Romanization of Hispania
Encyclopedia
The Romanization of Hispania is the process by which the Roman
culture was introduced into the Iberian Peninsula
during the period of Roman rule over it, or parts of it.
, Roman customs, religion
, laws and the general Roman lifestyle, gained much favour in the indigenous population, which was compounded by a great number of Roman immigrants, which eventually formed a distinct Hispano-Roman culture. Roman civilization was much more technologically advanced and sophisticated than previous cultures in the peninsula. There were several important tactics wherever the Romans wanted to establish their dominion, among which were:
(modern Tarragona
), Emerita Augusta
(now Mérida
) and Italica
(in the present day Santiponce
, near Seville
).
Roman towns or settlements were conceived as images of the imperial capital in miniature. The construction of public buildings was carried out by the curator operatum and were run directly by the supreme municipal magistrates.
To undertake any work by public funds, authorization from the emperor
was needed. Patriotism urged local cities to compete to see who was building faster and better, encouraging more affluent neighboring municipalities. The thirst for glory was such that their names would be associated with large monuments.
The public works undertaken with private funds were not subject to the requirement of approval of the emperor. The planners decided the space needed for the houses, plazas and temples, the volume of water required and the number and width of streets. Soldiers collaborated in the construction of the city, as well as peasants and especially prisoners of war and slaves
owned by the state or important merchants and nobles.
and Publius Cornelius Scipio
in 218.BC., when commanding the landing on the Iberian Peninsula during the Second Punic War
. The first mention of the city is by Pliny the Elder
where he characterizes the city as scipionum opus, "work of Scipio" ( Nat.Hist. III.21, and ends "... sicut Poenorum Carthago ).
In fact, Tarraco was the capital at the outset of the Hispania Citerior
during the Roman Republic
, and later the very extensive Hispania Citerior Tarraconensis
Province. Possibly around the year 45BC. Julius Caesar
changed the status of city to a colonia
, which is reflected in the epithet Iulia in its formal name: Colonia Iulia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco, which would remain for the duration of the Empire.
and X (Gemina)
. Over time, this city became one of the most important in Hispania, capital of the province of Lusitania
and an economic and cultural center.
in the province of Seville
stands) was the first purely Roman city founded in Hispania. After the Second Punic War, Scipio "Africanus"
divided land between the Roman legions in the Betis river valley (now the Guadalquivir
), so that although Italica was created as a field hospital for the wounded from the Battle of Ilipa
, later it became a settlement for veterans of war and then a municipality, on the west bank of the river Betis in 206 BC.
It was during the time of Caesar Augustus when Italica gained the status of municipality, with the right to issue currency, but it came to its zenith during the reigns of the Caesars Trajan
and Hadrian
at the end of the century and during the 2nd century. They originated from Italica, which would give great prestige to the former Spanish colony in Rome. Both emperors were particularly generous to their hometown, expanding and revitalizing its economy. Hadrian ordered the construction of the nova urbs, the new city, a city that only had slight activity over the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.
Also during the reign of Hadrian, the city changed its status to become a Roman colony. It is at this time renamed Colonia Aelia Augusta Italica, in honor of the emperor. By then, the Roman Senate
had an important pressure group originating from the Spanish city.
Founded around the year 227 BC. by the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal the Fair
under the name of Qart Hadasth ('New Town'). It was strategically located in a large natural harbor from which the nearby silver
mines
of Carthago Nova could be controlled. It was taken by the Roman general Scipio Africanus in the year 209BC. during the Second Punic War to cut off the silver going to general Hannibal .
In the year 44 BC. The city would receive the title of colony under the name Colonia Iulia Urbs Nova Carthago (CVINC), founded by citizens of Roman law. Augustine in 27BC. decided to reorganize Hispania and the city was included in the new imperial province Tarraconenensis
, through Tiberius
and Claudius
, it was made the capital of conventus iuridicus Carthaginensis.
During the reign of Augustus, the city was subjected to an ambitious development program which included, among other urban developments, the construction of an impressive Roman theater, the Augusteum
(imperial cult building) and a forum .
Later, under Emperor Diocletian
, it was made the capital of the Roman Province Carthaginensis, separate from Tarraconensis
.
and wood. They could also be permanent, in order to subdue or control an area in the long term, for which stone was often used to build fortifications. Many camps became stable population centers, eventually becoming real cities, as is the case of León
.
, and over the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, erected substantial walls, usually with the technique of double facing stones with a filling inside of mortar, stone and unique Roman concrete
. The thickness of this could range from four to even ten meters. After the period of the Pax Romana
these defenses were expendable, but the invasions
of Germanic
tribes revived the construction of walls.
There are notable present day remains of Roman walls in Zaragoza
, Lugo
, León
, Tarragona
, Astorga
, Córdoba
, Segóbriga and Barcelona
.
The ancient Roman civilization is known as the great builder of infrastructure. It was the first civilization which dedicated itself to a serious and determined effort for this kind of civil work as a basis for settlement of their populations, and the preservation of its military and economic domination over the vast territory of its empire. The works of most importance are roads, bridge
s and aqueducts.
to the Pyrenees
and Asturias
to Murcia
: covering the coastal Mediterranean
and Atlantic
through the already established routes. Along them a booming trade flowed, encouraging political stability of the territory over several centuries.
Among these roads, the most important were:
To signal distance along these routes milestones were placed, which were either colums or significant stones, and they marked the distance from the point of origin as measured by thousands of steps (miles).
Currently most of these routes correspond to the layout of present day roads or highways in the states of Spain
and Portugal
, which confirms the renewed logic of the Roman optimal choice for their roads.
The typical Roman bridge consisted of a platform supported by arches, semicircles or segments of circles. There are also cases of bridges over full circles. The pillars in the water include a wedge-shaped structures called abutments to redirect the flow of water, which create a pier on which the bridge itself sits.
This successful model construction model lasted until late Middle Ages
, and today it is difficult to know in some cases if some bridges are actually Roman or if they were built later to the original design.
The Roman aqueducts, despite their appearances, were built mostly underground. However, they are now known as the monumental aqueducts built to bridge geographic barriers in order to give a continuous water channel. The slenderness of this type of construction, along with the tremendous height reached by some of them, makes them the most beautiful works of civil engineering of all time, especially taking into account the difficulties overcome to build them.
For the construction of an aqueduct, first they needed a source of the water, channeling a natural flow through the construction of a canal
, and allowing the slope to carry water through this channel to an artificial lake (in some cases a large stone reservoir structure). This ensured the constant supply of water throughout the year.
From this point, the water could be transported by canals, whether of stone, or by pipes of ceramic or lead. The latter solution would also bring about health problems such as lead poisoning, a problem that would extend almost to the present day in places where this type of water management has been used in abundance. Lead piping was more easy to work, but was used more in the urban distribution network due to its high price, as well as aqueduct traps.
The artificial reservoir water was transported through an underground channel to the town, often taking advantage of natural slopes, but sometimes the Romans also built traps, which allowed them to avoid a downward slope without building the famous bridges but keeping the pressure flow. These traps take advantage of the pressure resulting from the falling water to raise the other side, keeping the pressure at the expense of losing some of the flow. This is an application of the principle of communicating vessels
.
Current aqueducts which are notable for their condition include the first aqueduct of Segovia
, which is the most famous Roman construction of the Iberian Peninsula, followed by the aqueduct in Tarragona
or Devil's Bridge, and also the remains of the aqueduct of Merida, known as the Miraculous Aqueduct
.
es and amphitheaters.
In the Iberian Peninsula there is great diversity of such archaeological buildings, highlighting their conservation status such as the Baths of Alange
near Merida which, after several restorations over the 18th and 19th centuries, are now open the public as part of a medicinal water spa.
The Roman bath is a structure defined by its function, as shown in the schematic diagram of Azaila
. The apodyterium was also the entrance to the baths, which also acted as a locker room. Then it led to another room called tepidarium which consisted of a warm room which in turn gave way to frigidarium or the caldearium rooms, hot and cold water respectively. The hot water rom caldearium was oriented to the south to receive the maximum amount of sunlight. Under the floor of this room was a series of pipes through which hot water circulated, or in smaller bathhouses they used a more residential style of hypocaust
heating. The frigidarium, however, used to be an open pool of cool water.
Generally, the spa is surrounded by gardens and other accessory buildings with services for visitors such as gymnasiums, libraries or other places of assembly (laconium), all with the aim of providing customers with a pleasant and invigorating environment. These springs require large numbers of staff to operate, particularly taking into account the need for large amounts of hot water, the need for materials and to properly serve customers.
, for example, the Roman sewer system has been used until recent years, and its design still serves as reference to know what was the layout of the ancient Roman city. In other cities like León
(originally founded as a camp of the Legio VII Gemina
) are vestiges of these infrastructures and serve as an example on rainy days of a perfect drainage system to prevent flooded streets .
The theater was one of the favorite leisure activities of the Hispanic-Roman, and as with other buildings of public interest, any city of renown could do without owning one. So much so that the theater of Emerita Augusta
was built almost at the same time as the rest of the city by the consul
Marcus Agrippa, son of the emperor Octavian Augustus. In total there are known remains of at least thirteen Roman theaters throughout the peninsula.
The Roman theatre had more important activities than comedies or dramas; it was a venue for celebrations that praised the emperor, it is therefore of a more political, not leisurely nature, although on occasion it may have accommodated all kinds of cultural exhibitions. The vast wealth of theaters in Hispania has to do with the political life of cities and towns which all aspired to have its own theater and therefore solidify their status.
Other examples are in the city of Baelo Claudia
, a city that has an impressive Roman theatre inside the fortress, occupying a huge space. Its construction in a city where only houses have been found only within the fortress, suggests the importance of this civil building: to represent the political force of the emperor.
Undoubtedly, the best preserved theater in the Peninsula is to Merida, but also the theater of Italica, Sagunto, Clunia, Caesaraugusta and others are part of the archaeological record, and some even host modern theater festivals regularly: they can be considered to be fulfilling the purpose for which they were built, in some cases more than two thousand years ago.
In the nineties Roman Theatre in Cartagena
was discovered and currently under restoration.
It should be noted however, that the reconstruction carried out on Sagunto's theater, designed by architects Giorgio Grassi and Manuel Portaceli and carried out between 1983 and 1993 is still mired in both controversy and in legal disputes. A court order requires the demolition of all the reconstruction work and for the return of the theatre to the conditions in which it was before the word was conducted. It seems unlikely however that such a sentence can be executed, since it can not guarantee the preservation of the original theatre due to the scale of the necessary demolition work.
Roman culture had distinct values on human life which are very different from those now prevailing in Europe and, in general, in the world. The system of slavery
, made it possible for a man to lose his status as "free man
" for various reasons such as: crime, debt or military defeat. After losing their rights, they were coerced into participating in a form of entertainment which today could be considered excessively brutal, but which at that time was one of the most powerful attractions of urban life: gladiatorial combat. Not only slaves or prisoners were involved in these kinds of struggles (although the vast majority of gladiators were), but some also had career as a gladiator
who fought for money, favors or glory. Even some emperors occasionally ventured down to the sand to play this bloody "sport", as in the case of the emperor
Commodus
.
The fight took place at first in the circus, but then the construction of amphitheatres began: elliptical buildings exclusively for the fight.
The first stone amphitheater built in Rome, and the same design was later exported to major cities throughout the empire. Under the arena of the amphitheater was the pit, where gladiators and wild beasts were prepared or were locked away until the time of the fight. This pit was covered by a wooden roof on which was the scene of the fighting. Around this surface were raised elliptical arena benches where the audience attending the "games" would be situated. These arenas would also be witnesses from the 1st century onwards, of brutal repression at certain times which was exerted against the growing Christian population by the Roman authorities.
Undoubtedly, the Colosseum
in Rome the best known and monumental amphitheater in the world, but within Hispania, several were built whose remains have been preserved, such as Italica, Jerez, Tarragona and Merida.
In this process the pre-Roman cultures lost their ancestral language and customs, except for the Basque language
, which survived in the western foothills of the Pyrenees
where Roman influence was not as intense. Roman culture spread along with the commercial interests of Rome, and delayed in coming to places of less strategic importance to the economy of the Empire.
Thus, the Mediterranean coast, which was inhabited before the arrival of the Romans by Iberian locals: the Turdetani
, Ilergetians and others (people who had been in close contact with Greek and Phoenicia
n traders ), and they adopted Roman life relatively quickly. The first Roman cities were founded in these territories, such as Tarraco in the northeast or Italica in the south during the period of confrontation with Carthage
.
However, other peninsular towns were not so predisposed to the abandonment of their cultures, especially in the interior, where the Celtiberian
culture was well established. The main reason for this rejection was the armed resistance that these people had in the face of Roman conquest, such as the Viriathus
rebellion. There was therefore a strong predisposition to the rejection of Roman cultural forms that would last until the effective conquest of peninsula by the legions of Augustus
, in the year 19 BC. In any case, Celtiberian culture did not survive the cultural impact of Rome when it made a permanent foothold in their territories, and the centre of Hispania became part of the human and economic fabric of the Empire.
Undoubtedly, the Roman civilization was much more refined than the people of pre-Roman Hispania, which promoted its adoption to these people. Roma also suffered a strong tendency towards chauvinism that made it despise foreign cultures,which were generally referred to as "barbarian
", so any close relationship with the Empire
and its cities was going to imitate the lifestyle of it. On the other hand, for the social elite of the previous period, it was not a sacrifice. Contrarily, they become the new Hispano-Roman elite, and moved from their previous austere way of life to the comfort and enjoyment of the services which came with urbanisation and the political stability and homogeneity that the Empire brought. This way these elites could occupy government positions in the new municipal institutions, becoming judges and joining the Roman legions as potential commanders who could thrive politically while progressing in the military.
Rome, and its 'romanism' in Hispania was bolstered at a familial level, distributing land among the troops discharged from the legions who had participated in the war against Carthage. Also many families from Italy settled in Hispania to exploit the riches offered by a new and fertile territory, and indeed, some of the Hispanic cities had the status of "colony" and its inhabitants had the right to Roman citizenship. Not surprisingly then, three Roman emperors, Theodosius I
, Trajan
and Hadrian
, came from Hispania and Hispanic descent, as did the authors Quintilian
, Martialis , Lucan
and Seneca
.
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
culture was introduced into the Iberian Peninsula
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
during the period of Roman rule over it, or parts of it.
Introduction
Throughout the centuries of Roman rule over the provinces of HispaniaHispania
Another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for "border" or "edge", thus meaning the farthest area or place. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis....
, Roman customs, religion
Roman religion
The term Roman religion may refer to:*Ancient Roman religion*religions of the Roman Empire period **Imperial cult *** Sol Invictus**Mithraism**Early Christianity**Gnosticism**State church of the Roman Empire...
, laws and the general Roman lifestyle, gained much favour in the indigenous population, which was compounded by a great number of Roman immigrants, which eventually formed a distinct Hispano-Roman culture. Roman civilization was much more technologically advanced and sophisticated than previous cultures in the peninsula. There were several important tactics wherever the Romans wanted to establish their dominion, among which were:
- The creation of infrastructure in the territories under Roman rule, which improved both communications and the ability to control the population of these areas.
- The improvement, largely due to this infrastructure, of cities and general urbanization which was driven also by public utility services and leisure, hitherto unknown in the peninsula. These included aqueducts, sewerSanitary sewerA sanitary sewer is a separate underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater...
s, bathsPublic bathingPublic baths originated from a communal need for cleanliness. The term public may confuse some people, as some types of public baths are restricted depending on membership, gender, religious affiliation, or other reasons. As societies have changed, public baths have been replaced as private bathing...
, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, etc. - The creation of colonies of resettlement as a reward for retired soldiers and the creation of estates for extensive agricultural production, owned by wealthy families who either came from Rome and its surroundings or indigenous families who quickly adopted Roman customs .
Municipalities
Although Roman influence had a major impact on existing cities on the peninsula, the largest urban development effort focused on the new cities under construction, TarracoTarraco
Tarraco is the ancient name of the current city of Tarragona . During the Roman Empire was one of the major cities of the Iberian Peninsula and capital of the Roman province called Hispania Citerior or Hispania Tarraconensis. The full name of the city at the time of the Roman Republic was Colonia...
(modern Tarragona
Tarragona
Tarragona is a city located in the south of Catalonia on the north-east of Spain, by the Mediterranean. It is the capital of the Spanish province of the same name and the capital of the Catalan comarca Tarragonès. In the medieval and modern times it was the capital of the Vegueria of Tarragona...
), Emerita Augusta
Emerita Augusta
The Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida is one of the largest and most extensive archaeological sites in Spain. Mainly of Emerita Augusta, ancient capital of Lusitania . It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1993....
(now Mérida
Merida
Places of the world named Mérida or Merida include:*Mérida, Spain, capital city of the Spanish Community of Extremadura*Mérida, Yucatán, capital city of the Mexican state of Yucatán*Merida, Leyte, a municipality in Leyte province in the Philippines...
) and Italica
Italica
The city of Italica was founded in 206 BC by the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus in order to settle Roman soldiers wounded in the Battle of Ilipa, where the Carthaginian army was defeated during the Second Punic War...
(in the present day Santiponce
Santiponce
Santiponce is a city located in the province of Seville, Spain. According to the 2006 census , the city has a population of 7742 inhabitants.The city contains the ruins of Roman city Italica.-External links:...
, near Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
).
Roman towns or settlements were conceived as images of the imperial capital in miniature. The construction of public buildings was carried out by the curator operatum and were run directly by the supreme municipal magistrates.
To undertake any work by public funds, authorization from the emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
was needed. Patriotism urged local cities to compete to see who was building faster and better, encouraging more affluent neighboring municipalities. The thirst for glory was such that their names would be associated with large monuments.
The public works undertaken with private funds were not subject to the requirement of approval of the emperor. The planners decided the space needed for the houses, plazas and temples, the volume of water required and the number and width of streets. Soldiers collaborated in the construction of the city, as well as peasants and especially prisoners of war and slaves
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
owned by the state or important merchants and nobles.
Tarraco
Tarraco had its origin in the Roman military camp established by the two brothers, consular, GnaeusGnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus was a Roman general and statesman.His father was Lucius Cornelius Scipio, son of the patrician censor of 280, Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus. His younger brother was Publius Cornelius Scipio, father of the most famous Scipio – Scipio Africanus...
and Publius Cornelius Scipio
Publius Cornelius Scipio
Publius Cornelius Scipio was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic.A member of the Corneliagens, Scipio served as consul in 218 BC, the first year of the Second Punic War, and sailed with an army from Pisa to Massilia , with the intention of arresting Hannibal's advance on Italy...
in 218.BC., when commanding the landing on the Iberian Peninsula during the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
. The first mention of the city is by Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
where he characterizes the city as scipionum opus, "work of Scipio" ( Nat.Hist. III.21, and ends "... sicut Poenorum Carthago ).
In fact, Tarraco was the capital at the outset of the Hispania Citerior
Hispania Citerior
During the Roman Republic, Hispania Citerior was a region of Hispania roughly occupying the northeastern coast and the Ebro Valley of what is now Spain. Hispania Ulterior was located west of Hispania Citerior—that is, farther away from Rome.-External links:*...
during the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
, and later the very extensive Hispania Citerior Tarraconensis
Hispania Tarraconensis
Hispania Tarraconensis was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. It encompassed much of the Mediterranean coast of Spain along with the central plateau. Southern Spain, the region now called Andalusia, was the province of Hispania Baetica...
Province. Possibly around the year 45BC. Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
changed the status of city to a colonia
Colonia (Roman)
A Roman colonia was originally a Roman outpost established in conquered territory to secure it. Eventually, however, the term came to denote the highest status of Roman city.-History:...
, which is reflected in the epithet Iulia in its formal name: Colonia Iulia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco, which would remain for the duration of the Empire.
Emerita Augusta
Emerita Augusta was founded in 25BC. by Publius Carisio, as the representative of the emperor Octavian Augustus as a resting place for troops discharged from the Legions V (Alaudae)Legio V Alaudae
Legio quinta Alaudae sometimes known as Gallica, was levied by Julius Caesar in 52 BC from native Gauls. Their emblem was an elephant, and their cognomen Alaudae came from the high crest on their helmets, typical of the Gauls, which made them look like larks...
and X (Gemina)
Legio X Gemina
Legio decima Gemina , was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X Gemina in Vienna in the beginning of the 5th century. The legion symbol was a bull...
. Over time, this city became one of the most important in Hispania, capital of the province of Lusitania
Lusitania
Lusitania or Hispania Lusitania was an ancient Roman province including approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river and part of modern Spain . It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people...
and an economic and cultural center.
Italica
Italica (located today where the city of SantiponceSantiponce
Santiponce is a city located in the province of Seville, Spain. According to the 2006 census , the city has a population of 7742 inhabitants.The city contains the ruins of Roman city Italica.-External links:...
in the province of Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
stands) was the first purely Roman city founded in Hispania. After the Second Punic War, Scipio "Africanus"
Scipio Africanus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus , also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic...
divided land between the Roman legions in the Betis river valley (now the Guadalquivir
Guadalquivir
The Guadalquivir is the fifth longest river in the Iberian peninsula and the second longest river to be its whole length in Spain. The Guadalquivir is 657 kilometers long and drains an area of about 58,000 square kilometers...
), so that although Italica was created as a field hospital for the wounded from the Battle of Ilipa
Battle of Ilipa
The Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC was considered Scipio Africanus’s most brilliant victory in his military career during the Second Punic War. Though it may not seem to be as original as Hannibal’s tactic at Cannae, Scipio’s pre-battle maneuver and his Reverse Cannae formation was still a culmination...
, later it became a settlement for veterans of war and then a municipality, on the west bank of the river Betis in 206 BC.
It was during the time of Caesar Augustus when Italica gained the status of municipality, with the right to issue currency, but it came to its zenith during the reigns of the Caesars Trajan
Trajan
Trajan , was Roman Emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born into a non-patrician family in the province of Hispania Baetica, in Spain Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in Spain, in 89 Trajan supported the emperor against...
and Hadrian
Hadrian
Hadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
at the end of the century and during the 2nd century. They originated from Italica, which would give great prestige to the former Spanish colony in Rome. Both emperors were particularly generous to their hometown, expanding and revitalizing its economy. Hadrian ordered the construction of the nova urbs, the new city, a city that only had slight activity over the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.
Also during the reign of Hadrian, the city changed its status to become a Roman colony. It is at this time renamed Colonia Aelia Augusta Italica, in honor of the emperor. By then, the Roman Senate
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
had an important pressure group originating from the Spanish city.
Carthago Nova
Hasdrubal the Fair
Hasdrubal the Fair was a Carthaginian military leader.He was the brother-in-law of Hannibal and son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca...
under the name of Qart Hadasth ('New Town'). It was strategically located in a large natural harbor from which the nearby silver
Silver
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
mines
Mining
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from an ore body, vein or seam. The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock...
of Carthago Nova could be controlled. It was taken by the Roman general Scipio Africanus in the year 209BC. during the Second Punic War to cut off the silver going to general Hannibal .
In the year 44 BC. The city would receive the title of colony under the name Colonia Iulia Urbs Nova Carthago (CVINC), founded by citizens of Roman law. Augustine in 27BC. decided to reorganize Hispania and the city was included in the new imperial province Tarraconenensis
Hispania Tarraconensis
Hispania Tarraconensis was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. It encompassed much of the Mediterranean coast of Spain along with the central plateau. Southern Spain, the region now called Andalusia, was the province of Hispania Baetica...
, through Tiberius
Tiberius
Tiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...
and Claudius
Claudius
Claudius , was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy...
, it was made the capital of conventus iuridicus Carthaginensis.
During the reign of Augustus, the city was subjected to an ambitious development program which included, among other urban developments, the construction of an impressive Roman theater, the Augusteum
Augusteum
An Augusteum was originally a site of the imperial cult of ancient Rome, named after the imperial title of Augustus. It was known as a Sebasteion in the Greek East of the Roman Empire...
(imperial cult building) and a forum .
Later, under Emperor Diocletian
Diocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
, it was made the capital of the Roman Province Carthaginensis, separate from Tarraconensis
Military Projects
The military works were the first type of infrastructure built by the Romans in Hispania, due to the confrontation on the peninsula with the Carthaginians during the Second Punic WarSecond Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
.
Camps
The Roman fort was the main focus of military strategy passive or active. They could be constructed for short term temporary occupation, tasked with some immediate military purpose, or for garrisoning the troops during the winter, in these cases is built with mortarMortar (masonry)
Mortar is a workable paste used to bind construction blocks together and fill the gaps between them. The blocks may be stone, brick, cinder blocks, etc. Mortar becomes hard when it sets, resulting in a rigid aggregate structure. Modern mortars are typically made from a mixture of sand, a binder...
and wood. They could also be permanent, in order to subdue or control an area in the long term, for which stone was often used to build fortifications. Many camps became stable population centers, eventually becoming real cities, as is the case of León
León, Spain
León is the capital of the province of León in the autonomous community of Castile and León, situated in the northwest of Spain. Its city population of 136,985 makes it the largest municipality in the province, accounting for more than one quarter of the province's population...
.
Walls
Once a developed into a stable colony or camp, the need to defend these nuclei involved the construction of powerful walls. The Romans inherited the poliorcetic tradition (siege warfare tactics) of the GreeksAncient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
, and over the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, erected substantial walls, usually with the technique of double facing stones with a filling inside of mortar, stone and unique Roman concrete
Roman concrete
Roman concrete was a material used in construction during the late Roman Republic through the whole history of the Roman Empire. Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement with many material qualities similar to modern Portland cement...
. The thickness of this could range from four to even ten meters. After the period of the Pax Romana
Pax Romana
Pax Romana was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Since it was established by Caesar Augustus it is sometimes called Pax Augusta...
these defenses were expendable, but the invasions
Decline of the Roman Empire
The decline of the Roman Empire refers to the gradual societal collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Many theories of causality prevail, but most concern the disintegration of political, economic, military, and other social institutions, in tandem with foreign invasions and usurpers from within the...
of Germanic
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Originating about 1800 BCE from the Corded Ware Culture on the North...
tribes revived the construction of walls.
There are notable present day remains of Roman walls in Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Zaragoza , also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain...
, Lugo
Lugo
Lugo is a city in northwestern Spain, in the autonomous community of Galicia. It is the capital of the province of Lugo. The municipality had a population of 97,635 in 2010, which makes is the fourth most populated city in Galicia.-Population:...
, León
León, Spain
León is the capital of the province of León in the autonomous community of Castile and León, situated in the northwest of Spain. Its city population of 136,985 makes it the largest municipality in the province, accounting for more than one quarter of the province's population...
, Tarragona
Tarragona
Tarragona is a city located in the south of Catalonia on the north-east of Spain, by the Mediterranean. It is the capital of the Spanish province of the same name and the capital of the Catalan comarca Tarragonès. In the medieval and modern times it was the capital of the Vegueria of Tarragona...
, Astorga
Astorga, Spain
Astorga is a town in the province of León, northern Spain. It lies southwest of the provincial capital of León, and is the head of the council of La Maragatería. The river Tuerto flows through it. , its population was about 12,100 people....
, Córdoba
Córdoba, Spain
-History:The first trace of human presence in the area are remains of a Neanderthal Man, dating to c. 32,000 BC. In the 8th century BC, during the ancient Tartessos period, a pre-urban settlement existed. The population gradually learned copper and silver metallurgy...
, Segóbriga and Barcelona
Barcelona
Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain after Madrid, and the capital of Catalonia, with a population of 1,621,537 within its administrative limits on a land area of...
.
Civil Projects
Bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle...
s and aqueducts.
Infrastructure
Either within or outside the urban environment, these facilities became vital for the function of the city and its economy, allowing it to supply the most essential necessities; either water via aqueducts or food, supplies and goods through the efficient network of roads. In addition, any city of at least average importance had a sewer system for the drainage of waste water and to prevent rain flooding the streets.Roman streets and roads
Infrastructure for civilian use was built with intensity by the Romans in Hispania, Roman roads that ran through the peninsula joining CadizCádiz
Cadiz is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the homonymous province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia....
to the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
and Asturias
Asturias
The Principality of Asturias is an autonomous community of the Kingdom of Spain, coextensive with the former Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages...
to Murcia
Murcia
-History:It is widely believed that Murcia's name is derived from the Latin words of Myrtea or Murtea, meaning land of Myrtle , although it may also be a derivation of the word Murtia, which would mean Murtius Village...
: covering the coastal Mediterranean
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
and Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...
through the already established routes. Along them a booming trade flowed, encouraging political stability of the territory over several centuries.
Among these roads, the most important were:
- Vía Lata, now known as Vía de la PlataVia de la PlataThe Vía de La Plata or Ruta de la Plata is an ancient commercial and pilgrimage path that crosses the west of Spain from north to south, connecting Mérida to Astorga, and in extension Seville with the Bay of Biscay, at Gijón...
; or the Silver Way - Via AugustaVia AugustaVia Augusta was a Roman road crossing all the Hispania Province, from Cádiz in the southern tip of current Spain, to the Coll de Panissars, where it crossed the Pyrenees close to the Mediterranean Sea, and joined the Via Domitia...
, the longest Imperial Roman road in Spain. 1500km in length and comprising multiple sections - Vía Exterior
Currently most of these routes correspond to the layout of present day roads or highways in the states of Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
, which confirms the renewed logic of the Roman optimal choice for their roads.
Bridges
Roman bridges, an essential complement to the roads, allowed them to overcome the obstacle posed by rivers, which in the case of the Iberian Peninsula can be very wide. Rome, faced with this geographical challenge, responded with some of the most durable and reliable constructions. Rome also built a large number of wooden bridges on minor crossings, but today the only surviving references are those made of stone.This successful model construction model lasted until late Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
, and today it is difficult to know in some cases if some bridges are actually Roman or if they were built later to the original design.
Aqueducts
An important town needed a constant water supply for the thousands of people gathered in one place which could be sometimes several miles away from natural water source. To achieve this continuous flow of water the Romans built aqueducts.For the construction of an aqueduct, first they needed a source of the water, channeling a natural flow through the construction of a canal
Canal
Canals are man-made channels for water. There are two types of canal:#Waterways: navigable transportation canals used for carrying ships and boats shipping goods and conveying people, further subdivided into two kinds:...
, and allowing the slope to carry water through this channel to an artificial lake (in some cases a large stone reservoir structure). This ensured the constant supply of water throughout the year.
From this point, the water could be transported by canals, whether of stone, or by pipes of ceramic or lead. The latter solution would also bring about health problems such as lead poisoning, a problem that would extend almost to the present day in places where this type of water management has been used in abundance. Lead piping was more easy to work, but was used more in the urban distribution network due to its high price, as well as aqueduct traps.
Communicating vessels
Communicating vessels is a name given to a set of containers containing a homogeneous fluid: when the liquid settles, it balances out to the same level in all of the containers regardless of the shape and volume of the containers...
.
Current aqueducts which are notable for their condition include the first aqueduct of Segovia
Aqueduct of Segovia
The Aqueduct of Segovia is a Roman aqueduct and one of the most significant and best-preserved ancient monuments left on the Iberian Peninsula...
, which is the most famous Roman construction of the Iberian Peninsula, followed by the aqueduct in Tarragona
Aqüeducte de les Ferreres
The Aqüeducte de les Ferreres is a Roman aqueduct in Catalonia, Spain built to supply water to the ancient city of Tarraco. The aqueduct is located 4 kilometers north of Tarragona, in the Autonomous Community of Catalonia...
or Devil's Bridge, and also the remains of the aqueduct of Merida, known as the Miraculous Aqueduct
Acueducto de los Milagros
The Acueducto de los Milagros is a ruined Roman aqueduct in Mérida, Spain, formerly the Roman colony of Emerita Augusta....
.
Urban works
Within the urban environment are the baths and sewers, but also remarkable buildings for leisure and culture, including theaters , circusCircus
A circus is commonly a travelling company of performers that may include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, unicyclists and other stunt-oriented artists...
es and amphitheaters.
Bathhouses
Roman culture worshiped the body, and therefore the health of it. The hot springs or public baths became meeting places for people from all walks of life, and their use was encouraged by the authorities, which sometimes covered their expenses which allowed free access to the population. Although men and women sometimes shared the same spaces, bath times were different for each: women came in the morning while the men did at dusk. Those available in separate sections for men and women, the separate areas devoted to them were given the name spas.In the Iberian Peninsula there is great diversity of such archaeological buildings, highlighting their conservation status such as the Baths of Alange
Alange
Alange is a municipality located in the province of Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. the municipality has a population of 2013 inhabitants.It is home to Roman baths a medieval castle , located on a hill commanding the Matachel river. It was hold by the Order of Santiago from the 1240s, and was...
near Merida which, after several restorations over the 18th and 19th centuries, are now open the public as part of a medicinal water spa.
The Roman bath is a structure defined by its function, as shown in the schematic diagram of Azaila
Azaila
Azaila is a municipality in the Province of Teruel, in Spain. It has a population of 162 and it has an extension of 81,4 km².Near the town there are the ruins of the ancient Iberian village of Cabezo de Alcalá....
. The apodyterium was also the entrance to the baths, which also acted as a locker room. Then it led to another room called tepidarium which consisted of a warm room which in turn gave way to frigidarium or the caldearium rooms, hot and cold water respectively. The hot water rom caldearium was oriented to the south to receive the maximum amount of sunlight. Under the floor of this room was a series of pipes through which hot water circulated, or in smaller bathhouses they used a more residential style of hypocaust
Hypocaust
A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The word derives from the Ancient Greek hypo meaning "under" and caust-, meaning "burnt"...
heating. The frigidarium, however, used to be an open pool of cool water.
Generally, the spa is surrounded by gardens and other accessory buildings with services for visitors such as gymnasiums, libraries or other places of assembly (laconium), all with the aim of providing customers with a pleasant and invigorating environment. These springs require large numbers of staff to operate, particularly taking into account the need for large amounts of hot water, the need for materials and to properly serve customers.
Sewers
The Romans knew from the beginning of its rise as a civilization that a city must have an efficient system of waste disposal in order to grow. Hence, they built in all cities of any importance the sewage systems that still in some cases remain in their original form. In MeridaMérida, Spain
Mérida is the capital of the autonomous community of Extremadura, western central Spain. It has a population of 57,127 . The Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida is a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1993.- Climate :...
, for example, the Roman sewer system has been used until recent years, and its design still serves as reference to know what was the layout of the ancient Roman city. In other cities like León
León, Spain
León is the capital of the province of León in the autonomous community of Castile and León, situated in the northwest of Spain. Its city population of 136,985 makes it the largest municipality in the province, accounting for more than one quarter of the province's population...
(originally founded as a camp of the Legio VII Gemina
Legio VII Gemina
Legio septima Gemina was a Roman legion; its full name was Legio VII Gemina Felix. VII Gemina dates back to the Year of the four emperors , when the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, Galba, levied a legion to march on Rome...
) are vestiges of these infrastructures and serve as an example on rainy days of a perfect drainage system to prevent flooded streets .
Theatres
Classical literature, both Greek and Roman, is full of dramas written expressly for public performance, although in reality, the Roman theater has its origins in the Etruscan foundations of their culture. It is however true that very soon assimilated the characteristics of ancient Greek tragedy and comedy.Emerita Augusta
The Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida is one of the largest and most extensive archaeological sites in Spain. Mainly of Emerita Augusta, ancient capital of Lusitania . It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1993....
was built almost at the same time as the rest of the city by the consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
Marcus Agrippa, son of the emperor Octavian Augustus. In total there are known remains of at least thirteen Roman theaters throughout the peninsula.
The Roman theatre had more important activities than comedies or dramas; it was a venue for celebrations that praised the emperor, it is therefore of a more political, not leisurely nature, although on occasion it may have accommodated all kinds of cultural exhibitions. The vast wealth of theaters in Hispania has to do with the political life of cities and towns which all aspired to have its own theater and therefore solidify their status.
Other examples are in the city of Baelo Claudia
Baelo Claudia
Baelo Claudia is the name of an ancient Roman town, located outside of Tarifa, near the village of Bolonia, in southern Spain. Lying on the shores of the Straits of Gibraltar, the town was originally a fishing village and trade link when it was settled some 2,000 years ago...
, a city that has an impressive Roman theatre inside the fortress, occupying a huge space. Its construction in a city where only houses have been found only within the fortress, suggests the importance of this civil building: to represent the political force of the emperor.
Undoubtedly, the best preserved theater in the Peninsula is to Merida, but also the theater of Italica, Sagunto, Clunia, Caesaraugusta and others are part of the archaeological record, and some even host modern theater festivals regularly: they can be considered to be fulfilling the purpose for which they were built, in some cases more than two thousand years ago.
In the nineties Roman Theatre in Cartagena
Cartagena, Spain
Cartagena is a Spanish city and a major naval station located in the Region of Murcia, by the Mediterranean coast, south-eastern Spain. As of January 2011, it has a population of 218,210 inhabitants being the Region’s second largest municipality and the country’s 6th non-Province capital...
was discovered and currently under restoration.
Amphitheatres
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
, made it possible for a man to lose his status as "free man
Infamia
In ancient Roman culture, infamia was a loss of legal or social standing. As a technical term of Roman law, infamia was an official exclusion from the legal protections enjoyed by a Roman citizen, as imposed by a censor or praetor...
" for various reasons such as: crime, debt or military defeat. After losing their rights, they were coerced into participating in a form of entertainment which today could be considered excessively brutal, but which at that time was one of the most powerful attractions of urban life: gladiatorial combat. Not only slaves or prisoners were involved in these kinds of struggles (although the vast majority of gladiators were), but some also had career as a gladiator
Gladiator
A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing and their lives by appearing in the...
who fought for money, favors or glory. Even some emperors occasionally ventured down to the sand to play this bloody "sport", as in the case of the emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
Commodus
Commodus
Commodus , was Roman Emperor from 180 to 192. He also ruled as co-emperor with his father Marcus Aurelius from 177 until his father's death in 180. His name changed throughout his reign; see changes of name for earlier and later forms. His accession as emperor was the first time a son had succeeded...
.
The first stone amphitheater built in Rome, and the same design was later exported to major cities throughout the empire. Under the arena of the amphitheater was the pit, where gladiators and wild beasts were prepared or were locked away until the time of the fight. This pit was covered by a wooden roof on which was the scene of the fighting. Around this surface were raised elliptical arena benches where the audience attending the "games" would be situated. These arenas would also be witnesses from the 1st century onwards, of brutal repression at certain times which was exerted against the growing Christian population by the Roman authorities.
Undoubtedly, the Colosseum
Colosseum
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre , is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire...
in Rome the best known and monumental amphitheater in the world, but within Hispania, several were built whose remains have been preserved, such as Italica, Jerez, Tarragona and Merida.
Transformation of pre-Roman indigenous societies
Roman influence gradually crossed the peninsula over a prolonged period of two centuries, and therefore some societies were crushed initially, others succumbed after a long assimilation and others survived in uneasy alliance alongside the Roman empire for some time. In addition, Roman peoples had a very different character according to geographical location. Thus, the areas previously under the influence of the Greek states were easily treated, while those who faced up to Roman rule had a much longer period of cultural assimilation.In this process the pre-Roman cultures lost their ancestral language and customs, except for the Basque language
Basque language
Basque is the ancestral language of the Basque people, who inhabit the Basque Country, a region spanning an area in northeastern Spain and southwestern France. It is spoken by 25.7% of Basques in all territories...
, which survived in the western foothills of the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
where Roman influence was not as intense. Roman culture spread along with the commercial interests of Rome, and delayed in coming to places of less strategic importance to the economy of the Empire.
Thus, the Mediterranean coast, which was inhabited before the arrival of the Romans by Iberian locals: the Turdetani
Turdetani
The Turdetani were ancient people of the Iberian peninsula , living in the valley of the Guadalquivir in what was to become the Roman Province of Hispania Baetica...
, Ilergetians and others (people who had been in close contact with Greek and Phoenicia
Phoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
n traders ), and they adopted Roman life relatively quickly. The first Roman cities were founded in these territories, such as Tarraco in the northeast or Italica in the south during the period of confrontation with Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
.
However, other peninsular towns were not so predisposed to the abandonment of their cultures, especially in the interior, where the Celtiberian
Celtiberians
The Celtiberians were Celtic-speaking people of the Iberian Peninsula in the final centuries BC. The group used the Celtic Celtiberian language.Archaeologically, the Celtiberians participated in the Hallstatt culture in what is now north-central Spain...
culture was well established. The main reason for this rejection was the armed resistance that these people had in the face of Roman conquest, such as the Viriathus
Viriathus
Viriathus was the most important leader of the Lusitanian people that resisted Roman expansion into the regions of Western Hispania , where the Roman province of Lusitania would be established...
rebellion. There was therefore a strong predisposition to the rejection of Roman cultural forms that would last until the effective conquest of peninsula by the legions of Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
, in the year 19 BC. In any case, Celtiberian culture did not survive the cultural impact of Rome when it made a permanent foothold in their territories, and the centre of Hispania became part of the human and economic fabric of the Empire.
Undoubtedly, the Roman civilization was much more refined than the people of pre-Roman Hispania, which promoted its adoption to these people. Roma also suffered a strong tendency towards chauvinism that made it despise foreign cultures,which were generally referred to as "barbarian
Barbarian
Barbarian and savage are terms used to refer to a person who is perceived to be uncivilized. The word is often used either in a general reference to a member of a nation or ethnos, typically a tribal society as seen by an urban civilization either viewed as inferior, or admired as a noble savage...
", so any close relationship with the Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
and its cities was going to imitate the lifestyle of it. On the other hand, for the social elite of the previous period, it was not a sacrifice. Contrarily, they become the new Hispano-Roman elite, and moved from their previous austere way of life to the comfort and enjoyment of the services which came with urbanisation and the political stability and homogeneity that the Empire brought. This way these elites could occupy government positions in the new municipal institutions, becoming judges and joining the Roman legions as potential commanders who could thrive politically while progressing in the military.
Rome, and its 'romanism' in Hispania was bolstered at a familial level, distributing land among the troops discharged from the legions who had participated in the war against Carthage. Also many families from Italy settled in Hispania to exploit the riches offered by a new and fertile territory, and indeed, some of the Hispanic cities had the status of "colony" and its inhabitants had the right to Roman citizenship. Not surprisingly then, three Roman emperors, Theodosius I
Theodosius I
Theodosius I , also known as Theodosius the Great, was Roman Emperor from 379 to 395. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. During his reign, the Goths secured control of Illyricum after the Gothic War, establishing their homeland...
, Trajan
Trajan
Trajan , was Roman Emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born into a non-patrician family in the province of Hispania Baetica, in Spain Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in Spain, in 89 Trajan supported the emperor against...
and Hadrian
Hadrian
Hadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
, came from Hispania and Hispanic descent, as did the authors Quintilian
Quintilian
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus was a Roman rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing...
, Martialis , Lucan
Lucan
Lucan is the common English name of the Roman poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus.Lucan may also refer to:-People:*Arthur Lucan , English actor*Sir Lucan the Butler, Knight of the Round Table in Arthurian legend...
and Seneca
Seneca the Younger
Lucius Annaeus Seneca was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero...
.