of the Hailefo; the stick-dance of the Kullo; the Beroronsi Hama Haban, a dramatic dagger dance of the Esa; and the shire, the saber dance of the Tigrean
Tigray-Tigrinya people
Tigray-Tigrinya are an ethnic group who live in the southern, central and northern parts of Eritrea and the northern highlands of Ethiopia's Tigray province. They also live in Ethiopia's former provinces of Begemder and Wollo, which are today mostly part of Amhara Region, though a few regions...
nomadic shepherds.
Australia, New Zealand and Polynesia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, there are aboriginal
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
dances that reenact hunting and combat using traditional weapons such as the boomerang. Sometimes two boomerangs are clapped together as a musical instrument to provide sounds for dances.
In New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, Maori have raised the martial art associated with the taiaha
Taiaha
A Taiaha is a traditional weapon of the Māori of New Zealand.It is a wooden, or sometimes whale bone, close quarters, staff weapon used for short sharp strikes or stabbing thrusts with quick footwork on the part of the wielder. Taiaha are usually between in length...
and mere
Mere (weapon)
The mere is a type of short, broad-bladed club , usually made from Nephrite jade . A mere is one of the traditional, close combat, one-handed weapons of the indigenous Māori, of New Zealand. A mere could be used to split a skull open.- Form :The Mere is a spatulate, leaf shaped, form of short club...
to the level of a weapon dance. The haka
Haka
Haka is a traditional ancestral war cry, dance or challenge from the Māori people of New Zealand. It is a posture dance performed by a group, with vigorous movements and stamping of the feet with rhythmically shouted accompaniment...
could also be considered as a weapon dance, as it includes elements of warlike challenge to chanting and musical (sung) accompaniment.
The Nifo oti, or Samoan fire knife dance, is also a kind of weapon dance. The kailao is a standing male war dance of Tonga
Tonga
Tonga, officially the Kingdom of Tonga , is a state and an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, comprising 176 islands scattered over of ocean in the South Pacific...
. The kailao is performed by men (less commonly women also perform it with the men as a mixed dance), who carry clubs or fighting sticks. The performers dance in a fierce manner to emulate combat, all to the accompaniment of a slit drum or a tin box. Additional idiophonic percussion is provided by strung rattles worn on the anklets of the dancers, and the clashing together of the wooden implements of war, which today are either sticks or mock weapons. The dance is unusual for Tonga in that it lacks recited poetry as accompaniment, which fact is taken to mean that it was imported to Tonga from elsewhere.
North and Central America
So-called “war dances” of indigenous North American tribes may also be classified as weapon dances. Recent interest in preserving Native American traditions has led to such groups as The Warriors of AniKituhwa, a CherokeeCherokee
The Cherokee are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States . Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family...
dance group who recreate Cherokee dances, including the war dance, do research and offer dance workshops for their community. A dance such as the Comanche
Comanche
The Comanche are a Native American ethnic group whose historic range consisted of present-day eastern New Mexico, southern Colorado, northeastern Arizona, southern Kansas, all of Oklahoma, and most of northwest Texas. Historically, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers, with a typical Plains Indian...
Sun Dance
Sun Dance
The Sun Dance is a religious ceremony practiced by a number of Native American and First Nations peoples, primarily those of the Plains Nations. Each tribe has its own distinct practices and ceremonial protocols...
of the 1870s was an invocation of invulnerability to the White Man's bullets; the dance was a preliminary ritual to battle and would be a war dance and, hence, a weapon dance.
Also, the moresca (or morisca) (above) exists in some areas in the Americas that used to be Spanish colonies—Mexico, for example.
In the Jamiltepec region of Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
, there exists perhaps the most colorful version of that kind of dance, the Chareos dance. It represents a battle between Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
, led by Pilate, and Christians, led by James, the apostle. Sixteen male dancers take part and the dancer who plays the part of James appears as a horse rider and wears a costume that incorporates a white horse. The dancers wear ostrich feathers on their heads, a peacock feather at the front, white cotton square over their shoulders, velvet trousers decorated with gold brocade over white cotton pants and carry a machete. In addition, the leader has a hat with a small mirror and a white feather headdress. Two men at the front carry two red flags and two white flags, red
Red flag
In politics, a red flag is a symbol of Socialism, or Communism, or sometimes left-wing politics in general. It has been associated with left-wing politics since the French Revolution. Socialists adopted the symbol during the Revolutions of 1848 and it became a symbol of communism as a result of its...
symbolizing the blood spilt by James' soldiers and white
White flag
White flags have had different meanings throughout history and depending on the locale.-Flag of temporary truce in order to parley :...
symbolizing the peace that reigned after the Christian victory. The sounds of drums and flutes accompany the dance. These dances that pit Christian against Moor are almost certainly Christianized versions of earlier, pre-Cortez
Cortez
-People:* Antawn Cortez Jamison , Professional NBA power forward* Dave "Baby" Cortez , American pop music and R&B musician* Gregorio Cortez , Mexican folk hero* Hernán Cortés , Spanish conquistador...
dances that ritualized the battle between the tiger and the eagle.
Similar to the Moor-Christian confrontation of the morisca—whether in Spain or in transplanted versions in Central America—there are also elaborate ritual dances in Mexico such as the Danza de la Pluma that exploit the trauma of the Spanish conquest of indigenous America. Weapons employed may be swords (and shields) whips, even firearms. These representations take place over a large area of Mesoamerica and, in part, are an obvious adaptation of Spanish tradition, but in Mexico will pit the native Aztec against the Spanish invader. The most interesting aspect of these dances is that—depending on where one sees them and under what conditions—it is plausible to read into the dances an outcome other than the historical Spanish victory. That is, indigenous performers may take inspiration from the fact that the natives of Spain drove out the Moorish invaders; thus, the natives of Mesoamerica, too, shall one day drive out the invaders.
Some dances that abound at Carnival and Corpus Christi
Corpus Christi (feast)
Corpus Christi is a Latin Rite solemnity, now designated the solemnity of The Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ . It is also celebrated in some Anglican, Lutheran and Old Catholic Churches. Like Trinity Sunday and the Solemnity of Christ the King, it does not commemorate a particular event in...
fiestas go back to pre-Conquest ritual combat dances of the Aztecs. For example, during the 15th month of the Aztec calendar
Aztec calendar
The Aztec calendar is the calendar system that was used by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of central Mexico. It is one of the Mesoamerican calendars, sharing the basic structure of calendars from throughout ancient Mesoamerica....
, Huitzilopochtli
Huitzilopochtli
In Aztec mythology, Huitzilopochtli, also spelled Uitzilopochtli , was a god of war, a sun god, and the patron of the city of Tenochtitlan. He was also the national god of the Mexicas of Tenochtitlan.- Genealogy :...
, god of the sun and war was honored by real duels between slave victims and mimed battles among masked boy votaries.
Also, among the Náhuatl
Nahuatl
Nahuatl is thought to mean "a good, clear sound" This language name has several spellings, among them náhuatl , Naoatl, Nauatl, Nahuatl, Nawatl. In a back formation from the name of the language, the ethnic group of Nahuatl speakers are called Nahua...
-speaking people in the Pacific Ocean region of Michoacán
Michoacán
Michoacán officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Michoacán de Ocampo is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 113 municipalities and its capital city is Morelia...
, there is the cuauileros dance (the cudgelers' dance). The performance of this dance represents a battle between Aztecs and Spaniards, and dancers perform with rattles made of thin metal plates and wooden cudgels.
South America
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
, the African influence on Brazilian folkdances is considerable. For example, capoeira—a dance-like fighting style—and the maculelê fighting dance are strongly reminiscent of African dances. Capoeira
Capoeira
Capoeira is a Brazilian art form that combines elements of martial arts, sports, and music. It was created in Brazil mainly by descendants of African slaves with Brazilian native influences, probably beginning in the 16th century...
is of particular interest. In the 19th century, Capoeira was played mostly by African slaves who had been brought from West Central Africa, making them the original capoeristas and making the art a complex form of social interaction, expressing the participants' physical skills and spiritual essence, involving the gods and the spirits of the ancestral fathers. The participants played during festivals and holidays, jumping and leaping in front of musical bands, military troops, and religious processions. This dance “game” was considered dangerous to public order and was eventually criminalized in the late 19th century.
Today, capoeira has staged somewhat of a comeback and is even studied in dance academies as part of a general movement to rejuvenate folk traditions. Capoeira may be played unarmed or with blades held in the hands or feet.
The sticks used as mock weapons in some of these dances also serve as percussion instruments. In the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul
Rio Grande do Sul
Rio Grande do Sul is the southernmost state in Brazil, and the state with the fifth highest Human Development Index in the country. In this state is located the southernmost city in the country, Chuí, on the border with Uruguay. In the region of Bento Gonçalves and Caxias do Sul, the largest wine...
, the machete
Machete
The machete is a large cleaver-like cutting tool. The blade is typically long and usually under thick. In the English language, an equivalent term is matchet, though it is less commonly known...
, a tool used to cut jungle brush, is used in a dance called dança dos facões (dance of the machetes). In this dance (historically performed only by men, although this trend changes as the dance spreads), the dancers knock their machetes while dancing, simulating a battle. Machete are sometimes used in place of sticks in Maculelê
Maculelê (dance)
thumb|Maculele in New York.Maculelê is an Afro Brazilian dance where a number of people gather in a circle called a roda....
.
Weapon dance as art
Since dance is already an art form, “weapon dance as art” may seem redundant; yet, “art” is used here to mean the re-creation, say, of a folk weapon dance in a more professional staged venue, such as a ballet, or when an Australian, Native American, or African troupe of professional musicians and dancers present a reenactment on stage of a weapon dance, or when the use of weapons is introduced in stylized dance enactments of fighting. For example, recent ballets such as the New York City Ballet’s version of Romeo and Juliet (to the music of Sergei ProkofievSergei Prokofiev
Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev was a Russian composer, pianist and conductor who mastered numerous musical genres and is regarded as one of the major composers of the 20th century...
) employ highly choreographed sword-fight/dance sequences.
Additionally, there is overlap between weapon dance and stylized forms of stage combat, i.e., choreographed enactments of “real fights,” from bar-room brawls to sword-fighting to large-scale battle scenes. Stage combat uses the services of professionals called “fight directors,” “weapon choreographers,” etc. An early example of this kind of staged combat in Europe was in Italy in the late 19th century, where the term tramagnini came to be used generically in the sense of “extra” or “stunt man” for those who fought on the stage in enactments of battle scenes in grand opera, for example. Tramagnini was originally a family name in Florence and referred to members of the family who started a gymnastics club and soon wound up appearing on stage in enactments of fighting, both bare-handed and with weapons.
Elsewhere, the Kabuki
Kabuki
is classical Japanese dance-drama. Kabuki theatre is known for the stylization of its drama and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers.The individual kanji characters, from left to right, mean sing , dance , and skill...
theater tradition in Japan employs ritualized representations of violence on the stage. While Kabuki is technically theater and not dance, the movements, for example, of the sword-fighting termed tachimawari in Kabuki are gymnastic to the point even of employing somersaults, and elaborate fight scenes are so deliberate and stylized that they provide at least an area of overlap between theater and dance.
Also, the Communist revolution
Chinese Civil War
The Chinese Civil War was a civil war fought between the Kuomintang , the governing party of the Republic of China, and the Communist Party of China , for the control of China which eventually led to China's division into two Chinas, Republic of China and People's Republic of...
in China produced the view that art—including dance—must support the “armed struggle of the proletariat.” By the 1970s, weapons commonly appeared in such works as "Red Detachment of Women,’’ a ballet about a women’s revolutionary armed force in the 1930s in China.
Interesting, perhaps, in the use of weapons in these recent “revolutionary” works is that they are, generally speaking, not reenactments of traditional folk dances. The introduction of weaponry into Chinese ballet—regardless of the revolutionary message—was, itself, a revolution.
Additional reading
- Highwater, Jamake. (1996) Dance: Rituals of Experience. Oxford Uni. Press. ISBN 0-19-511205-9
- Khokar, Ashish Mohan. (2003) Folk Dance Tribal Ritual and Martial Forms. Rupa. ISBN 81-291-0097-5
- Laubin, Reginald. (1989) "Indian Dances of North America: Their Importance in Indian Life" in Civilization of the American Indian Series. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2172-6
- Tribbhuwan, Preeti. Tribal Dances of India. Discovery Pub. House. ISBN 81-7141-443-5
- National Museum of the American Indian (ed. Charlotte Heth). (1993) Native American Dance: Ceremonies and Social Traditions. Fulcrum Publishing. ISBN 1-56373-021-9
- Inglehearn. Madeleine. (1986) "Swedish Sword Dances in the 16th and 17th Centuries" in Early Music, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Aug., 1986), pp. 367–372.