Tram accident
Encyclopedia
A tram accident is generally an accident
in which a tram
is involved (see tram in picture 1). When general traffic safety
is evaluated, as in traffic accident statistics
, any accident involving a tram or a tram system can be considered to be a tram accident (see tram in picture 2 below). Some statistics
concerned with public safety
collect information on any incident in a tram or a tram system.
Tram traffic is typically considered as environmentally friendly
, efficient, comparatively safe and, after investment
s, is a relatively cheap way to transport
passenger
s in cities
. A tram
typically travels at a relatively slow speed in cities, however, light rail vehicles may drive at a speed
of 70 – 100 kilometres per hour (approx. 44 - 60 miles per hour).
may be hit by a tram, a tram can collide with another vehicle
, or drive over a person. A tram can derail
after a collision
, in case of broken track
, if any object on the rail lifts the wheel
from the track, in case of junction
failure, or if a tram drives at far too high speed into a junction or curve. In some cases, a tram may even overturn.
A person may also fall off a tram or, despite safety systems, get jammed between the doors. Persons also fall on the rails while crossing them. Sometimes persons lose control of their vehicle (like a bike) when the wheels run along with the tramway tracks. In some cultures people travel also outside crowded trams, and are in danger of falling off or being trapped between tram cars, or between a tram and any obstacle and vehicle on the road. People may also travel outside trams for fun, for excitement, or under the influence of intoxicants.
A person can also climb over a tram car, or in other ways get in contact with the electric conductors or other electric appliances of a tram, and receive an electric shock
. Occasionally, when a tram brakes rapidly or collides, people may fall within the tram or hit other people or tram structures. In traffic safety statistics, accidents at tram stop
s and in the vicinity are sometimes evaluated. In these accidents, passengers e.g. are hit by a car
while getting off a tram or crossing the street to the tram stop. Even suicide
s, non-movement fatalities like falling from a bridge to electric lines, fires at stations, and "bridge strikes" (a vehicle hits railway bridge structures) can be marked in railway accident statistics. Vandalism may cause damage to tracks, trams, and even lead to derailment of a tram. Violence in trams and at tram stops can be a concern when the safety of trams is assessed. Also the tram driver should be protected against violence and robberies
(see a driver's cabin in picture 3).
.
In Sheffield
, UK
, cyclists appear to be the group at highest risk
to be injured in tram accidents, followed by pedestrian
s and motor vehicle users. In Sheffield
, less than one third of casualties had a fracture
, and approximately every tenth injured person had a hospital
admission. In Gothenburg
, Sweden
a majority of 60 % of fatally injured persons were under the influence of alcohol
. In Gothenburg
, the incidence
of non-fatal injuries was 3 per million tramcar-kilometres, and the mortality
was 0.2 per million tramcar kilometres. Two of 16 fatalities and 1 of 217 non-fatally injury events in 1988 - 1992 were suicide attempts. The most fatal tram accident in Gothenburg
happened when a high-speed runaway tram hit dozens of pedestrian
s and several vehicles. The accident happened after a technician
manually released the brake
s automatically activated after a power failure
.
The mortality of pedestrians hit by a tram seems to be much higher than the mortality of pedestrians hit by a motor vehicle
. Typically most seriously injured people have been caught under or between tramcars. Non-impact absorbing parts at the side of the tram
s may lead to serious head injuries
even at low speed
s. In Austria
, accidents of children at bus
or tram stops were analyzed over a 6-year period. 6 children were injured by trams. Accidents happened while crossing the track, one child ran against a tram, one child was crossing at a crosswalk or looked at wrong traffic light
s. Most of the children hit the side of the tram. In addition, 4 children were injured by a car at a tram stop. In Germany, 18 pedestrians with multiple traumas after tram accidents were evaluated with Multidetector computed tomography. The mean age was 36.9 years with a range from 14–92 years. There was a trend for accident
events occurring more commonly during the winter months in middle-aged men, often under the influence of alcohol. In this study, leading diagnoses
were head (83.3%) and thorax
injuries (66.6%). Abdominal injuries (44.4%) were mainly found patients with complex injuries. The most serious injuries occurred when a victim was caught under or between tramcars.
In the 1990s in Oslo
, Norway
, tram transport amounted to 3 million vehicle-kilometers per year with approx. 25 – 30 collision
s with pedestrian
s or bicyclists, 60 accident
s with travelers on board the tram or during boarding/leaving, and 600 collisions with cars. In 1982–1995 there were 10 fatalities of the pedestrians, mostly when a pedestrian stepped into the street without noticing the approaching tram, very often against red traffic light. Another common accident was a pedestrian crossing the street so close to the front of a stationary tram that he was not observed by the driver. 30 % of collisions with cars happened with stationary cars stopped or parked too close to the tram tracks. 10 % of collisions happened between trams and buses, and remaining 60 % of collisions happened mostly with moving cars. This report analyzed 200 accident reports. It was recognized that more than half of the collisions between tram and car were caused by errors by the car driver only. 25 % of the accidents were caused due to an error by tram driver. 25 % of the accidents were caused by more complex causal patterns. About 2/3 of pedestrian accidents were caused by errors of the pedestrian only, tram driver error was very seldom the main cause. For passengers falling in the tram, errors by other road users were an important causal factor, necessitating the heavy braking of the tram. In addition, fewer accidents seemed to happen with older tram drivers and on tracks segregated from other traffic.
In Victoria
, Australia
, injuries among adults 65 years and over were investigated. While falls (3382 cases) were mentioned as the major feature of injury
, two adults were hit by a car when crossing a road to a tram. In the Department of Forensic Medicine in Bydgoszcz, Poland
, 81 autopsies
were performed on people who died in accidents involving rail vehicles in 1992-2002. 20% of the victims died in tram accidents, and 80% died in train accidents. The most common reason for death
was a multiorgan failure
. In tram accidents, 86% of the victims were male
. The victims of tram accidents did not suffer injuries of the highest severity like amputation
s.
In Helsinki
, Finland
, more than 200 collisions happened between tram
s and vehicle
s in 2009. Most of the accidents happened when a car driver turned his vehicle
in front of a tram
. 29 persons were injured, but no one died. If all small touches between tram
s and car mirrors
are included, 347 accident
s happened in 2009. Helsinki
is a city
of approx. 590 000 inhabitants, 9 tram routes in the inner city
, 130 tram, 49,5 kilometers of tram routes and approx. 200 000 passengers on tram per day. These figures can be compared with the 5,37 million kilometres driven by trams in Helsinki
in 2008.
In some countries accident investigation boards
investigate all serious rail accident
s and hazardous situations that may have led to a serious accident
. These investigations are detailed analysis
on the causes
and consequences of the accident
s. Investigations create information and recommendations to prevent further accident
s. The investigations can be required by law
. Systematic guides can determine minimum requirements for an analysis
.
An example of an accident analysis
is a collision
of two tram
s in Helsinki
, Finland
in 2008. This 101-page analysis
contains information on:
- accident (place, time, type of vehicle
s, information on passenger
s, weather
, injuries
, damages
, and communication
)
- investigation of railtrack
, safety equipment, communications equipment, organizations, drivers and their education, rescue organizations, event recorders
, voice recorders (emergency dispatch center, rescue organizations), regulations, recommendations, police
investigation and other investigations
- - analysis
of the accident
, accident scene, tram
, driver, rescue
work, and capacity of hospital
s
- conclusions (statements and causes of the accident
)
- measures that have been taken
- recommendations and
- reference
s, testimonials, technical tests and measurements.
In the accident
in Helsinki 2008, two passenger
s were severely injured
, and a tram
driver and 22 passenger
s were slightly injured
. The cause of the accident
was that the driver of the tram
approaching from behind was not able to stop the tram
in time. The driver apparently tried to stop the tram
via incorrect braking
methods in the belief that the brake
s were not working properly. The background factors were the driver’s inexperience, the possibility that the driver anticipated
the tram
ahead would leave the stop earlier, and driver’s suspicion that brake
s were not working properly and therefore the use of the incorrect braking
method. In order to prevent similar accident
s, it was recommended that tram drivers be taught to brake in a proper way, and the drivers should be provided with a personalized and progressive training program with documented performance. It was also recommended that the tram floor hatches
should be better fastened to prevent causing injuries
to passenger
s, and tram
s should be equipped with a first aid kit
.
In addition, rail accident investigations can analyze previous occurrences of a similar character.
Some national authorities keep statistics on tramway incidents. An example of an authority collecting accident and incident reports from national authorities is the European Railway Agency
. The Agency has a public safety database on railway licences, certificates, safety indicators, national safety rules, and accident investigations. In the European Union
, the safety of railways has been regulated with directives
, which also require e.g. the collection of common safety indicator statistics from member countries. In the EU, common safety methods (CSMs) and common safety targets (CSTs) have been set for European railways.
s should be safe and minimize damage in case of accidents. Various kind of stress factors and forces should be calculated and assessed to create a tram system with diminished possibility of structural failures, derailments etc. In case a tram rides in a tunnel
or on a bridge
, various fire
, derailment, and entrapment safety measures should be thought about.
Structural design of trams can minimize the risks to tram drivers, tram passengers, pedestrians, and passengers in other vehicles in various kinds of tram-to-tram, tram-to-vehicle, and tram-to-pedestrian collisions. A European standard is being prepared for crashworthiness for railway vehicle bodies. The trams may contain emergency brake
s. Protective shields in the front of the tram, "catching" people, avoid them getting underneath the tram (see an emergency hammer in picture 4 and a catcher in picture 5). In Toronto the CLRV streetcars have a skirt added to the front of the car covering the coupler. It was added to prevent passengers from being dragged under the car's wheels. Trams should be designed to have impact absorbing materials in front and side constructions. Lifting points can be marked for fire brigades to help rescuers to find safe and strong enough parts of the tram when e.g. lifting a tram to rescue a patient underneath it. Inside the tram the structures should also contain impact absorbing materials and round shapes instead of sharp edges (see interior material in picture 5). Automatic door controlling sensors decrease the possibility of entrapment injuries (see a tram door in picture 7). Handrails may prevent people falling in acceleration
, curves and braking. Especially elderly people need seats and time to find one and sit before the tram moves. Trams can contain fire safe materials like low smoke and halogen-free cables, driver's vigilance control systems
, and programmable logic speed controllers.
The fire brigades may carry special tools for tram accidents, like heavy extrication tools, grounding
equipment, and hydraulic lifting jacks for trams. Some trams are able to drop some sand
on the rails to increase the friction
during emergency braking. Interestingly, the most slippery season
for trams is not necessarily an icy winter, but seasons when leaves
fall from tree
s. A brush car can be used to clear the rails.
A quality system
may guide the safety of a tram system. A tram system may have a control centre following the trams, having radio
contact with the drivers, and ability to contact and guide guards
, emergency dispatch centre, or repair patrols. A tram typically carries first aid kit
, a radio and/or a phone, some tool
s, and a fire extinguisher
. Basic first aid
, prodromic driving manners, safety courses, and protocols to follow in an accident
are taught to tram drivers. Some organizations may test the drivers for alcohol
and/or drug
s regularly, occasionally, and/or in case of suspicion to avoid driving under the influence
. Also the health
of the drivers can be assessed regularly or in case of need. Some organizations can also give education
to drivers and re-evaluate their skills and manners regularly. Also rescue organizations can be informed on tram structures, electricity, risks, and specific rescue and firefighting tactics concerning trams. Rescue organizations can also train with trams in simulated accident and firefighting situations.
Various cities and traffic companies have given safety and traffic instructions for passengers, pedestrian, wheelchair users, cyclists, and motorists. These instructions tell how to behave in traffic to avoid accidents. For example, the instructions advise not to obstruct the tramway, suggest motorists avoid driving directly on the track, and tell the pedestrians to use designated crossways and to look both ways before crossing the tracks. Local tram regulations may give requirements for the passengers e.g. not to carry flammable, soiling or destructive chemicals or too space-blocking packages in trams. Enlightenment of children and adults can be done also by using games and test.
Some cities or areas have systemically developed new safety systems and planned new, safer tram stops even in new locations (see a tram stop in picture 7). These measures have included e.g. accessible tram stops, safety staff, road-based improvements like speed hump
s near tram stops, better lighting
of tram stops, raised dividing strips to separate trams and motorists, traffic light sequence changes, and electronic flashing “give way to trams” signs to warn other traffic in places where necessary (see warning signs in picture 9).
Naturally the state of traffic legislation
, traffic culture, and safety culture
in the tram and traffic system may have an influence on tram accidents. Tram stops can be separated with barriers from the street. Speed limit
s can be used near the tram stops, and strips painted between tram tracks. Tram lanes can be also separated from other traffic. Trams may have their own traffic lights, which are integrated to work with normal traffic lights and stop the traffic when a tram stops at a tram stop. In some areas the junctions are warmed during winter to avoid ice and snow
disturbing the functioning of the junction (see a warmed junction in picture 10). Tracks, junctions, trams, tram traffic lights etc. should be regularly inspected and maintained.
and various electrical devices in a tram can create a risk in firefighting and rescue operations
(see overhead lines
in picture 12). Amont the first missions in an accidents is prevention of further accidents, additional damages and injuries (see an accident scene in gallery picture 1). The emergency dispatch centers may have strategies and emergency response guides prepared for various kinds of tram accidents. The response guides can contain information on e.g. what emergency response units
(police
, ambulance
, fire apparatus
, investigation units etc.) are sent to the accident scene in various kind of accidents (fire, derailment, collision, pedestrian hit by a tram etc.). Also hospital
s can be alerted in major accidents.
At the accident scene, a ground connection is used to prevent electric shocks from overhead lines
(see an emergency ground connection in gallery picture 2). The accident scene is isolated, and police
or fire brigade controls the traffic. The accident scene is surveyed, and in the case of several injured persons, a triage
process or other recognition of patients’ states is done. The most critically injured patients get more, faster, and better quality attention and treatment. In the case of a patient
underneath a tram, lifting bags or hydraulic jacks brought by fire brigades can be used to elevate the tram and release the patient (see lifting points in picture 10) and a tow car lifting a tram in gallery picture 3). A crane
can be used to lift a tram, too, or an overturned tram. If a patient is trapped inside crushed structures, various kinds of extrication tools, like hydraulic spreaders, rams, cutters, and circular saw
s can be used. In some cases, it is also possible to drive the tram backwards, but in most cases this would only cause more injuries to the victim. While cutting
, lifting or turning an overturned tram or vehicle, structures often have to be stabilized to avoid the movement of the vehicle, to prevent the risk of movements of suspension, and to avoid falling of lifted vehicles on the patient or the members of the rescue crew.
Cranes, tow trucks, hydraulic jacks and rollers can be used to move a derailed tram back to its rails (see a roller and winching in gallery picture 4 and gallery picture 5).
After the patients have been treated and transported, a police investigation
on the scene continues. The victims and witness
es can be interviewed on the scene, or later. After investigation the vehicles which collided are allowed to be moved from the scene. In severe accidents, special traffic or accident investigation boards may analyze the accident and its consequences, and give recommendations to improve safety in traffic. After the accident, the accident scene shoulde be cleaned. The tram, the tracks and the overhead lines may need repair (see gallery picture 6, gallery picture 7, and gallery picture 8).
In Helsinki
, Finland
, the emergency dispatch center automatically sends a special tram rescue unit
in case of tram fire
s and serious tram accidents. The unit is able to operate also in flood and snow. Tram rescue units are typically built for various kind of rescue operations, to move automobile
s parked on tram tracks, and to tow and derail trams (see a German
tram towtruck in picture 13).
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
in which a tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
is involved (see tram in picture 1). When general traffic safety
Safety
Safety is the state of being "safe" , the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be...
is evaluated, as in traffic accident statistics
Statistics
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments....
, any accident involving a tram or a tram system can be considered to be a tram accident (see tram in picture 2 below). Some statistics
Statistics
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments....
concerned with public safety
Public Safety
Public safety involves the prevention of and protection from events that could endanger the safety of the general public from significant danger, injury/harm, or damage, such as crimes or disasters .-See also:* By nation...
collect information on any incident in a tram or a tram system.
Tram traffic is typically considered as environmentally friendly
Environmentally friendly
Environmentally friendly are terms used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies claimed to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment....
, efficient, comparatively safe and, after investment
Investment
Investment has different meanings in finance and economics. Finance investment is putting money into something with the expectation of gain, that upon thorough analysis, has a high degree of security for the principal amount, as well as security of return, within an expected period of time...
s, is a relatively cheap way to transport
Transport
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, cattle, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations...
passenger
Passenger
A passenger is a term broadly used to describe any person who travels in a vehicle, but bears little or no responsibility for the tasks required for that vehicle to arrive at its destination....
s in cities
City
A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement. Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.For example, in the U.S...
. A tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
typically travels at a relatively slow speed in cities, however, light rail vehicles may drive at a speed
Speed
In kinematics, the speed of an object is the magnitude of its velocity ; it is thus a scalar quantity. The average speed of an object in an interval of time is the distance traveled by the object divided by the duration of the interval; the instantaneous speed is the limit of the average speed as...
of 70 – 100 kilometres per hour (approx. 44 - 60 miles per hour).
Accident types
However, accidents do happen, and some accidents seem to be serious for light traffic. In tram accidents, a personPerson
A person is a human being, or an entity that has certain capacities or attributes strongly associated with being human , for example in a particular moral or legal context...
may be hit by a tram, a tram can collide with another vehicle
Vehicle
A vehicle is a device that is designed or used to transport people or cargo. Most often vehicles are manufactured, such as bicycles, cars, motorcycles, trains, ships, boats, and aircraft....
, or drive over a person. A tram can derail
Derailment
A derailment is an accident on a railway or tramway in which a rail vehicle, or part or all of a train, leaves the tracks on which it is travelling, with consequent damage and in many cases injury and/or death....
after a collision
Collision
A collision is an isolated event which two or more moving bodies exert forces on each other for a relatively short time.Although the most common colloquial use of the word "collision" refers to accidents in which two or more objects collide, the scientific use of the word "collision" implies...
, in case of broken track
Tramway track
Tramway track is used on tramways or light rail operations. Grooved rails are often used in order to make street running feasible...
, if any object on the rail lifts the wheel
Wheel
A wheel is a device that allows heavy objects to be moved easily through rotating on an axle through its center, facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, or performing labor in machines. Common examples found in transport applications. A wheel, together with an axle,...
from the track, in case of junction
Junction (rail)
A junction, in the context of rail transport, is a place at which two or more rail routes converge or diverge.This implies a physical connection between the tracks of the two routes , 'points' and signalling.one or two tracks each meet at a junction, a fairly simple layout of tracks suffices to...
failure, or if a tram drives at far too high speed into a junction or curve. In some cases, a tram may even overturn.
A person may also fall off a tram or, despite safety systems, get jammed between the doors. Persons also fall on the rails while crossing them. Sometimes persons lose control of their vehicle (like a bike) when the wheels run along with the tramway tracks. In some cultures people travel also outside crowded trams, and are in danger of falling off or being trapped between tram cars, or between a tram and any obstacle and vehicle on the road. People may also travel outside trams for fun, for excitement, or under the influence of intoxicants.
A person can also climb over a tram car, or in other ways get in contact with the electric conductors or other electric appliances of a tram, and receive an electric shock
Electric shock
Electric Shock of a body with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient current through the skin, muscles or hair. Typically, the expression is used to denote an unwanted exposure to electricity, hence the effects are considered undesirable....
. Occasionally, when a tram brakes rapidly or collides, people may fall within the tram or hit other people or tram structures. In traffic safety statistics, accidents at tram stop
Tram stop
A tram stop is a place designated for a tram to stop so passengers can board or alight it. Tram stops share most characteristics of bus stops, but because trams operate on rails, they often include railway platforms, especially if stepless entries are provided for accessibility...
s and in the vicinity are sometimes evaluated. In these accidents, passengers e.g. are hit by a car
Čar
Čar is a village in the municipality of Bujanovac, Serbia. According to the 2002 census, the town has a population of 296 people.-References:...
while getting off a tram or crossing the street to the tram stop. Even suicide
Suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Suicide is often committed out of despair or attributed to some underlying mental disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, alcoholism, or drug abuse...
s, non-movement fatalities like falling from a bridge to electric lines, fires at stations, and "bridge strikes" (a vehicle hits railway bridge structures) can be marked in railway accident statistics. Vandalism may cause damage to tracks, trams, and even lead to derailment of a tram. Violence in trams and at tram stops can be a concern when the safety of trams is assessed. Also the tram driver should be protected against violence and robberies
Robbery
Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. At common law, robbery is defined as taking the property of another, with the intent to permanently deprive the person of that property, by means of force or fear....
(see a driver's cabin in picture 3).
Analysis and consequences
Very limited information on tram accidents exists in scientific literatureScientific literature
Scientific literature comprises scientific publications that report original empirical and theoretical work in the natural and social sciences, and within a scientific field is often abbreviated as the literature. Academic publishing is the process of placing the results of one's research into the...
.
In Sheffield
Sheffield
Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough of South Yorkshire, England. Its name derives from the River Sheaf, which runs through the city. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and with some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its largely...
, UK
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, cyclists appear to be the group at highest risk
Risk
Risk is the potential that a chosen action or activity will lead to a loss . The notion implies that a choice having an influence on the outcome exists . Potential losses themselves may also be called "risks"...
to be injured in tram accidents, followed by pedestrian
Pedestrian
A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In some communities, those traveling using roller skates or skateboards are also considered to be pedestrians. In modern times, the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road or footpath, but this was not the case...
s and motor vehicle users. In Sheffield
Sheffield
Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough of South Yorkshire, England. Its name derives from the River Sheaf, which runs through the city. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and with some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its largely...
, less than one third of casualties had a fracture
Bone fracture
A bone fracture is a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone...
, and approximately every tenth injured person had a hospital
Hospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment. Hospitals often, but not always, provide for inpatient care or longer-term patient stays....
admission. In Gothenburg
Gothenburg
Gothenburg is the second-largest city in Sweden and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries. Situated on the west coast of Sweden, the city proper has a population of 519,399, with 549,839 in the urban area and total of 937,015 inhabitants in the metropolitan area...
, Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
a majority of 60 % of fatally injured persons were under the influence of alcohol
Alcoholic beverage
An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits. They are legally consumed in most countries, and over 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption...
. In Gothenburg
Gothenburg
Gothenburg is the second-largest city in Sweden and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries. Situated on the west coast of Sweden, the city proper has a population of 519,399, with 549,839 in the urban area and total of 937,015 inhabitants in the metropolitan area...
, the incidence
Incidence (epidemiology)
Incidence is a measure of the risk of developing some new condition within a specified period of time. Although sometimes loosely expressed simply as the number of new cases during some time period, it is better expressed as a proportion or a rate with a denominator.Incidence proportion is the...
of non-fatal injuries was 3 per million tramcar-kilometres, and the mortality
Mortality rate
Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time...
was 0.2 per million tramcar kilometres. Two of 16 fatalities and 1 of 217 non-fatally injury events in 1988 - 1992 were suicide attempts. The most fatal tram accident in Gothenburg
Gothenburg
Gothenburg is the second-largest city in Sweden and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries. Situated on the west coast of Sweden, the city proper has a population of 519,399, with 549,839 in the urban area and total of 937,015 inhabitants in the metropolitan area...
happened when a high-speed runaway tram hit dozens of pedestrian
Pedestrian
A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In some communities, those traveling using roller skates or skateboards are also considered to be pedestrians. In modern times, the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road or footpath, but this was not the case...
s and several vehicles. The accident happened after a technician
Technician
A technician is a worker in a field of technology who is proficient in the relevant skills and techniques, with a relatively practical understanding of the theoretical principles. Experienced technicians in a specific tool domain typically have intermediate understanding of theory and expert...
manually released the brake
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes....
s automatically activated after a power failure
Power outage
A power outage is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area.There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network...
.
Motor vehicle
A motor vehicle or road vehicle is a self-propelled wheeled vehicle that does not operate on rails, such as trains or trolleys. The vehicle propulsion is provided by an engine or motor, usually by an internal combustion engine, or an electric motor, or some combination of the two, such as hybrid...
. Typically most seriously injured people have been caught under or between tramcars. Non-impact absorbing parts at the side of the tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
s may lead to serious head injuries
Head injury
Head injury refers to trauma of the head. This may or may not include injury to the brain. However, the terms traumatic brain injury and head injury are often used interchangeably in medical literature....
even at low speed
Speed
In kinematics, the speed of an object is the magnitude of its velocity ; it is thus a scalar quantity. The average speed of an object in an interval of time is the distance traveled by the object divided by the duration of the interval; the instantaneous speed is the limit of the average speed as...
s. In Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, accidents of children at bus
Bus stop
A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to board or leave a bus. These are normally positioned on the highway and are distinct from off-highway facilities such as bus stations. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage...
or tram stops were analyzed over a 6-year period. 6 children were injured by trams. Accidents happened while crossing the track, one child ran against a tram, one child was crossing at a crosswalk or looked at wrong traffic light
Traffic light
Traffic lights, which may also be known as stoplights, traffic lamps, traffic signals, signal lights, robots or semaphore, are signalling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings and other locations to control competing flows of traffic...
s. Most of the children hit the side of the tram. In addition, 4 children were injured by a car at a tram stop. In Germany, 18 pedestrians with multiple traumas after tram accidents were evaluated with Multidetector computed tomography. The mean age was 36.9 years with a range from 14–92 years. There was a trend for accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
events occurring more commonly during the winter months in middle-aged men, often under the influence of alcohol. In this study, leading diagnoses
Medical diagnosis
Medical diagnosis refers both to the process of attempting to determine or identify a possible disease or disorder , and to the opinion reached by this process...
were head (83.3%) and thorax
Thorax
The thorax is a division of an animal's body that lies between the head and the abdomen.-In tetrapods:...
injuries (66.6%). Abdominal injuries (44.4%) were mainly found patients with complex injuries. The most serious injuries occurred when a victim was caught under or between tramcars.
In the 1990s in Oslo
Oslo
Oslo is a municipality, as well as the capital and most populous city in Norway. As a municipality , it was established on 1 January 1838. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III of Norway, the city was largely destroyed by fire in 1624. The city was moved under the reign of Denmark–Norway's King...
, Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
, tram transport amounted to 3 million vehicle-kilometers per year with approx. 25 – 30 collision
Collision
A collision is an isolated event which two or more moving bodies exert forces on each other for a relatively short time.Although the most common colloquial use of the word "collision" refers to accidents in which two or more objects collide, the scientific use of the word "collision" implies...
s with pedestrian
Pedestrian
A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In some communities, those traveling using roller skates or skateboards are also considered to be pedestrians. In modern times, the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road or footpath, but this was not the case...
s or bicyclists, 60 accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
s with travelers on board the tram or during boarding/leaving, and 600 collisions with cars. In 1982–1995 there were 10 fatalities of the pedestrians, mostly when a pedestrian stepped into the street without noticing the approaching tram, very often against red traffic light. Another common accident was a pedestrian crossing the street so close to the front of a stationary tram that he was not observed by the driver. 30 % of collisions with cars happened with stationary cars stopped or parked too close to the tram tracks. 10 % of collisions happened between trams and buses, and remaining 60 % of collisions happened mostly with moving cars. This report analyzed 200 accident reports. It was recognized that more than half of the collisions between tram and car were caused by errors by the car driver only. 25 % of the accidents were caused due to an error by tram driver. 25 % of the accidents were caused by more complex causal patterns. About 2/3 of pedestrian accidents were caused by errors of the pedestrian only, tram driver error was very seldom the main cause. For passengers falling in the tram, errors by other road users were an important causal factor, necessitating the heavy braking of the tram. In addition, fewer accidents seemed to happen with older tram drivers and on tracks segregated from other traffic.
In Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, injuries among adults 65 years and over were investigated. While falls (3382 cases) were mentioned as the major feature of injury
Injury
-By cause:*Traumatic injury, a body wound or shock produced by sudden physical injury, as from violence or accident*Other injuries from external physical causes, such as radiation injury, burn injury or frostbite*Injury from infection...
, two adults were hit by a car when crossing a road to a tram. In the Department of Forensic Medicine in Bydgoszcz, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
, 81 autopsies
Autopsy
An autopsy—also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy , autopsia cadaverum, or obduction—is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present...
were performed on people who died in accidents involving rail vehicles in 1992-2002. 20% of the victims died in tram accidents, and 80% died in train accidents. The most common reason for death
Death
Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation, malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury....
was a multiorgan failure
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome
Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome ', previously known as multiple organ failure or multisystem organ failure , is altered organ function in an acutely ill patient requiring medical intervention to achieve homeostasis...
. In tram accidents, 86% of the victims were male
Male
Male refers to the biological sex of an organism, or part of an organism, which produces small mobile gametes, called spermatozoa. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a larger female gamete or ovum, in the process of fertilization...
. The victims of tram accidents did not suffer injuries of the highest severity like amputation
Amputation
Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma, prolonged constriction, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for...
s.
In Helsinki
Helsinki
Helsinki is the capital and largest city in Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, located in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The population of the city of Helsinki is , making it by far the most populous municipality in Finland. Helsinki is...
, Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, more than 200 collisions happened between tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
s and vehicle
Vehicle
A vehicle is a device that is designed or used to transport people or cargo. Most often vehicles are manufactured, such as bicycles, cars, motorcycles, trains, ships, boats, and aircraft....
s in 2009. Most of the accidents happened when a car driver turned his vehicle
Vehicle
A vehicle is a device that is designed or used to transport people or cargo. Most often vehicles are manufactured, such as bicycles, cars, motorcycles, trains, ships, boats, and aircraft....
in front of a tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
. 29 persons were injured, but no one died. If all small touches between tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
s and car mirrors
Rear-view mirror
A rear-view mirror is a mirror in automobiles and other vehicles, designed to allow the driver to see rearward through the vehicle's backlight ....
are included, 347 accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
s happened in 2009. Helsinki
Helsinki
Helsinki is the capital and largest city in Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, located in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The population of the city of Helsinki is , making it by far the most populous municipality in Finland. Helsinki is...
is a city
City
A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement. Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.For example, in the U.S...
of approx. 590 000 inhabitants, 9 tram routes in the inner city
Inner city
The inner city is the central area of a major city or metropolis. In the United States, Canada, United Kingdom and Ireland, the term is often applied to the lower-income residential districts in the city centre and nearby areas...
, 130 tram, 49,5 kilometers of tram routes and approx. 200 000 passengers on tram per day. These figures can be compared with the 5,37 million kilometres driven by trams in Helsinki
Helsinki
Helsinki is the capital and largest city in Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, located in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The population of the city of Helsinki is , making it by far the most populous municipality in Finland. Helsinki is...
in 2008.
In some countries accident investigation boards
Accident Analysis
Accident analysis is carried out in order to determine the cause or causes of an accident or series of accidents so as to prevent further incidents of a similar kind. It is also known as accident investigation. It may be performed by a range of experts, including forensic scientists, forensic...
investigate all serious rail accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
s and hazardous situations that may have led to a serious accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
. These investigations are detailed analysis
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle , though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.The word is...
on the causes
Causality
Causality is the relationship between an event and a second event , where the second event is understood as a consequence of the first....
and consequences of the accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
s. Investigations create information and recommendations to prevent further accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
s. The investigations can be required by law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
. Systematic guides can determine minimum requirements for an analysis
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle , though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.The word is...
.
An example of an accident analysis
Accident Analysis
Accident analysis is carried out in order to determine the cause or causes of an accident or series of accidents so as to prevent further incidents of a similar kind. It is also known as accident investigation. It may be performed by a range of experts, including forensic scientists, forensic...
is a collision
Collision
A collision is an isolated event which two or more moving bodies exert forces on each other for a relatively short time.Although the most common colloquial use of the word "collision" refers to accidents in which two or more objects collide, the scientific use of the word "collision" implies...
of two tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
s in Helsinki
Helsinki
Helsinki is the capital and largest city in Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, located in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The population of the city of Helsinki is , making it by far the most populous municipality in Finland. Helsinki is...
, Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
in 2008. This 101-page analysis
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle , though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.The word is...
contains information on:
- accident (place, time, type of vehicle
Vehicle
A vehicle is a device that is designed or used to transport people or cargo. Most often vehicles are manufactured, such as bicycles, cars, motorcycles, trains, ships, boats, and aircraft....
s, information on passenger
Passenger
A passenger is a term broadly used to describe any person who travels in a vehicle, but bears little or no responsibility for the tasks required for that vehicle to arrive at its destination....
s, weather
Weather
Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate...
, injuries
Injury
-By cause:*Traumatic injury, a body wound or shock produced by sudden physical injury, as from violence or accident*Other injuries from external physical causes, such as radiation injury, burn injury or frostbite*Injury from infection...
, damages
Damages
In law, damages is an award, typically of money, to be paid to a person as compensation for loss or injury; grammatically, it is a singular noun, not plural.- Compensatory damages :...
, and communication
Communication
Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast...
)
- investigation of railtrack
Railtrack
Railtrack was a group of companies that owned the track, signalling, tunnels, bridges, level crossings and all but a handful of the stations of the British railway system from its formation in April 1994 until 2002...
, safety equipment, communications equipment, organizations, drivers and their education, rescue organizations, event recorders
Black Box (transportation)
The term black box is a placeholder name used casually to refer to a collection of several different recording devices used in transportation: the flight recorders in aircraft, the event recorder in railway locomotives, the event data recorder in automobiles, message case in ships, and other...
, voice recorders (emergency dispatch center, rescue organizations), regulations, recommendations, police
Police
The police is a personification of the state designated to put in practice the enforced law, protect property and reduce civil disorder in civilian matters. Their powers include the legitimized use of force...
investigation and other investigations
- - analysis
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle , though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.The word is...
of the accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
, accident scene, tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
, driver, rescue
Rescue
Rescue refers to responsive operations that usually involve the saving of life, or prevention of injury during an incident or dangerous situation....
work, and capacity of hospital
Hospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment. Hospitals often, but not always, provide for inpatient care or longer-term patient stays....
s
- conclusions (statements and causes of the accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
)
- measures that have been taken
- recommendations and
- reference
Reference
Reference is derived from Middle English referren, from Middle French rèférer, from Latin referre, "to carry back", formed from the prefix re- and ferre, "to bear"...
s, testimonials, technical tests and measurements.
In the accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
in Helsinki 2008, two passenger
Passenger
A passenger is a term broadly used to describe any person who travels in a vehicle, but bears little or no responsibility for the tasks required for that vehicle to arrive at its destination....
s were severely injured
Injury
-By cause:*Traumatic injury, a body wound or shock produced by sudden physical injury, as from violence or accident*Other injuries from external physical causes, such as radiation injury, burn injury or frostbite*Injury from infection...
, and a tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
driver and 22 passenger
Passenger
A passenger is a term broadly used to describe any person who travels in a vehicle, but bears little or no responsibility for the tasks required for that vehicle to arrive at its destination....
s were slightly injured
Injury
-By cause:*Traumatic injury, a body wound or shock produced by sudden physical injury, as from violence or accident*Other injuries from external physical causes, such as radiation injury, burn injury or frostbite*Injury from infection...
. The cause of the accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
was that the driver of the tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
approaching from behind was not able to stop the tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
in time. The driver apparently tried to stop the tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
via incorrect braking
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes....
methods in the belief that the brake
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes....
s were not working properly. The background factors were the driver’s inexperience, the possibility that the driver anticipated
Anticipation
Anticipation can refer to:* Anticipation , a 1971 album by Carly Simon* Anticipation , the title track of this album* Anticipation , a 2008 comedy album by Lewis Black*Anticipation...
the tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
ahead would leave the stop earlier, and driver’s suspicion that brake
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes....
s were not working properly and therefore the use of the incorrect braking
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes....
method. In order to prevent similar accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
s, it was recommended that tram drivers be taught to brake in a proper way, and the drivers should be provided with a personalized and progressive training program with documented performance. It was also recommended that the tram floor hatches
Trapdoor
A trapdoor is a door set into a floor or ceiling .Originally, trapdoors were sack traps in mills, and allowed the sacks to pass up through the mill while naturally falling back to a closed position....
should be better fastened to prevent causing injuries
Injury
-By cause:*Traumatic injury, a body wound or shock produced by sudden physical injury, as from violence or accident*Other injuries from external physical causes, such as radiation injury, burn injury or frostbite*Injury from infection...
to passenger
Passenger
A passenger is a term broadly used to describe any person who travels in a vehicle, but bears little or no responsibility for the tasks required for that vehicle to arrive at its destination....
s, and tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
s should be equipped with a first aid kit
First aid kit
A first aid kit is a collection of supplies and equipment for use in giving first aid, and can put together for the purpose , or purchased complete...
.
In addition, rail accident investigations can analyze previous occurrences of a similar character.
Some national authorities keep statistics on tramway incidents. An example of an authority collecting accident and incident reports from national authorities is the European Railway Agency
European Railway Agency
The European Railway Agency is one of the agencies of the European Union. The decision to set up the agency was made in April 2004. The agency has two main sites, both in Nord Department, France...
. The Agency has a public safety database on railway licences, certificates, safety indicators, national safety rules, and accident investigations. In the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
, the safety of railways has been regulated with directives
European Union directive
A directive is a legislative act of the European Union, which requires member states to achieve a particular result without dictating the means of achieving that result. It can be distinguished from regulations which are self-executing and do not require any implementing measures. Directives...
, which also require e.g. the collection of common safety indicator statistics from member countries. In the EU, common safety methods (CSMs) and common safety targets (CSTs) have been set for European railways.
Safety measures
When evaluating general traffic safety, the safety of tram lines, train and tram crossings are mentioned to be an area deserving special attention. Injury-reducing measures in the vehicle design and in the traffic area, especially at and near tram stops, might reduce the injuries caused by trams. The trams, tracks, and the environment of a tram systems should be physically planned as safely as possible. Even physical structureStructure
Structure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society...
s should be safe and minimize damage in case of accidents. Various kind of stress factors and forces should be calculated and assessed to create a tram system with diminished possibility of structural failures, derailments etc. In case a tram rides in a tunnel
Tunnel
A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for egress, commonly at each end.A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers...
or on a bridge
Bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle...
, various fire
Fire
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition....
, derailment, and entrapment safety measures should be thought about.
Emergency brake
On trains, the expression emergency brake has several meanings:* The maximum brake force available to the driver/engineer from his conventional braking system, usually operated by taking the brake handle to its furthest postion, through a gate mechanism, or by pushing a separate plunger in the cab*...
s. Protective shields in the front of the tram, "catching" people, avoid them getting underneath the tram (see an emergency hammer in picture 4 and a catcher in picture 5). In Toronto the CLRV streetcars have a skirt added to the front of the car covering the coupler. It was added to prevent passengers from being dragged under the car's wheels. Trams should be designed to have impact absorbing materials in front and side constructions. Lifting points can be marked for fire brigades to help rescuers to find safe and strong enough parts of the tram when e.g. lifting a tram to rescue a patient underneath it. Inside the tram the structures should also contain impact absorbing materials and round shapes instead of sharp edges (see interior material in picture 5). Automatic door controlling sensors decrease the possibility of entrapment injuries (see a tram door in picture 7). Handrails may prevent people falling in acceleration
Acceleration
In physics, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. In one dimension, acceleration is the rate at which something speeds up or slows down. However, since velocity is a vector, acceleration describes the rate of change of both the magnitude and the direction of velocity. ...
, curves and braking. Especially elderly people need seats and time to find one and sit before the tram moves. Trams can contain fire safe materials like low smoke and halogen-free cables, driver's vigilance control systems
Dead man's switch
A dead man's switch is a switch that is automatically operated in case the human operator becomes incapacitated, such as through death or loss of consciousness....
, and programmable logic speed controllers.
The fire brigades may carry special tools for tram accidents, like heavy extrication tools, grounding
Ground (electricity)
In electrical engineering, ground or earth may be the reference point in an electrical circuit from which other voltages are measured, or a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical connection to the Earth....
equipment, and hydraulic lifting jacks for trams. Some trams are able to drop some sand
Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal...
on the rails to increase the friction
Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and/or material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:...
during emergency braking. Interestingly, the most slippery season
Season
A season is a division of the year, marked by changes in weather, ecology, and hours of daylight.Seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of revolution...
for trams is not necessarily an icy winter, but seasons when leaves
Leaf
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular in plant morphology. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants....
fall from tree
Tree
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to...
s. A brush car can be used to clear the rails.
Quality management system
A quality management system can be expressed as the organizational structure, procedures, processes and resources needed to implement quality management.-Elements of a Quality Management System:# Organizational structure# Responsibilities# Methods...
may guide the safety of a tram system. A tram system may have a control centre following the trams, having radio
Radio
Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space...
contact with the drivers, and ability to contact and guide guards
Security guard
A security guard is a person who is paid to protect property, assets, or people. Security guards are usually privately and formally employed personnel...
, emergency dispatch centre, or repair patrols. A tram typically carries first aid kit
First aid kit
A first aid kit is a collection of supplies and equipment for use in giving first aid, and can put together for the purpose , or purchased complete...
, a radio and/or a phone, some tool
Tool
A tool is a device that can be used to produce an item or achieve a task, but that is not consumed in the process. Informally the word is also used to describe a procedure or process with a specific purpose. Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations such...
s, and a fire extinguisher
Fire extinguisher
A fire extinguisher or extinguisher, flame entinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations...
. Basic first aid
First aid
First aid is the provision of initial care for an illness or injury. It is usually performed by non-expert, but trained personnel to a sick or injured person until definitive medical treatment can be accessed. Certain self-limiting illnesses or minor injuries may not require further medical care...
, prodromic driving manners, safety courses, and protocols to follow in an accident
Accident
An accident or mishap is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or necessity. It implies a generally negative outcome which may have been avoided or prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon, prior to its...
are taught to tram drivers. Some organizations may test the drivers for alcohol
Ethanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
and/or drug
Drug
A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.In pharmacology, a...
s regularly, occasionally, and/or in case of suspicion to avoid driving under the influence
Driving under the influence
Driving under the influence is the act of driving a motor vehicle with blood levels of alcohol in excess of a legal limit...
. Also the health
Health
Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain...
of the drivers can be assessed regularly or in case of need. Some organizations can also give education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
to drivers and re-evaluate their skills and manners regularly. Also rescue organizations can be informed on tram structures, electricity, risks, and specific rescue and firefighting tactics concerning trams. Rescue organizations can also train with trams in simulated accident and firefighting situations.
Various cities and traffic companies have given safety and traffic instructions for passengers, pedestrian, wheelchair users, cyclists, and motorists. These instructions tell how to behave in traffic to avoid accidents. For example, the instructions advise not to obstruct the tramway, suggest motorists avoid driving directly on the track, and tell the pedestrians to use designated crossways and to look both ways before crossing the tracks. Local tram regulations may give requirements for the passengers e.g. not to carry flammable, soiling or destructive chemicals or too space-blocking packages in trams. Enlightenment of children and adults can be done also by using games and test.
Speed hump
A speed hump is a rounded traffic calming device used to reduce vehicle speed and volume on residential streets. Humps are placed across the road to slow traffic and are often installed in a series of several humps in order to prevent cars from speeding before and after the hump...
s near tram stops, better lighting
Lighting
Lighting or illumination is the deliberate application of light to achieve some practical or aesthetic effect. Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources such as lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination by capturing daylight...
of tram stops, raised dividing strips to separate trams and motorists, traffic light sequence changes, and electronic flashing “give way to trams” signs to warn other traffic in places where necessary (see warning signs in picture 9).
Naturally the state of traffic legislation
Legislation
Legislation is law which has been promulgated by a legislature or other governing body, or the process of making it...
, traffic culture, and safety culture
Safety culture
Safety culture is a term used to describe the way in which safety is managed in the workplace, and often reflects "the attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and values that employees share in relation to safety" .-Defining safety culture:...
in the tram and traffic system may have an influence on tram accidents. Tram stops can be separated with barriers from the street. Speed limit
Speed limit
Road speed limits are used in most countries to regulate the speed of road vehicles. Speed limits may define maximum , minimum or no speed limit and are normally indicated using a traffic sign...
s can be used near the tram stops, and strips painted between tram tracks. Tram lanes can be also separated from other traffic. Trams may have their own traffic lights, which are integrated to work with normal traffic lights and stop the traffic when a tram stops at a tram stop. In some areas the junctions are warmed during winter to avoid ice and snow
Snow
Snow is a form of precipitation within the Earth's atmosphere in the form of crystalline water ice, consisting of a multitude of snowflakes that fall from clouds. Since snow is composed of small ice particles, it is a granular material. It has an open and therefore soft structure, unless packed by...
disturbing the functioning of the junction (see a warmed junction in picture 10). Tracks, junctions, trams, tram traffic lights etc. should be regularly inspected and maintained.
Rescue tactics
In tram accidents, overhead linesOverhead lines
Overhead lines or overhead wires are used to transmit electrical energy to trams, trolleybuses or trains at a distance from the energy supply point...
and various electrical devices in a tram can create a risk in firefighting and rescue operations
Rescue
Rescue refers to responsive operations that usually involve the saving of life, or prevention of injury during an incident or dangerous situation....
(see overhead lines
Overhead lines
Overhead lines or overhead wires are used to transmit electrical energy to trams, trolleybuses or trains at a distance from the energy supply point...
in picture 12). Amont the first missions in an accidents is prevention of further accidents, additional damages and injuries (see an accident scene in gallery picture 1). The emergency dispatch centers may have strategies and emergency response guides prepared for various kinds of tram accidents. The response guides can contain information on e.g. what emergency response units
Emergency service
Emergency services are organizations which ensure public safety and health by addressing different emergencies. Some agencies exist solely for addressing certain types of emergencies whilst others deal with ad hoc emergencies as part of their normal responsibilities...
(police
Police
The police is a personification of the state designated to put in practice the enforced law, protect property and reduce civil disorder in civilian matters. Their powers include the legitimized use of force...
, ambulance
Ambulance
An ambulance is a vehicle for transportation of sick or injured people to, from or between places of treatment for an illness or injury, and in some instances will also provide out of hospital medical care to the patient...
, fire apparatus
Fire apparatus
A fire apparatus, fire engine, fire truck, or fire appliance is a vehicle designed to assist in fighting fires by transporting firefighters to the scene and providing them with access to the fire, along with water or other equipment...
, investigation units etc.) are sent to the accident scene in various kind of accidents (fire, derailment, collision, pedestrian hit by a tram etc.). Also hospital
Hospital
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment. Hospitals often, but not always, provide for inpatient care or longer-term patient stays....
s can be alerted in major accidents.
At the accident scene, a ground connection is used to prevent electric shocks from overhead lines
Overhead lines
Overhead lines or overhead wires are used to transmit electrical energy to trams, trolleybuses or trains at a distance from the energy supply point...
(see an emergency ground connection in gallery picture 2). The accident scene is isolated, and police
Police
The police is a personification of the state designated to put in practice the enforced law, protect property and reduce civil disorder in civilian matters. Their powers include the legitimized use of force...
or fire brigade controls the traffic. The accident scene is surveyed, and in the case of several injured persons, a triage
Triage
Triage or ) is the process of determining the priority of patients' treatments based on the severity of their condition. This rations patient treatment efficiently when resources are insufficient for all to be treated immediately. The term comes from the French verb trier, meaning to separate,...
process or other recognition of patients’ states is done. The most critically injured patients get more, faster, and better quality attention and treatment. In the case of a patient
Patient
A patient is any recipient of healthcare services. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a physician, advanced practice registered nurse, veterinarian, or other health care provider....
underneath a tram, lifting bags or hydraulic jacks brought by fire brigades can be used to elevate the tram and release the patient (see lifting points in picture 10) and a tow car lifting a tram in gallery picture 3). A crane
Crane (machine)
A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal capability of...
can be used to lift a tram, too, or an overturned tram. If a patient is trapped inside crushed structures, various kinds of extrication tools, like hydraulic spreaders, rams, cutters, and circular saw
Circular saw
The circular saw is a machine using a toothed metal cutting disc or blade. The term is also loosely used for the blade itself. The blade is a tool for cutting wood or other materials and may be hand-held or table-mounted. It can also be used to make narrow slots...
s can be used. In some cases, it is also possible to drive the tram backwards, but in most cases this would only cause more injuries to the victim. While cutting
Cutting
Cutting is the separation of a physical object, or a portion of a physical object, into two portions, through the application of an acutely directed force. An implement commonly used for cutting is the knife or in medical cases the scalpel...
, lifting or turning an overturned tram or vehicle, structures often have to be stabilized to avoid the movement of the vehicle, to prevent the risk of movements of suspension, and to avoid falling of lifted vehicles on the patient or the members of the rescue crew.
After the patients have been treated and transported, a police investigation
Criminal procedure
Criminal procedure refers to the legal process for adjudicating claims that someone has violated criminal law.-Basic rights:Currently, in many countries with a democratic system and the rule of law, criminal procedure puts the burden of proof on the prosecution – that is, it is up to the...
on the scene continues. The victims and witness
Witness
A witness is someone who has firsthand knowledge about an event, or in the criminal justice systems usually a crime, through his or her senses and can help certify important considerations about the crime or event. A witness who has seen the event first hand is known as an eyewitness...
es can be interviewed on the scene, or later. After investigation the vehicles which collided are allowed to be moved from the scene. In severe accidents, special traffic or accident investigation boards may analyze the accident and its consequences, and give recommendations to improve safety in traffic. After the accident, the accident scene shoulde be cleaned. The tram, the tracks and the overhead lines may need repair (see gallery picture 6, gallery picture 7, and gallery picture 8).
In Helsinki
Helsinki
Helsinki is the capital and largest city in Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, located in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The population of the city of Helsinki is , making it by far the most populous municipality in Finland. Helsinki is...
, Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, the emergency dispatch center automatically sends a special tram rescue unit
Heavy rescue vehicle
A heavy rescue vehicle is a type of specialty firefighting or EMS apparatus. They are primarily designed to provide the specialized equipment necessary for technical rescue situations such as auto accidents requiring vehicle extrication, building collapses, confined space rescue, rope rescues and...
in case of tram fire
Fire
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition....
s and serious tram accidents. The unit is able to operate also in flood and snow. Tram rescue units are typically built for various kind of rescue operations, to move automobile
Automobile
An automobile, autocar, motor car or car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor...
s parked on tram tracks, and to tow and derail trams (see a German
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
tram towtruck in picture 13).