Romania in the Middle Ages
Encyclopedia
The Middle Ages in Romania began with the withdrawal of the Mongols
, the last of the migrating populations to invade the territory of modern Romania
, after their attack of 1241–1242
. It came to an end with the reign of Michael the Brave (1593–1601) who managed, for a short time in 1600, to rule Wallachia
, Moldavia
and Transylvania
, the three principalities whose territories were to be united some three centuries later to form Romania.
Over most of this period, Banat
, Crişana
, Maramureş
and Transylvania – now regions in Romania
to the west of the Carpathian Mountains
– were part of the Kingdom of Hungary
. They were divided into several types of administrative units, such as "counties
" and "seats
". The heads of the Transylvanian counties or "counts" were subordinated to a special royal official called voivode, but the province was seldom treated as a single unit, since the Székely
and Saxon
seats were administered separately. In the kingdom, Romanian
peasants, being Orthodox
, were exempt from the tithe
, an ecclesiastical tax payable by all Roman Catholic commoners. However, Romanian noblemen slowly lost the ability to participate in political life, as the 14th-century monarchs pursued a zealous pro-Catholic policy. Their position became even worse after 1437 when the so-called "Union of Three Nations", an alliance of the Hungarian noblemen, the Székelys, and the Saxons, was formed in order to crush the Bobâlna peasant uprising
.
Wallachia, the first independent medieval
state between the Carpathians and the lower Danube was created when Basarab I
(c. 1310–1352) terminated the suzerainty
of the king of Hungary
with his victory in the battle of Posada
in 1330. The independence of Moldavia, to the east of the Carpathians, was achieved by Bogdan I
(1359–1365), a nobleman from Maramureş, who led a revolt against the former ruler who was appointed by the Hungarian monarch. The independence of the two principalities, however, was rarely secure, and vassalage to multiple states became an important aspect of their diplomacy. Although Wallachia paid tribute to the Ottoman Empire
from 1417, and Moldavia from 1456, their two medieval monarchs, Mircea the Old of Wallachia
(1386–1418) and Stephen the Great of Moldavia
(1457–1504) conducted successful military operations against the Ottoman Turks
. The two principalities' trade with other parts of Europe
began to decrease after the last decades of the 15th century. Before this the sale of hides
, grain, honey, and wax to the Holy Roman Empire
, Venice
and Poland
, and the import of silk, weapons and other manufactured goods from these areas had been widespread, but by the end of the 16th century the Ottoman Empire became the main market for Romanian products.
Transylvania, together with the neighboring counties, gained the status of an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty after the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary had been annexed by the Ottomans in 1541. The fall of the kingdom also deprived Wallachia and Moldavia of their main ally in the struggle against the Ottoman Empire. In 1594 Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined an anti-Ottoman alliance initiated by Pope Clement VIII
. After a series of victory over the Ottomans, he turned against Transylvania and Moldavia where pro-Polish and pro-Ottoman princes were reigning. He invaded and occupied Transylvania in 1599, and Moldavia in 1600. Although the union of the three countries collapsed in four months, it served as an ideal for later generations working for the unification of the lands that now form Romania.
created an obstacle in the path of nomadic people moving westward. In the following period, the local population of the Carpathian–Danubian area profited from the peaceful political climate and a unitary material culture
, called Dridu, that developed in the region. Finds from the Dridu settlements, such as coulters
and sickles, confirm the role of agriculture in their economy.
In the 9th century centrifugal movements commenced in the Khazar Kaghanate. One of the subject peoples, the Hungarians left its dominion and settled in the region between the rivers Don
and Dniester
. They abandoned the steppes and crossed the Carpathians around 896. According to the 13th-century Gesta Hungarorum
("Deeds of the Hungarians"), at the time of the Hungarian invasion Transylvania was inhabited by Romanians and Slavs and ruled by Gelou
, "a certain Romanian", while Crişana was inhabited by several peoples, among them Székelys. Whether the author of the Gesta had any knowledge of the real conditions of the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries remains debated by historians.
In 953 the gyula, the second leader in rank of the Hungarian tribal federation
, converted to Christianity in Constantinople
. Around that time, according to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII
, the Hungarians controlled the region on the border of modern Romania and Hungary along the rivers Timiş
, Mureş
, Criş
, Tisa and Toutis. In 1003, as the Annals of Hildesheim narrates, Stephen I, the first crowned monarch of Hungary (c. 1000–1038) "led an army against his maternal uncle, King Gyula
", and occupied Gyula's country.
Stephen I granted privileges to the Roman Catholic Church, for example by ordering the general imposition of the tithe upon the population. Burials in most local pre-Christian cemeteries, for example at Hunedoara
, only ceased around 1100. Stephen I also divided his kingdom, including the territories of modern Romania he had occupied, into counties, that is administrative units around royal fortresses, each administered by a royal official called count. In time the voivode, a higher royal official first attested in 1176, became the principal of all the counts in Transylvania. In contrast with Transylvania, the counts in modern Banat and Crişana remained in direct contact with the king who appointed and replaced them at will.
From the end of the 9th century the Pechenegs controlled the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians. According to the Eymund's saga
, they fought together with the Blökkumen ("Romanians") in the Kievan Rus'
in the 1010s. The Pechenegs were swept aside from their territories by the Cumans
between 1064 and 1078. A late variant of the oldest Turkish
chronicle, the Oghuz-name
relates that the Cumans defeated many nations, including the Ulâq ("Romanians"). Some of the Pechenegs fled into the Kingdom of Hungary where they were employed to guard the border districts, for instance in Transylvania.
The 11th-century settlements in Transylvania are characterized by small huts
with ceramic assemblages marked by clay cauldrons. The increasing number of coin finds suggests that the province experienced economic growth in the late 11th century. The first document pertaining to the province is a royal charter of 1075 referring to taxes on salt levied at Turda
. The earliest precious metal mine in medieval Transylvania, the silver mine at Rodna
was first mentioned in 1235.
In the 12th and 13th centuries hospites ("guest settlers") arrived in Transylvania from Germany
and from the French-speaking
regions on the river Rhine who in time became collectively known as "Saxons". In 1224 Andrew II of Hungary
(1205–1235) granted special liberties to the Saxons who had settled in southern Transylvania. For instance, they were authorized to choose their local leaders; only the head of the entire community, the count of Sibiu, was appointed by the king. They were also granted the right to use "the forest of the Romanians and the Pechenegs". The first references to viniculture in Transylvania are connected to the vineyards of the hospites of Cricău
, Ighiu
, and Romos
.
As a result of the Saxon immigration, the Székelys – Hungarian-speaking free warriors cultivating communal lands – were transferred to the southeast of the province. From the 13th century they were governed independently from the voivode by a royal official, the count of the Székelys. Besides the Saxons, the Cistercians became the agents of expansion in Transylvania. When their abbey at Cârţa
was established in the early 13th century, Andrew II ordered that the strip of land running up to the mountains between the rivers Olt
, Cârţişoara
and Arpaş
be transferred from the Romanians to the new monastery.
Following the defeat of the Cumans by the Mongols on the river Kalka in 1223, some chieftains of the western Cuman tribes accepted the authority of the king of Hungary. Their conversion led to the creation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania to the east of the Carpathians. However, the Orthodox Romanian population of the territory received the sacraments from "some pseudo-bishops of the Greek rite", according to a papal bull
of 1234. In 1233 Oltenia
was organized into a military frontier zone of the Kingdom of Hungary, called the Banate of Severin
.
The expansion across the Carpathians was stopped by the invasion of the Mongols that lasted from March 31, 1241 to April, 1242. It was a major watershed in the medieval history of the region: although the number of casualties is disputed, even the most prudent estimates do not go below 15 percent of the total population.
(now Russia
) on the Volga River
where their leader, Batu Khan
set up his own capital. Henceforth, the steppes between the rivers Dnieper
and Danube
were under the influence of the Mongols of the Volga, known as the Golden Horde. From the 1260s, a relative of Batu, Nogai Khan
settled at Isaccea
on the Lower Danube and became the absolute master of the neighboring regions. He made himself independent of the Golden Horde around 1280, but was killed in a battle in 1299.
By the middle of the 14th century, the westernmost Mongol territories had become subject to frequent Polish and Hungarian military offensives. Grand Prince Olgierd of Lithuania
penetrated farther into the territories controlled by the Golden Horde than any European army had hitherto done. He won a major victory over the united Mongol troops
on the Dnieper near the Black Sea in 1363.
and Cetatea de Baltă
, had been destroyed. Due to the severe depopulation, a process of organized colonization commenced that lasted for several decades. For example, a new wave of colonization resulted in the establishment of the Saxon seats of Sighişoara
and Mediaş
; and the lord of Ilia
received, in 1292, royal permission to settle Romanians in the lands he owned.
Since only castles built of stone and walled towns had been able to resist Mongol attacks, following the withdrawal of the Mongols the kings encouraged both the landowners and the townspeople to build stone fortifications. New stone fortresses were built, for example, at Codlea
, Rimetea
, and Unguraş
. The process of urbanization was characterized by the predominance of the Saxon towns: out of the eight towns in Transylvania, only Alba Iulia and Dej
were situated in the counties. A charter referring to inns, bakeries, and bathhouses in Rodna proves the city-like way of life of its inhabitants. Salt was still the most important item of trade in this period, but trading with oxen, maidservants, and wine is also documented in royal charters.
In 1257, Béla IV of Hungary
(1235–1270) appointed his eldest son, the future Stephen V
(1270–1272) to govern the kingdom's territories to the east of the Danube. Here the younger king ceded a significant part of his royal domains to noblemen
. The first years of the reign of Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1272–1290), were characterized by civil wars throughout the entire kingdom. In Transylvania, the Saxons engaged in a local conflict with the bishop, took Alba Iulia and set fire to the cathedral. The series of wars continued in 1285 with a second Mongol invasion. During its initial stage, the Székelys, the Romanians and the Saxons successfully blocked the Mongols' access and later organized a series of ambushes provoking panic among the retreating invaders.
By that time, the Romanians' military role had expanded from their original task of defending the kingdom's frontiers. They participated in several military campaigns, for example against Bohemia
in 1260 and against Austria
in 1291. Their economic role became also recognized, since their pastoral activities connected to cloth production of the Saxon settlements. To the monarchs, they paid a special tax in sheep, called the "fiftieth". Andrew III of Hungary (1290–1301) even ordered, in 1293, that all the Romanians who had been settled without royal permission on noble domains be returned to the royal estate of Armeni.
In the last decades of the 13th century, congregatio generalis ("general assembly") convoked by the monarchs or their representatives became an important organ of court system. For instance, the general assembly convoked in 1279 by Ladislaus IV for seven counties – among them Bihor, Crasna, Sătmar, and Zărand in the territory what is now Romania – ended with sentencing a despotic person to death. The first charter referring to a general assembly of the Transylvanian counties was recorded in 1288. A general assembly of the Transylvanian nobles, Saxons, Székelys and Romanians was convoked personally by the monarch in 1291.
When Andrew III died in 1301, the entire kingdom was in the hands of a dozen powerful noblemen. Among them, Roland Borsa
ruled Crişana, Theodore of Vejteh gained the upper hand in the Banat, and Ladislaus Kán governed Transylvania. The latter's authority was also recognized by the Saxons and the Székelys. He even assumed royal prerogatives, such as taking over lands lacking rightful owners. After 1310, he acknowledged Charles I of Hungary
(1301–1342) as his sovereign, but in fact continued to rule independently. The king who transferred his residence to Timişoara
in 1315 could only strengthen his authority after a long series of confrontations. For instance, Ciceu
, the last stronghold of Ladislaus Kán's sons surrendered in 1321.
After the king's victory, one of his loyal adherents, Thomas Szécsényi
was appointed voivode who suppressed a Saxon revolt in 1324. At that time, the autonomous Saxon province was divided into seats, each administered by a judge appointed by the king. In appreciation of the Transylvanian noblemen's services in the crushing of the revolt, Charles I exempted them from the taxes they had so far paid to the voivodes.
In this period, one of the major incentives for the growth of Transylvanian towns was the trade with Wallachia and Moldavia. For instance, Braşov was granted a staple right
in 1369 with respect to the trade in cloth from Poland or Germany. Thereafter, foreign merchants had to sell their most sought-after merchandise, broadcloth
to the tradesmen of Braşov who resold it in Wallachia in exchange for animals, cotton, wax and honey.
In the 14th century, the name "district" was generalized for the forms of territorial organizations of the Romanians, but only few of them, for instance their district in Bereg County (now in Hungary and Ukraine), achieved official recognition. Maramureş, where Romanians were first mentioned in 1326, was the only district that transformed, around 1380, into a county. Louis I of Hungary (1342–1382) issued a royal decree in 1366
which prescribed firm judicial measures against "the malefactors of any nation, especially Romanians".
Louis I's decree also regulated the legal status of the cneazes, the Romanians' local leaders, by establishing a distinction between cneazes "brought to" their lands by royal writ whose testimony in court weighed like that of nobles ("noble cneazes"), and others whose evidence counted for less ("commoner cneazes"). This distinction, however, did not mean real nobility and grant them exemption from royal taxes, even for the noble cneazes. Their status corresponded to that of the Hungarian "conditional noblemen" whose nobility depended on the specified military services they were to render.
According to a royal decree of 1428, Louis I had also ordered that only Catholics be granted land in the Sebeş
district of Timiş county. As a result of official pressure, many Romanian noblemen converted to Catholicism. For example, the members of the powerful Drágffy family turned Catholic in the 15th century. The Ottomans raided Transylvania for the first time in 1394. Sigismund I of Hungary
(1387–1437) organized a crusade against them, but the battle of Nicopolis
(now Nikopol, Bulgaria
) ended in disaster for the Christian forces in 1396.
and Farcaş
were granted to the knights, but the lands ruled by Litovoi
and Seneslau
were left "to the Olati" ("Romanians") "just as they have owned it". In the 1270s, Litovoi extended his territory and stopped paying tribute to the king, but his army was defeated by the royal forces, and he was killed in the battle.
Romanian historical tradition associates the foundation of Wallachia with the "dismounting of Radu Negru" who crossed the Carpathians from Transylvania accompanied by "Romanians, papist
s, Saxons, and all kind of men" around 1290. The first sovereign of Wallachia recorded in contemporary sources was Basarab I who obtained international recognition for the independence of the principality by his victory over Charles I of Hungary in the battle of Posada on November 12, 1330. The princes of Wallachia were chosen from among his descendants – either legitimate, or not – by an assembly of the boyars until the 16th century.
The boyars, members of the landed nobility, formed the most important social group in the principality. The vast majority of the population was formed by peasants who were called several names, such as vecini ("neighbors") or rumâni ("Romanians"), in medieval documents. In this period, animals, especially sheep, remained the main item of export, but from the Wallachian Plain great quantities of grain were transported to the Mediterranean area. The basis of the peasants' diet was formed by millet
eaten as porridge
, while the boyars also used wheat
.
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Wallachia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1359. Wallachia issued its own currency under Vladislav I
(1364–c. 1377). The earliest written information about Gypsies in modern Romania, a deed issued by Dan I of Wallachia
(c. 1383–1386) refers to Vladislav I's former donation of Gypsies to the Vodiţa monastery. Later on, all the important monasteries and boyars owned Gipsy slaves
.
The Ottomans entered for the first time into Wallachia in 1395. Although the invading troops were defeated somewhere in a rovină
("ragged marshland") in Oltenia, the chaos created by the threat of attacks allowed a group of boyars to put Vlad I the Usurper
(1395–1397) on the throne. Thus Mircea I was forced to take refuge in Transylvania, where he agreed to be Sigismund I of Hungary's vassal. He was restored to the throne and participated in the disastrous crusade of Nicopolis organized by Sigismund I.
in 1277 suggests that Romanian political entities existed in northern Moldavia at that time. In 1345 Andrew Lackfi, the count of the Székelys led an army over the Carpathians and occupied this region where a border province was organized by Louis I of Hungary.
Romanian historical tradition links the foundation of Moldavia to the "dismounting of Dragoş", a Romanian voivode from Maramureş. Although Dragoş
was succeeded by his son, Sas
, his line did not last long. His descendants were soon expelled by Bogdan, a former voivode of Maramureş who fled to Moldavia and joined with local boyars in a revolt.
In Moldavia, agriculture and animal raising remained the principal economic activities. Similarly to Wallachia, wooden plow remained the main agricultural tool throughout the Middle Ages. The constant clearing of land shows that finding new land was still preferred to crop rotation
. The establishment of the principality enhanced the security of travel, thus Moldavia could also profit from the transit trade between Poland and the Black Sea ports. The first local coins were minted in 1377, under Peter I Muşat (c. 1375–1391).
The succession to the throne, similarly to Wallachia, was governed by the hereditary-elective principle. Thus either a legitimate or an illegitimate member of the Muşatin family could be proclaimed prince by an assembly of the boyars. In 1387 Peter I Muşat recognized Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland as his suzerain, but Hungary also maintained its claim of suzerainty over the principality. Therefore the princes of Moldavia could counterbalance the influence of Poland and Hungary by playing one off against the other.
was included in the area dominated by the Mongols. Although the Byzantine Empire
reestablished control over the Danube Delta in the 1260s, it fell again under the direct rule of the Golden Horde sometime before 1337. By the end of the 13th century, flourishing communities of Genoese
merchants had settled in the towns of Vicina, Chilia
and Licostomo.
Towards the middle of the 14th century a state dependent of the Byzantine Empire, known as "the country of Cavarna
", developed in the region. Its first known ruler was Balica. He was succeeded by his brother, Dobrotitsa
, for whom part of his holdings, Dobruja, received its name. In about 1385 Ivanco became the ruler of the territory, but he soon disappeared during an Ottoman expedition. Dobruja was occupied by Mircea I of Wallachia in 1390 and by the Ottomans in 1395.
of Serbia received Satu Mare, Baia Mare
and Baia Sprie
in modern Romania, and Mircea I of Wallachia was granted Făgăraş
. Sigismund I was also the first monarch who recognized, in 1419, the legislative competence of the Estates
in Transylvania. On his initiative, their assembly declared that in case of an Ottoman attack, every third nobleman and every tenth serf would take up arms. Indeed, from 1420 Ottoman attacks occurred on an annual basis. In this period many Saxon churches, and later the Székely churches of the Ciuc region, were fortified, which gave local architecture a distinctive appearance.
The increasing defense costs fell primarily on the serfs: the rent on the land was raised and extraordinary taxes were imposed. The first peasant revolt in the territory of modern Romania broke out due to the efforts taken by the bishop of Transylvania to collect the church taxes. Led by Anton Budai Nagy, the rebellious peasants, who called themselves "the commune of the rightful Hungarian and Romanian inhabitants of this part of Transylvania", established a fortified camp on the Bobâlna hill early in 1437. They fought two important battles against the noblemen; the first one, at Bobâlna, was won by the peasants, and the second one, near the Apatiu River
, had no clear winner. The leaders of the noblemen, the Saxons and the Székelys, however, set up a "brotherly union" in order to join forces and crushed the peasants' resistance by the end of January 1438.
The Ottomans' attempt to conquer new territories led to a better organized policy against them. The temporary union of the Eastern and Western Churches proclaimed by the Council of Florence
in 1439 also created a favorable background for the concentration of Christian forces. Christendom found its champion in John Hunyadi
who gained a series of victories over the Ottomans after 1441. For instance, in 1442 he routed an Ottoman army that had been devastating Transylvania. Through his last victory over Mehmed II
at the siege of Belgrade (in modern Serbia) in 1456, he saved the kingdom from Ottoman occupation for several decades. During the reign of his son, Matthias I of Hungary (1458–1490), the Ottomans launched only one serious attack against Transylvania in 1479 when they were defeated at Câmpul Pâinii.
Matthias I used his officials to assert royal prerogatives that had already fallen into disuse. The noblemen found it particularly irksome that the lucrum camarae, a tax from which they had been exempted was replaced with a new tax. In Transylvania, the "Three Nations" entered into a formal alliance against the king in 1467, but he quickly intervened and took the disorganized rebels by surprise.
By that time, the land once held in common by the Székely community had gradually become divided into smaller and smaller units; thus a vast number of the free warrior-peasants had to enter the service of their more prosperous fellow Székelys. This social stratification was formally recognized by a royal decree in 1473. Thereafter those who performed mounted military service were differentiated from those who fought as foot-soldiers; those who were unable to finance themselves even as foot-soldiers were legally reduced to servitude.
The prominence of the German element in the towns sometimes led to conflicts along ethnic lines. Thus the struggle for leadership in Cluj (now Cluj-Napoca
) between Hungarians and Saxons only came to an end in 1458 by establishing a rule that municipal offices must be shared equally between the two groups. In 1486, Matthias I united all the Saxon districts in Transylvania in the "University of the Saxons" under the leadership of the elected mayor of Sibiu
.
After Matthias I's death, the assembly of the Estates, called Diet, began to function as a regular organ of power. The peasantry suffered most from the rule of the Estates, for instance, by the limitation of their right to free movement. In 1514 thousands of peasants who had been summoned to Buda
(now Budapest
, in modern Hungary) to join the crusade proclaimed by Pope Leo X
against the Ottomans turned the weapons against their masters. The rebels, led by the Székely George Dózsa, occupied several towns, such as Oradea and Şoimoş, but on July 15 John Szapolyai, the voivode defeated them at Timişoara
. As a retaliation, the Diet decreed that peasants were to be tied to the land "perpetually".
The downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary was marked by the battle of Mohács
(Hungary) where the royal army was annihilated by the Ottomans on August 29, 1526. Thereafter the noblemen's political factions engaged in conflict and elected two kings. One of them, John I Szapolyai (1526–1540) was supported by the lesser nobility, while Ferdinand I of Habsburg
(1526–1564) was recognized mainly in the kingdom's western counties, but the Transylvanian Saxons also supported him. Seeking the assistance of the Ottomans, John I had to pay homage to the sultan at Mohács
in 1529.
After the battle of Nicopolis, the Ottomans occupied Bulgaria and could attack Wallachia more easily. Mircea I the Old, however, could reoccupy Dobruja in 1402 by taking advantage of the Ottomans' difficulties after their defeat by the Mongols in the battle of Ankara
. He even intervened in the Ottoman civil war
and supported the struggle of Musa and Mustafa against their brother, Mehmed I
. After the two pretenders had been defeated, the Ottomans annexed again Dobruja and occupied Giurgiu
, and Mircea I was forced to pay an annual tribute to the sultan. Under Mircea I iron mines were opened at Baia de Fier
and copper mining began at Baia de Aramă
. In addition, sulfur
and amber
were extracted in the region of Buzău
.
After Mircea I's death, princes succeeded one another on the throne with devastating frequency. For instance, Michael I
(1418–1420) was overthrown by his cousin, Dan II
(1420–1431), and in the next decade the throne was occupied with frequent changes either by Dan II or by his cousin, Radu II the Bald
(1421–1427), the former being supported by Sigismund I of Hungary and the latter by the Ottomans.
Alexander I Aldea (1431–1436) was the first Romanian ruler to be forced to render military service to the Ottomans. Two decades later, Vlad III the Impaler
(1448, 1456–1462, 1476), notorious as the model for the Dracula legend
, turned against the Ottoman Empire. He carried out a series of attacks across the Danube in the winter of 1461–1462. The response was a massive invasion led by Mehmed II who drove Vlad III from the throne and replaced him with his brother, Radu III the Fair (1462–1475). Due to the frequent military operations, the Wallachian Plain was heavily depopulated after the end of the 14th century. On the other hand, Wallachia received a steady flow of immigrants, mostly from the Balkans
.
After 1462 Wallachia preserved its autonomy mainly through the intervention of Stephen the Great of Moldavia. At the end of the century, however, Radu IV the Great (1495–1508) became an obedient subject of the sultan and visited Istanbul
annually to personally offer the tribute. Even so, he could only stay in power by collaborating with the powerful Craioveşti
family, strongly connected to the Ottomans by trading. In 1512 a member of this family, Neagoe
(1512–1521) rose to throne, but he adopted the dynastic name of Basarab in order to legitimize his rule. He wrote the first original work of Romanian literature, titled Teachings, to his son, Teodosius on moral, political, and military questions.
Under Theodosius I (1521–1522) the Ottoman governor of Nicopolis take advantage of the internal fights among the boyar parties, and thus dominated the political life of Wallachia. Due to the imminent danger of annexation, the boyars grouped around Radu V of Afumaţi
(1522–1529) who fought about 20 battles against the Ottomans. Finally, he was, in 1525, forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty and the rise of the tribute.
. The first Ottoman attack on Moldavia in 1420 was also repulsed by him. Alexander I's death was followed by a long period of political instability, characterized by frequent fights for the throne. For instance, the struggle of his sons, Iliaş I
(1432–1442) and Stephen II
(1433–1447) ended in 1435 by the division of the country.
Although cottage industries, both in boyar and peasant households, were still the main source of clothing, food and construction, specialized production, such as weaving
and pottery, started to develop by the middle of the 15th century. The first oil well
s went into production in 1440, but their oil was also only for household use. In Moldavia, Gypsy slaves were first mentioned in 1428 when Alexander I awarded 31 Gypsy families to the Bistriţa Monastery
. In time Gypsies became specialized in several crafts: for example, throughout the Middle Ages the working of iron was an occupation reserved almost exclusively for them.
Peter III Aaron (1451–1457) was the first prince who agreed to pay tribute to the Ottomans in 1456. He was ousted by his nephew, Stephen, with the support of Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia. Stephen III the Great was to be the most important medieval Romanian monarch who managed to uphold Moldavia's autonomy against Hungary, Poland and the Ottoman Empire.
In the early years of his reign, he remained allied with Poland and the Ottoman Empire, and even joined the Ottomans in attacking Wallachia. He also supported the rebellion of 1467 of the Transylvanian Estates; therefore Matthias I of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia, but the royal army was defeated in the battle of Baia
. He came to view the Ottoman Empire as his chief enemy in the 1470s, and in 1474 he refused to pay tribute. He soon received the ultimatum of Mehmed II who demanded the surrender of Chilia, a fortress recently captured from Wallachia. Upon Stephen III's refusal, a large Ottoman army was sent against Moldavia. He called on Pope Sixtus IV
, pleading for a crusade. Although the pope acknowledged his merits, by naming him "the Athlete of Christ", no anti-Ottoman coalition materialized. Even without external military support, Stephen the Great led his troops to victory in the battle of Vaslui
on January 10, 1475. Following the battle, he addressed a letter to the Christian princes, expressing the idea that the two Romanian principalities were the "gateway to the Christian world", and if they fell "all Christendom would be in danger".
He also recognized Matthias I of Hungary as his suzerain and received, in return, Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă in Transylvania. The following year, however, he found himself alone when Mehmed II invaded Moldavia. The Moldavian army was defeated in the Battle of Valea Albă
, but the Ottomans, suffering from a lack of provisions and an outbreak of the plague, were forced to retreat. Stephen the Great suffered the greatest setback of his carrier in 1484 when the Ottomans captured Chilia and Cetatea Alba (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine) on the Black Sea. Having tried unsuccessfully to regain the fortresses in 1485, he concluded a peace with the sultan and agreed to pay tribute to him.
He was succeeded by his son, Bogdan III the One-Eyed (1504–1517) whose reign was troubled by a long series of military conflicts with Poland and Wallachia. The good relations with Poland were reestablished under the reign of Stephen IV the Younger (1517–1527). His successor, Peter IV Rareş (1527–1538, 1541–1546) intervened in the struggle for the crown of the Kingdom of Hungary: on the order of the sultan, in 1529 he invaded the Székely Land
and defeated the army of Ferdinand I's partisans.
However, John I married a daughter of Sigismund I of Poland, Isabella, who in 1540 bore him a son. Already dying, the king took an oath from his barons to evade the treaty of Oradea, and his counselor, George Martinuzzi
, had the infant John II Sigismund
elected as king (1540–1571). Ferdinand I sent troops to take Buda, but they withdrew upon the advance of the Ottoman army. On August 29, 1541 Suleiman I summoned the Hungarian lords to his camp, and while the reception was taking place, his troops
occupied the capital of the kingdom. At the same time the sultan assigned the territories of the kingdom east of the Tisa to Queen Isabella and her son in return for an annual tribute.
On October 18, the kingdom's eastern territories, including Transylvania, swore allegiance to the infant king at the Diet of Debrecen
(Hungary). Thus a separate country started to emerge, although George Martinuzzi was still negotiating with Ferdinand I on the reunification of the kingdom. For this purpose, in 1551 Ferdinand I sent an army into Transylvania where he was recognized as sole ruler by the Diet. The Ottomans, however, occupied a great part of Banat in 1552, and neither could Ferdinand I consolidate his rule over the kingdom's eastern territories. Finally, the Diet, meeting in Sebeş on March 12, 1556, swore again allegiance to "the son of King John", thus the young king and his mother returned to Transylvania.
The 16th century also brought about major religious changes: the Saxons converted to Lutheranism
, while most of the Hungarians converted to Calvinism
or Unitarianism
; only the Székelys remained more than the other "nations" Catholic. In 1568, the Transylvanian Diet at Torda decreed the free worship of these four "received denominations", but Orthodoxy still continued to be only tolerated. The Romanians' status worsened in this period. The Diets of 1554 and 1555 decided that a Catholic or Protestant peasant could not be accused of a crime except there were seven Catholic or Protestant witnesses against him, while an Orthodox peasant could be accused if there were three Catholic or Protestant or seven Orthodox witnesses. The Diet of 1559 also decreed that Romanians who had settled on lands abandoned by Catholic serfs were obliged to pay the tithe.
From the Székelys, continuing warfare demanded increased military service, and the royal administration imposed special taxes on them. Although the leaders of the Székely community were exempted from taxation in 1554, but all the foot soldiers continued to be taxed, resulting in a double burden of military and monetary obligations for them. In 1562 many Székelys took up arms against John II Sigismund, but they were defeated. The Saxon towns continued to develop even in the years of upheaval. Their population, however, increased slowly, mainly as a consequence of the Saxons' traditional desire for segregation: even Hungarian craftsmen and merchants were prohibited from settling in their towns.
In the Treaty of Speyer of August 16, 1570, John II Sigismund acknowledged his rival, Maximilian I
(1564–1576) as the lawful king of Hungary and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary". The treaty also marked out the borders of the new principality, which included not only the historical province of Transylvania, but also some neighboring counties, such as Bihor and Maramureş, thenceforward collectively known as Partium
. The death of John II Sigismund in 1571 threatened to throw the country again into the hands of the Habsburgs whose officers supported the Unitarian Gáspár Bekes
. Now the sultan appointed Stephen Báthory
, a Catholic politician, voivode.
The decisive battle between the two candidates was won by Stephen Báthory at Sânpaul
on July 8, 1575. In the same year, he was elected king of Poland, thus a personal union was formed between the two countries that lasted until his death in 1586. He left the administration of the principality first to his brother, Christopher Báthory
(1575–1581), and then to his brother's minor son, Sigismund Báthory
(1581–1602), bestowing on them the title of voivode, while he himself took the title of prince.
In February, 1594 Sigismund Báthory announced that his country would join the anti-Ottoman alliance formed by the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II
, Philip II of Spain
and many smaller Italian and German states. Although the Estates twice refused to endorse the declaration of war, Transylvania joined the alliance on January 28, 1595 after the leaders of the opposition had been executed on the order of the monarch. In return Rudolph II recognized Sigismund's title of prince.
, the English
ambassador to Istanbul.
He soon embarked upon a program to strengthen the central authority by replacing the members of the sfatul domnesc, an advisory body consisting of boyars, with dregători, that is officials personally loyal to him. Michael the Brave also adopted an anti-Ottoman policy, and upon his initiative Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Aaron the Tyrant of Moldavia (1591–1595) signed a treaty to form an anti-Ottoman alliance. The rebellion started by the massacre of all the Ottomans in Wallachia on November 13, 1594.
region (in modern Ukraine), but his army was defeated. Now he concluded a secret treaty with Ferdinand I of Hungary, but soon had to seek refugee in Transylvania when Suleiman I led an army against him. This was the first occasion when a prince, Stephen V Lăcustă (1538–1540) was appointed by the sultan. At the same time, the sultan occupied Brăila
and Tighina
(now in Moldova
), and the Budjak
region (now in Ukraine). Peter IV Rareş recovered his throne in exchange for a large sum of money in 1541. His death was followed by a period characterized by fights between pretenders to the throne and among the boyar parties.
The idea of anti-Ottoman struggle was revived by John III the Terrible (1572–1574) who refused to pay the tribute to the sultan. As a result Ottoman and Wallachian troops invaded Moldavia, but they were defeated by John III in a surprise attack near Jilişte. Now the sultan sent a large army against Moldavia, and the prince was captured and quartered. Next Aaron the Tyrant joined the anti-Ottoman coalition of Transylvania and Wallachia, and started a rebellion on November 13, 1594, simultaneously with Michael the Brave of Wallachia.
The 16th century was characterized by the flourishing of ecclesiastical mural painting whose technique have remained a secret until today. For example, the interior and exterior frescoes of the Voroneţ Monastery
represent this "Moldavian style
".
Following their coordinated uprising, Michael the Brave attacked Ottoman strongholds along the Danube and recovered Giurgiu and Brăila, while Aaron the Tyrant seized Ismail
(now in Ukraine). In response, the sultan ordered the Grand Vizier
, Sinan Pasha
to invade Wallachia. The two princes needed the support of Sigismund Báthory who took advantage of the situation to make himself suzerain of Wallachia and Moldavia. When Aaron the Tyrant refused Sigismund Báthory's conditions, he was replaced by the latter's protégé, Ştefan Răzvan
(1595) on the throne.
According to the treaty signed by Michael the Brave on May 20, 1595 in Alba Iulia, Sigismund Báthory became the ruler of the three principalities and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania, Moldavia and Transalpine Wallachia". The treaty stipulated, that the taxes would be established in Wallachia by the Transylvanian Diet, together with a council of 12 Wallachian boyars. Around that time, the peasants were bound to the land both in Wallachia and Moldavia.
Ottoman troops entered Wallachia in the summer, but they were defeated by Michael the Brave at Călugăreni
and by the united armies of the three principalities at Giurgiu. In the meantime, however, the Poles had invaded Moldavia and replaced Ştefan Răzvan by Ieremia Movilă
(1595–1606). In June 1598 Michael the Brave recognized the suzerainty of Emperor Rudolph II, who had promised to grant subsidies to him to finance his mercenaries.
On March 30, 1599 Sigismund Báthory abdicated the throne in favor of his cousin, Andrew Báthory
(1599). The new prince was loyal to the Poles and promptly demanded that Michael the Brave accept his suzerainty. The latter secured the emperor's approval for an invasion of Transylvania and attacked the principality where the Székelys also joined him. He defeated his opponent at Şelimbar
on October 28, 1599 and entered Alba Iulia. Here the Diet recognized him as imperial governor. He respected the traditional organization of Transylvania, and even crushed a revolt of the Romanian peasants, but forced the Diet to relieve the Orthodox priests of feudal obligations. In the spring of 1600, he invaded Moldavia in the name of the emperor and established control over it. In July he even proclaimed himself "prince of Wallachia, Transylvania, and all of Moldavia" in Iaşi
, thus bringing about the union of the three principalities.
However, the Hungarian noblemen, dissatisfied with the disorder, rebelled against his rule, and defeated him at Mirăslău
on September 18, 1600. At the same time, the Poles invaded Moldavia and restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne; then they entered Wallachia, where Simion Movilă
defeated Michael the Brave at Buzău. In this moment of crisis, Michael the Brave left for Prague
to appeal to the emperor for support. He returned to Transylvania in July 1601 at the head of an imperial army. Cooperating with the imperial general, Giorgio Basta
, he defeated the Transylvanian troops at Guruslău
on August 3, but on August 19 he was assassinated on the order of his former ally, Giorgio Basta.
(1604–1606) the principality voluntarily accepted Ottoman suzerainty. In the next decades, the princes of Transylvania, among them Gabriel Bethlen
(1613–1629), made several unsuccessful attempts to unify Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia.
Wallachia and Moldavia fell back under the control of the Ottoman Empire after Michael the Brave's death. Radu Mihnea
, prince of Wallachia (1611–1616, 1623–1626) and of Moldavia (1616–1623), was the first ruler to appoint Greeks
from the Phanar district of Istanbul to high government posts. This started a trend that ultimately led to the so called "Phanariot period
" in Romania’s history.
< Early Middle Ages
| History of Romania | Early Modern Times
>
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
, the last of the migrating populations to invade the territory of modern Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, after their attack of 1241–1242
Mongol invasion of Europe
The resumption of the Mongol invasion of Europe, during which the Mongols attacked medieval Rus' principalities and the powers of Poland and Hungary, was marked by the Mongol invasion of Rus starting in 21 December 1237...
. It came to an end with the reign of Michael the Brave (1593–1601) who managed, for a short time in 1600, to rule Wallachia
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
, Moldavia
Moldavia
Moldavia is a geographic and historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river...
and Transylvania
Transylvania
Transylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
, the three principalities whose territories were to be united some three centuries later to form Romania.
Over most of this period, Banat
Banat
The Banat is a geographical and historical region in Central Europe currently divided between three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania , the western part in northeastern Serbia , and a small...
, Crişana
Crisana
Crișana is a geographical and historical region divided today between Romania and Hungary, named after the Criș River and its three tributaries: the Crișul Alb, Crișul Negru and Crișul Repede....
, Maramureş
Maramures
Maramureș may refer to the following:*Maramureș, a geographical, historical, and ethno-cultural region in present-day Romania and Ukraine, that occupies the Maramureș Depression and Maramureș Mountains, a mountain range in North East Carpathians...
and Transylvania – now regions in Romania
Historical regions of Romania
At various times during the late 19th and 20th centuries, Romania extended over the following historical regions:Wallachia:*Muntenia or Greater Wallachia: as part of Wallachia, joined Moldavia in 1859 to create modern Romania;...
to the west of the Carpathian Mountains
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
– were part of the Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary comprised present-day Hungary, Slovakia and Croatia , Transylvania , Carpatho Ruthenia , Vojvodina , Burgenland , and other smaller territories surrounding present-day Hungary's borders...
. They were divided into several types of administrative units, such as "counties
Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)
A county is the name of a type of administrative units in the Kingdom of Hungary and in Hungary from the 10th century until the present day....
" and "seats
Seat (territorial-administrative unit)
Seats were territorial-administrative units in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. The seats were autonomous regions within the Kingdom, and were independent from the feudal county system...
". The heads of the Transylvanian counties or "counts" were subordinated to a special royal official called voivode, but the province was seldom treated as a single unit, since the Székely
Székely
The Székelys or Székely , sometimes also referred to as Szeklers , are a subgroup of the Hungarian people living mostly in the Székely Land, an ethno-cultural region in eastern Transylvania, Romania...
and Saxon
Transylvanian Saxons
The Transylvanian Saxons are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania from the 12th century onwards.The colonization of Transylvania by Germans was begun by King Géza II of Hungary . For decades, the main task of the German settlers was to defend the southeastern border of the...
seats were administered separately. In the kingdom, Romanian
Romanians
The Romanians are an ethnic group native to Romania, who speak Romanian; they are the majority inhabitants of Romania....
peasants, being Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
, were exempt from the tithe
Tithe
A tithe is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash, cheques, or stocks, whereas historically tithes were required and paid in kind, such as agricultural products...
, an ecclesiastical tax payable by all Roman Catholic commoners. However, Romanian noblemen slowly lost the ability to participate in political life, as the 14th-century monarchs pursued a zealous pro-Catholic policy. Their position became even worse after 1437 when the so-called "Union of Three Nations", an alliance of the Hungarian noblemen, the Székelys, and the Saxons, was formed in order to crush the Bobâlna peasant uprising
Bobâlna revolt
The Budai Nagy Antal Revolt or Bobâlna Revolt , of 1437 in Transylvania was the only significant popular revolt in the Kingdom of Hungary prior to the great peasant war of 1514...
.
Wallachia, the first independent medieval
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
state between the Carpathians and the lower Danube was created when Basarab I
Basarab I of Wallachia
Basarab I the Founder was voivode or prince of Wallachia . His rise seems to have taken place in the context of the war between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Orthodox states in the north of the Balkan Peninsula...
(c. 1310–1352) terminated the suzerainty
Suzerainty
Suzerainty occurs where a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which controls its foreign affairs while allowing the tributary vassal state some limited domestic autonomy. The dominant entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the more powerful entity itself, is called a...
of the king of Hungary
King of Hungary
The King of Hungary was the head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 to 1918.The style of title "Apostolic King" was confirmed by Pope Clement XIII in 1758 and used afterwards by all the Kings of Hungary, so after this date the kings are referred to as "Apostolic King of...
with his victory in the battle of Posada
Battle of Posada
The Battle of Posada was fought between Basarab I of Wallachia and Charles I Robert of Hungary.The small Wallachian army led by Basarab, formed of cavalry, foot archers, as well as local peasants, managed to ambush and defeat the 30,000-strong Hungarian army, in a mountainous region near the...
in 1330. The independence of Moldavia, to the east of the Carpathians, was achieved by Bogdan I
Bogdan I of Moldavia
Bogdan I the Founder was the third or fourth voivode of Moldavia . He and his successors established the independence of Moldavia, freeing the territory east of the Carpathian Mountains of Hungarian and Tatar domination....
(1359–1365), a nobleman from Maramureş, who led a revolt against the former ruler who was appointed by the Hungarian monarch. The independence of the two principalities, however, was rarely secure, and vassalage to multiple states became an important aspect of their diplomacy. Although Wallachia paid tribute to the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
from 1417, and Moldavia from 1456, their two medieval monarchs, Mircea the Old of Wallachia
Mircea I of Wallachia
Mircea the Elder was ruler of Wallachia from 1386 until his death. The byname "elder" was given to him after his death in order to distinguish him from his grandson Mircea II...
(1386–1418) and Stephen the Great of Moldavia
Stephen III of Moldavia
Stephen III of Moldavia was Prince of Moldavia between 1457 and 1504 and the most prominent representative of the House of Mușat.During his reign, he strengthened Moldavia and maintained its independence against the ambitions of Hungary, Poland, and the...
(1457–1504) conducted successful military operations against the Ottoman Turks
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks were the Turkish-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire who formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks is scarce, but they take their Turkish name, Osmanlı , from the house of Osman I The Ottoman...
. The two principalities' trade with other parts of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
began to decrease after the last decades of the 15th century. Before this the sale of hides
Hides
A hide is an animal skin treated for human use. Hides include leather from cattle and other livestock animals, alligator skins, snake skins for shoes and fashion accessories and furs from wild cats, mink and bears. In some areas, leather is produced on a domestic or small industrial scale, but most...
, grain, honey, and wax to the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
, Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
and Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
, and the import of silk, weapons and other manufactured goods from these areas had been widespread, but by the end of the 16th century the Ottoman Empire became the main market for Romanian products.
Transylvania, together with the neighboring counties, gained the status of an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty after the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary had been annexed by the Ottomans in 1541. The fall of the kingdom also deprived Wallachia and Moldavia of their main ally in the struggle against the Ottoman Empire. In 1594 Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined an anti-Ottoman alliance initiated by Pope Clement VIII
Pope Clement VIII
Pope Clement VIII , born Ippolito Aldobrandini, was Pope from 30 January 1592 to 3 March 1605.-Cardinal:...
. After a series of victory over the Ottomans, he turned against Transylvania and Moldavia where pro-Polish and pro-Ottoman princes were reigning. He invaded and occupied Transylvania in 1599, and Moldavia in 1600. Although the union of the three countries collapsed in four months, it served as an ideal for later generations working for the unification of the lands that now form Romania.
Background
At the end of the 8th century the establishment of the Khazar Khaganate north of the Caucasus MountainsCaucasus Mountains
The Caucasus Mountains is a mountain system in Eurasia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the Caucasus region .The Caucasus Mountains includes:* the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range and* the Lesser Caucasus Mountains....
created an obstacle in the path of nomadic people moving westward. In the following period, the local population of the Carpathian–Danubian area profited from the peaceful political climate and a unitary material culture
Material culture
In the social sciences, material culture is a term that refers to the relationship between artifacts and social relations. Studying a culture's relationship to materiality is a lens through which social and cultural attitudes can be discussed...
, called Dridu, that developed in the region. Finds from the Dridu settlements, such as coulters
Coulter (Agriculture)
A coulter is a component of many plows which consists of a vertically mounted knife-like blade. It cuts down into the soil ahead of the plowshare, softening the dirt and allowing the plow to undercut the furrow made by the coulter....
and sickles, confirm the role of agriculture in their economy.
Don River (Russia)
The Don River is one of the major rivers of Russia. It rises in the town of Novomoskovsk 60 kilometres southeast from Tula, southeast of Moscow, and flows for a distance of about 1,950 kilometres to the Sea of Azov....
and Dniester
Dniester
The Dniester is a river in Eastern Europe. It runs through Ukraine and Moldova and separates most of Moldova's territory from the breakaway de facto state of Transnistria.-Names:...
. They abandoned the steppes and crossed the Carpathians around 896. According to the 13th-century Gesta Hungarorum
Gesta Hungarorum
Gesta Hungarorum is a record of early Hungarian history by an unknown author who describes himself as Anonymi Bele Regis Notarii , but is generally cited as Anonymus...
("Deeds of the Hungarians"), at the time of the Hungarian invasion Transylvania was inhabited by Romanians and Slavs and ruled by Gelou
Gelou
Gelou or Gelu was a Romanian duke mentioned in Gesta Hungarorum as having opposed the conquest of Transylvania by Tuhutum, one of the “seven dukes” of the Magyars. His story was recorded only by the anonymous writer of the 13th century Gesta...
, "a certain Romanian", while Crişana was inhabited by several peoples, among them Székelys. Whether the author of the Gesta had any knowledge of the real conditions of the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries remains debated by historians.
In 953 the gyula, the second leader in rank of the Hungarian tribal federation
Magyar tribes
The Magyar tribes were the fundamental political units whose framework the Hungarians lived within, until these clans from Asia, more accurately from the region of Ural Mountains, invaded the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary.The locality in which the Hungarians, the...
, converted to Christianity in Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
. Around that time, according to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII
Constantine VII
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos or Porphyrogenitus, "the Purple-born" was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 913 to 959...
, the Hungarians controlled the region on the border of modern Romania and Hungary along the rivers Timiş
Timis River
The Timiş or Tamiš is a 359 km long river originating from Țarcu Mountains , southern Carpathian Mountains, Caraş-Severin County, Romania. It flows through the Banat region and flows into the Danube near Pančevo, in northern Serbia....
, Mureş
Mures River
The Mureș is an approximately 761 km long river in Eastern Europe. It originates in the Hășmașu Mare Range in the Eastern Carpathian Mountains, Romania, and joins the Tisza river at Szeged in southeastern Hungary....
, Criş
Körös River
Körös is the name of a 195 km long river in eastern Hungary. It is formed at the confluence of the rivers Fehér-Körös and Fekete-Körös near Gyula. The Sebes-Körös flows into the Körös near Gyomaendrőd...
, Tisa and Toutis. In 1003, as the Annals of Hildesheim narrates, Stephen I, the first crowned monarch of Hungary (c. 1000–1038) "led an army against his maternal uncle, King Gyula
Gyula III
Gyula III, also Gyula the Younger, Geula or Gyla, was an early medieval ruler who apparently ruled in Transylvania . His actual name was probably Prokui, yet Prokui cannot possibly be the same as Gyula. Around 1003, he and his family were attacked, dispossessed and captured by King Stephen I of...
", and occupied Gyula's country.
Stephen I granted privileges to the Roman Catholic Church, for example by ordering the general imposition of the tithe upon the population. Burials in most local pre-Christian cemeteries, for example at Hunedoara
Hunedoara
Hunedoara is a city in Hunedoara County, Transylvania, Romania. It is located in southeastern Transylvania near the Poiana Ruscă Mountains, and administers five villages: Boş, Groş, Hăşdat, Peştişu Mare and Răcăştia....
, only ceased around 1100. Stephen I also divided his kingdom, including the territories of modern Romania he had occupied, into counties, that is administrative units around royal fortresses, each administered by a royal official called count. In time the voivode, a higher royal official first attested in 1176, became the principal of all the counts in Transylvania. In contrast with Transylvania, the counts in modern Banat and Crişana remained in direct contact with the king who appointed and replaced them at will.
From the end of the 9th century the Pechenegs controlled the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians. According to the Eymund's saga
Eymund's saga
Eymundar þáttr hrings is a short Norse saga, which is preserved in two versions. One of them appears as Eymundar þáttr hrings in the Flatey Book and the other one is an introductory chapter in Yngvars saga víðförla...
, they fought together with the Blökkumen ("Romanians") in the Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
in the 1010s. The Pechenegs were swept aside from their territories by the Cumans
Cumans
The Cumans were Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman-Kipchak confederation. After Mongol invasion , they decided to seek asylum in Hungary, and subsequently to Bulgaria...
between 1064 and 1078. A late variant of the oldest Turkish
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are peoples residing in northern, central and western Asia, southern Siberia and northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds...
chronicle, the Oghuz-name
Book of Dede Korkut
The Book of Dede Korkut, also spelled as Dada Gorgud, Dede Qorqut or Korkut-ata , is the most famous epic stories of the Oghuz Turks The stories carry morals and values significant to the social lifestyle of the nomadic Turks and their pre-Islamic beliefs...
relates that the Cumans defeated many nations, including the Ulâq ("Romanians"). Some of the Pechenegs fled into the Kingdom of Hungary where they were employed to guard the border districts, for instance in Transylvania.
The 11th-century settlements in Transylvania are characterized by small huts
Hut (dwelling)
A hut is a small and crude shelter, usually used for dwelling. Its design favors local techniques and materials to allow for swift and inexpensive construction.-Modern use:...
with ceramic assemblages marked by clay cauldrons. The increasing number of coin finds suggests that the province experienced economic growth in the late 11th century. The first document pertaining to the province is a royal charter of 1075 referring to taxes on salt levied at Turda
Turda
Turda is a city and Municipality in Cluj County, Romania, situated on the Arieş River.- Ancient times :The city was founded by Dacians under the name Patavissa or Potaissa...
. The earliest precious metal mine in medieval Transylvania, the silver mine at Rodna
Rodna
Rodna is a commune in Bistriţa-Năsăud County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of two villages, Rodna and Valea Vinului.During the Late Middle Ages, the Transylvanian Saxon-inhabited commune was sacked by the Mongols during their invasion of the Kingdom of Hungary....
was first mentioned in 1235.
In the 12th and 13th centuries hospites ("guest settlers") arrived in Transylvania from Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and from the French-speaking
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
regions on the river Rhine who in time became collectively known as "Saxons". In 1224 Andrew II of Hungary
Andrew II of Hungary
Andrew II the Jerosolimitan was King of Hungary and Croatia . He was the younger son of King Béla III of Hungary, who invested him with the government of the Principality of Halych...
(1205–1235) granted special liberties to the Saxons who had settled in southern Transylvania. For instance, they were authorized to choose their local leaders; only the head of the entire community, the count of Sibiu, was appointed by the king. They were also granted the right to use "the forest of the Romanians and the Pechenegs". The first references to viniculture in Transylvania are connected to the vineyards of the hospites of Cricău
Cricau
Cricău is a commune located in Alba County, Romania. It has a population of 2,097 and is composed of three villages: Craiva, Cricău and Tibru.-References:...
, Ighiu
Ighiu
Ighiu is a commune located in Alba County, Romania. The commune is composed of five villages: Bucerdea Vinoasă, Ighiel, Ighiu, Şard and Ţelna. Şard and Ighiu have a fortified church, the latter being used as a guest house, the Reformed Church of Ighiu....
, and Romos
Romos
Romos is a commune in Hunedoara County, Romania. It is composed of five villages: Ciungu Mare, Pişchinţi, Romos, Romoşel and Vaidei.-References:...
.
As a result of the Saxon immigration, the Székelys – Hungarian-speaking free warriors cultivating communal lands – were transferred to the southeast of the province. From the 13th century they were governed independently from the voivode by a royal official, the count of the Székelys. Besides the Saxons, the Cistercians became the agents of expansion in Transylvania. When their abbey at Cârţa
Cârta Monastery
Cârţa Monastery is a former Cistercian monastery in the Ţara Făgăraşului region in southern Transylvania in Romania, currently a Lutheran Evangelical church belonging to the local Saxon community...
was established in the early 13th century, Andrew II ordered that the strip of land running up to the mountains between the rivers Olt
Olt River
The Olt River is a river in Romania. It is the longest river flowing exclusively through Romania. Its source is in the Hăşmaş Mountains of the eastern Carpathian Mountains, near the village Bălan. It flows through the Romanian counties Harghita, Covasna, Braşov, Sibiu, Vâlcea and Olt...
, Cârţişoara
Cârtisoara River
The Cârţişoara River is a tributary of the Olt River in Romania. It starts at the junction of headwaters Pârâul Doamnei and Bâlea-References:* Administraţia Naţională Apelor Române - Cadastrul Apelor - Bucureşti...
and Arpaş
Arpas River
The Arpaş River is a tributary of the Olt River in Romania. It starts at the junction of two headwaters: Arpaşul Mare and Podragu-References:* Administraţia Naţională Apelor Române - Cadastrul Apelor - Bucureşti...
be transferred from the Romanians to the new monastery.
Following the defeat of the Cumans by the Mongols on the river Kalka in 1223, some chieftains of the western Cuman tribes accepted the authority of the king of Hungary. Their conversion led to the creation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania to the east of the Carpathians. However, the Orthodox Romanian population of the territory received the sacraments from "some pseudo-bishops of the Greek rite", according to a papal bull
Papal bull
A Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a Pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it....
of 1234. In 1233 Oltenia
Oltenia
Oltenia is a historical province and geographical region of Romania, in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Danube, the Southern Carpathians and the Olt river ....
was organized into a military frontier zone of the Kingdom of Hungary, called the Banate of Severin
Banate of Severin
-References:*George Popoviciu, Istoria românilor bănăţeni, Lugoj, 1904*Patriciu D., Istoria Banatului Severin, Tipografia Diecezană, Caransebeş, 1899....
.
The expansion across the Carpathians was stopped by the invasion of the Mongols that lasted from March 31, 1241 to April, 1242. It was a major watershed in the medieval history of the region: although the number of casualties is disputed, even the most prudent estimates do not go below 15 percent of the total population.
Outer-Carpathian regions
After the withdrawal from the Kingdom of Hungary, the Mongol forces halted at SaraiSarai (city)
Sarai was the name of two cities, which were successively capital cities of the Golden Horde, the Mongol kingdom which ruled Russia and much of central Asia in the 13th and 14th centuries...
(now Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
) on the Volga River
Volga River
The Volga is the largest river in Europe in terms of length, discharge, and watershed. It flows through central Russia, and is widely viewed as the national river of Russia. Out of the twenty largest cities of Russia, eleven, including the capital Moscow, are situated in the Volga's drainage...
where their leader, Batu Khan
Batu Khan
Batu Khan was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Ulus of Jochi , the sub-khanate of the Mongol Empire. Batu was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. His ulus was the chief state of the Golden Horde , which ruled Rus and the Caucasus for around 250 years, after also destroying the armies...
set up his own capital. Henceforth, the steppes between the rivers Dnieper
Dnieper River
The Dnieper River is one of the major rivers of Europe that flows from Russia, through Belarus and Ukraine, to the Black Sea.The total length is and has a drainage basin of .The river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations...
and Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
were under the influence of the Mongols of the Volga, known as the Golden Horde. From the 1260s, a relative of Batu, Nogai Khan
Nogai Khan
Nogai , also called Isa Nogai, was a general and de facto ruler of the Golden Horde and a great-great-grandson of Genghis Khan. His grandfather was Baul/Teval Khan, the 7th son of Jochi...
settled at Isaccea
Isaccea
Isaccea is a small town in Tulcea County, in Dobruja, Romania, on the right bank of the Danube, 35 km north-west of Tulcea. According to the 2002 census, it has a population 5,374....
on the Lower Danube and became the absolute master of the neighboring regions. He made himself independent of the Golden Horde around 1280, but was killed in a battle in 1299.
By the middle of the 14th century, the westernmost Mongol territories had become subject to frequent Polish and Hungarian military offensives. Grand Prince Olgierd of Lithuania
Algirdas
Algirdas was a monarch of medieval Lithuania. Algirdas ruled the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1345 to 1377, which chiefly meant monarch of Lithuanians and Ruthenians...
penetrated farther into the territories controlled by the Golden Horde than any European army had hitherto done. He won a major victory over the united Mongol troops
Battle of Blue Waters
The Battle of Blue Waters was a medieval battle fought at some time between 24 September and 25 December 1362 near the Syni Vody of the Southern Bug between the armies of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Golden Horde....
on the Dnieper near the Black Sea in 1363.
Intra-Carpathian regions
Having been raided twice by the Mongols within a single year, Transylvania felt the consequences of the invasion of 1241–1242 for more than two decades. The administrative centers of the province, such as Alba IuliaAlba Iulia
Alba Iulia is a city in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania with a population of 66,747, located on the Mureş River. Since the High Middle Ages, the city has been the seat of Transylvania's Roman Catholic diocese. Between 1541 and 1690 it was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania...
and Cetatea de Baltă
Cetatea de Balta
Cetatea de Baltă is a commune in Alba County, Romania with a population of 3217. It is located between Târnăveni at 15 kilometers and Blaj at 21 kilometers on the county road DJ 117...
, had been destroyed. Due to the severe depopulation, a process of organized colonization commenced that lasted for several decades. For example, a new wave of colonization resulted in the establishment of the Saxon seats of Sighişoara
Sighisoara
Sighişoara is a city and municipality on the Târnava Mare River in Mureş County, Romania. Located in the historic region Transylvania, Sighişoara has a population of 27,706 ....
and Mediaş
Medias
Mediaș is the second largest city in Sibiu County, Transylvania, Romania.-Geographic location:Mediaș is located in the middle basin of Târnava Mare River, at 39 km from Sighișoara and 41 km from Blaj. The health resort Bazna, officially recognized for the first time in 1302, is...
; and the lord of Ilia
Ilia, Hunedoara
Ilia is a commune in Hunedoara County, Romania. The village lies in the historical province of Transylvania. It is composed of nine villages: Bacea, Bretea Mureşană, Brâznic, Cuieş, Dumbrăviţa, Ilia, Săcămaş, Sârbi and Valea Lungă.-References:...
received, in 1292, royal permission to settle Romanians in the lands he owned.
Since only castles built of stone and walled towns had been able to resist Mongol attacks, following the withdrawal of the Mongols the kings encouraged both the landowners and the townspeople to build stone fortifications. New stone fortresses were built, for example, at Codlea
Codlea
Codlea is a city in Braşov County, central Romania.-History:During the 13th century, the Teutonic Order built a fortress known as Schwarzburg near the "Măgura Codlei". The castle's name was first noted in 1265. The city of Codlea is believed to have been also founded by Germans...
, Rimetea
Rimetea
Rimetea is a commune located in Alba County, Romania. It is composed of two villages, Colţeşti and Rimetea. A former mining town, today it is known as the location of the Piatra Secuiului mountain and as a Székely cultural center...
, and Unguraş
Unguras, Cluj
Unguraș is a commune in Cluj County, Romania. It is composed of five villages: Batin, Daroţț, Sicfa, Unguraș and Valea Ungurașului.According to the 2002 census, the commune has 3,093 inhabitants, out of which 1,850 are Hungarian, 1,131 are Romanian, and 109 are Roma.-References:*Atlasul...
. The process of urbanization was characterized by the predominance of the Saxon towns: out of the eight towns in Transylvania, only Alba Iulia and Dej
Dej
Dej is a city in northwestern Romania, 60 km north of Cluj-Napoca, in Cluj County. It lies where the Someşul Mic River meets the river Someşul Mare River...
were situated in the counties. A charter referring to inns, bakeries, and bathhouses in Rodna proves the city-like way of life of its inhabitants. Salt was still the most important item of trade in this period, but trading with oxen, maidservants, and wine is also documented in royal charters.
In 1257, Béla IV of Hungary
Béla IV of Hungary
Béla IV , King of Hungary and of Croatia , duke of Styria 1254–58. One of the most famous kings of Hungary, he distinguished himself through his policy of strengthening of the royal power following the example of his grandfather Bela III, and by the rebuilding Hungary after the catastrophe of the...
(1235–1270) appointed his eldest son, the future Stephen V
Stephen V of Hungary
Stephen V , was King of Hungary from 1270 to 1272.-Early years:...
(1270–1272) to govern the kingdom's territories to the east of the Danube. Here the younger king ceded a significant part of his royal domains to noblemen
Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary
The origin of the nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary can be traced to the Magyar conquest of Pannonia in the 9th century, and it developed over the course of the Middle Ages...
. The first years of the reign of Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1272–1290), were characterized by civil wars throughout the entire kingdom. In Transylvania, the Saxons engaged in a local conflict with the bishop, took Alba Iulia and set fire to the cathedral. The series of wars continued in 1285 with a second Mongol invasion. During its initial stage, the Székelys, the Romanians and the Saxons successfully blocked the Mongols' access and later organized a series of ambushes provoking panic among the retreating invaders.
By that time, the Romanians' military role had expanded from their original task of defending the kingdom's frontiers. They participated in several military campaigns, for example against Bohemia
Bohemia
Bohemia is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands. It is located in the contemporary Czech Republic with its capital in Prague...
in 1260 and against Austria
Habsburg Monarchy
The Habsburg Monarchy covered the territories ruled by the junior Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg , and then by the successor House of Habsburg-Lorraine , between 1526 and 1867/1918. The Imperial capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, when it was moved to Prague...
in 1291. Their economic role became also recognized, since their pastoral activities connected to cloth production of the Saxon settlements. To the monarchs, they paid a special tax in sheep, called the "fiftieth". Andrew III of Hungary (1290–1301) even ordered, in 1293, that all the Romanians who had been settled without royal permission on noble domains be returned to the royal estate of Armeni.
In the last decades of the 13th century, congregatio generalis ("general assembly") convoked by the monarchs or their representatives became an important organ of court system. For instance, the general assembly convoked in 1279 by Ladislaus IV for seven counties – among them Bihor, Crasna, Sătmar, and Zărand in the territory what is now Romania – ended with sentencing a despotic person to death. The first charter referring to a general assembly of the Transylvanian counties was recorded in 1288. A general assembly of the Transylvanian nobles, Saxons, Székelys and Romanians was convoked personally by the monarch in 1291.
When Andrew III died in 1301, the entire kingdom was in the hands of a dozen powerful noblemen. Among them, Roland Borsa
Roland Borsa
Roland Borsa was voivode of Transylvania for 3 periods in the late thirteenth century. He was known for battling the Mongol invasions and, later, for rebelling against Hungarian attempts to control his territory.- Origins :...
ruled Crişana, Theodore of Vejteh gained the upper hand in the Banat, and Ladislaus Kán governed Transylvania. The latter's authority was also recognized by the Saxons and the Székelys. He even assumed royal prerogatives, such as taking over lands lacking rightful owners. After 1310, he acknowledged Charles I of Hungary
Charles I of Hungary
Charles I , also known as Charles Robert , was the first King of Hungary and Croatia of the House of Anjou. He was also descended from the old Hungarian Árpád dynasty. His claim to the throne of Hungary was contested by several pretenders...
(1301–1342) as his sovereign, but in fact continued to rule independently. The king who transferred his residence to Timişoara
Timisoara
Timișoara is the capital city of Timiș County, in western Romania. One of the largest Romanian cities, with an estimated population of 311,586 inhabitants , and considered the informal capital city of the historical region of Banat, Timișoara is the main social, economic and cultural center in the...
in 1315 could only strengthen his authority after a long series of confrontations. For instance, Ciceu
Ciceu-Mihaiesti
Ciceu-Mihăieşti is a commune in Bistriţa-Năsăud County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Ciceu-Corabia , Ciceu-Mihăieşti and Leleşti . These were part of Petru Rareş Commune until 2005, when they were split off....
, the last stronghold of Ladislaus Kán's sons surrendered in 1321.
After the king's victory, one of his loyal adherents, Thomas Szécsényi
Szécsényi
The Szécsényi was a noble family of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 14-15th centuries. The ancestor of the family, Thomas descended from the gens Kacsics. He was one of the most powerful barons of King Charles I of Hungary and he hold several dignities during his reign. The family was named after...
was appointed voivode who suppressed a Saxon revolt in 1324. At that time, the autonomous Saxon province was divided into seats, each administered by a judge appointed by the king. In appreciation of the Transylvanian noblemen's services in the crushing of the revolt, Charles I exempted them from the taxes they had so far paid to the voivodes.
In this period, one of the major incentives for the growth of Transylvanian towns was the trade with Wallachia and Moldavia. For instance, Braşov was granted a staple right
Staple right
The staple right was a medieval right accorded to certain ports, the staple ports, that required merchant barges or ships to unload their goods at the port, and display them for sale for a certain period, often three days...
in 1369 with respect to the trade in cloth from Poland or Germany. Thereafter, foreign merchants had to sell their most sought-after merchandise, broadcloth
Broadcloth
Broadcloth is a dense woollen cloth. Modern broadcloth can be composed of cotton, silk, or polyester, but traditionally broadcloth was made solely of wool. The dense weave lends sturdiness to the material....
to the tradesmen of Braşov who resold it in Wallachia in exchange for animals, cotton, wax and honey.
In the 14th century, the name "district" was generalized for the forms of territorial organizations of the Romanians, but only few of them, for instance their district in Bereg County (now in Hungary and Ukraine), achieved official recognition. Maramureş, where Romanians were first mentioned in 1326, was the only district that transformed, around 1380, into a county. Louis I of Hungary (1342–1382) issued a royal decree in 1366
Decree of Turda
The Decree of Turda was a decree by Louis I Anjou of Hungary. It had longstanding consequences for the constitutional order and social structure of Transylvania....
which prescribed firm judicial measures against "the malefactors of any nation, especially Romanians".
Louis I's decree also regulated the legal status of the cneazes, the Romanians' local leaders, by establishing a distinction between cneazes "brought to" their lands by royal writ whose testimony in court weighed like that of nobles ("noble cneazes"), and others whose evidence counted for less ("commoner cneazes"). This distinction, however, did not mean real nobility and grant them exemption from royal taxes, even for the noble cneazes. Their status corresponded to that of the Hungarian "conditional noblemen" whose nobility depended on the specified military services they were to render.
According to a royal decree of 1428, Louis I had also ordered that only Catholics be granted land in the Sebeş
Sebes River (Timis)
The Sebeş River is a tributary of the Timiş River in Romania. Its source is located at the junction of headwaters Valea Craiului şi Cuntu.-References:* Administraţia Naţională Apelor Române - Cadastrul Apelor - Bucureşti...
district of Timiş county. As a result of official pressure, many Romanian noblemen converted to Catholicism. For example, the members of the powerful Drágffy family turned Catholic in the 15th century. The Ottomans raided Transylvania for the first time in 1394. Sigismund I of Hungary
Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund of Luxemburg KG was King of Hungary, of Croatia from 1387 to 1437, of Bohemia from 1419, and Holy Roman Emperor for four years from 1433 until 1437, the last Emperor of the House of Luxemburg. He was also King of Italy from 1431, and of Germany from 1411...
(1387–1437) organized a crusade against them, but the battle of Nicopolis
Battle of Nicopolis
The Battle of Nicopolis took place on 25 September 1396 and resulted in the rout of an allied army of Hungarian, Wallachian, French, Burgundian, German and assorted troops at the hands of an Ottoman force, raising of the siege of the Danubian fortress of Nicopolis and leading to the end of the...
(now Nikopol, Bulgaria
Nikopol, Bulgaria
Nikopol is a town in northern Bulgaria, the administrative center of Nikopol municipality, part of Pleven Province, on the right bank of the Danube river, 4 km downstream from the mouth of the Osam river. It spreads at the foot of steep chalk cliffs along the Danube and up a narrow valley...
) ended in disaster for the Christian forces in 1396.
Establishment of Wallachia
According to a charter issued by Béla IV of Hungary for the Knights Hospitallers in 1247, at that time at least four polities existed in the area to the south of the Carpathians. Two of them, the cnezats of JohnJohn (knez)
John, also Joan or Ioan, was a cneaz mentioned in a diploma issued by king Béla IV of Hungary on 2 July 1247; the diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of Severin and Cumania. John held a kenazate which was given to the knights by the king...
and Farcaş
Farcaş
Farcaş, also Farkas, Farkaş or Farcas, was a cneaz mentioned in a diploma issued by king Béla IV of Hungary on 2 July 1247; the diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of Severin and Cumania. Farcaş held a kenazate which was given to the knights by the king...
were granted to the knights, but the lands ruled by Litovoi
Litovoi
Litovoi, also Litvoy, was a Vlach voivode in the 13th century whose territory comprised northern Oltenia .He is mentioned for the first time in a diploma issued by king Béla IV of Hungary on 2 July 1247...
and Seneslau
Seneslau
Seneslau, also Seneslav or Stănislau, was a Vlach voivode mentioned in a diploma issued by king Béla IV of Hungary on 2 July 1247; the diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of Severin and Cumania...
were left "to the Olati" ("Romanians") "just as they have owned it". In the 1270s, Litovoi extended his territory and stopped paying tribute to the king, but his army was defeated by the royal forces, and he was killed in the battle.
Papist
Papist is a term or an anti-Catholic slur, referring to the Roman Catholic Church, its teachings, practices, or adherents. The term was coined during the English Reformation to denote a person whose loyalties were to the Pope, rather than to the Church of England...
s, Saxons, and all kind of men" around 1290. The first sovereign of Wallachia recorded in contemporary sources was Basarab I who obtained international recognition for the independence of the principality by his victory over Charles I of Hungary in the battle of Posada on November 12, 1330. The princes of Wallachia were chosen from among his descendants – either legitimate, or not – by an assembly of the boyars until the 16th century.
The boyars, members of the landed nobility, formed the most important social group in the principality. The vast majority of the population was formed by peasants who were called several names, such as vecini ("neighbors") or rumâni ("Romanians"), in medieval documents. In this period, animals, especially sheep, remained the main item of export, but from the Wallachian Plain great quantities of grain were transported to the Mediterranean area. The basis of the peasants' diet was formed by millet
Millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
eaten as porridge
Porridge
Porridge is a dish made by boiling oats or other cereal meals in water, milk, or both. It is usually served hot in a bowl or dish...
, while the boyars also used wheat
Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
.
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Wallachia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1359. Wallachia issued its own currency under Vladislav I
Vladislav I of Wallachia
Vladislav I of the Basarab dynasty, also known as Vlaicu-Vodă, was a ruler of the principality of Wallachia . He was a vassal of the Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Alexander. In 1369 Vladislav I subdued Vidin and recognised Louis I of Hungary as his overlord in return for Severin, Amlaş, and Făgăraş...
(1364–c. 1377). The earliest written information about Gypsies in modern Romania, a deed issued by Dan I of Wallachia
Dan I of Wallachia
Dan I was a voivode of the principality of Wallachia . During the war with Bulgaria he perished in battle against the troops of Tsar Ivan Shishman...
(c. 1383–1386) refers to Vladislav I's former donation of Gypsies to the Vodiţa monastery. Later on, all the important monasteries and boyars owned Gipsy slaves
Slavery in Romania
Slavery existed on the territory of present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 13th–14th century, until it was abolished in stages during the 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were of Roma ethnicity...
.
The Ottomans entered for the first time into Wallachia in 1395. Although the invading troops were defeated somewhere in a rovină
Battle of Rovine
The Battle of Rovine took place on 17 May 1395 between the Wallachian army led by Voivod Mircea cel Bătrân against the Ottoman invasion led by sultan Bayezid I. The Ottoman army, numbering approximately 40,000 men, faced the much smaller Wallachian army, which was about 10,000 men...
("ragged marshland") in Oltenia, the chaos created by the threat of attacks allowed a group of boyars to put Vlad I the Usurper
Vlad I of Wallachia
Vlad I, known as Uzurpatorul , was a ruler of the principality of Wallachia, , during the reign of Mircea I of Wallachia, usurping the throne but only lasting 3 years....
(1395–1397) on the throne. Thus Mircea I was forced to take refuge in Transylvania, where he agreed to be Sigismund I of Hungary's vassal. He was restored to the throne and participated in the disastrous crusade of Nicopolis organized by Sigismund I.
Establishment of Moldavia
After 1241 the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester was controlled by the Golden Horde. Nevertheless, the contemporary Thomas Tuscus's reference to the Romanians' conflict with the RutheniansHalych-Volhynia
The Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia or Kingdom of Rus or Galicia–Vladimir was a Ruthenian state in the regions of Galicia and Volhynia during 1199–1349. Along with Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal, it was one of the three most important powers to emerge from the collapse of Kievan Rus'...
in 1277 suggests that Romanian political entities existed in northern Moldavia at that time. In 1345 Andrew Lackfi, the count of the Székelys led an army over the Carpathians and occupied this region where a border province was organized by Louis I of Hungary.
Romanian historical tradition links the foundation of Moldavia to the "dismounting of Dragoş", a Romanian voivode from Maramureş. Although Dragoş
Dragos
Dragonș, also Dragoş Vodă or Dragoş of Bedeu, was a Romanian voivode in Maramureş who has traditionally been considered as the first ruler or prince of Moldavia...
was succeeded by his son, Sas
Sas of Moldavia
Sas was, according to the Slavo-Romanian chronicles, the second voivode of Moldavia . He followed Dragoş who had been sent to Moldavia as a representative of the king of Hungary...
, his line did not last long. His descendants were soon expelled by Bogdan, a former voivode of Maramureş who fled to Moldavia and joined with local boyars in a revolt.
In Moldavia, agriculture and animal raising remained the principal economic activities. Similarly to Wallachia, wooden plow remained the main agricultural tool throughout the Middle Ages. The constant clearing of land shows that finding new land was still preferred to crop rotation
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons.Crop rotation confers various benefits to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals...
. The establishment of the principality enhanced the security of travel, thus Moldavia could also profit from the transit trade between Poland and the Black Sea ports. The first local coins were minted in 1377, under Peter I Muşat (c. 1375–1391).
The succession to the throne, similarly to Wallachia, was governed by the hereditary-elective principle. Thus either a legitimate or an illegitimate member of the Muşatin family could be proclaimed prince by an assembly of the boyars. In 1387 Peter I Muşat recognized Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland as his suzerain, but Hungary also maintained its claim of suzerainty over the principality. Therefore the princes of Moldavia could counterbalance the influence of Poland and Hungary by playing one off against the other.
Dobruja
After 1242 most of the territory between the Danube and the Black SeaBlack Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
was included in the area dominated by the Mongols. Although the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
reestablished control over the Danube Delta in the 1260s, it fell again under the direct rule of the Golden Horde sometime before 1337. By the end of the 13th century, flourishing communities of Genoese
Republic of Genoa
The Most Serene Republic of Genoa |Ligurian]]: Repúbrica de Zêna) was an independent state from 1005 to 1797 in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast, as well as Corsica from 1347 to 1768, and numerous other territories throughout the Mediterranean....
merchants had settled in the towns of Vicina, Chilia
Chilia Veche
Chilia Veche is a commune in Tulcea County, Romania, on the Danube Delta . It gave its name to the Chilia branch of the Danube, which separates it from Ukraine...
and Licostomo.
Towards the middle of the 14th century a state dependent of the Byzantine Empire, known as "the country of Cavarna
Principality of Karvuna
The Principality of Karvuna or Despotate of Dobruja was a 14th-century quasi-independent state in the region of modern Dobruja. It emerged as a polity under the influence of the Byzantine Empire, and probably had a population composed of Bulgarians, Gagauz, Greeks, Tatars, and Vlachs.The...
", developed in the region. Its first known ruler was Balica. He was succeeded by his brother, Dobrotitsa
Dobrotitsa
Dobrotitsa was a Bulgarian noble, ruler of the de facto independent Principality of Karvuna and the Kaliakra fortress from 1354 to 1379–1386....
, for whom part of his holdings, Dobruja, received its name. In about 1385 Ivanco became the ruler of the territory, but he soon disappeared during an Ottoman expedition. Dobruja was occupied by Mircea I of Wallachia in 1390 and by the Ottomans in 1395.
Intra-Carpathian regions
In order to establish a zone of buffer states, Sigismund I of Hungary tried to draw the neighboring Orthodox rulers under his own suzerainty by granting them estates in his kingdom. For example, Stefan LazarevićStefan Lazarevic
Stefan Lazarević known also as Stevan the Tall was a Serbian Despot, ruler of the Serbian Despotate between 1389 and 1427. He was the son and heir to Prince Lazar, who died at the Battle of Kosovo against the Turks in 1389, and Princess Milica from the subordinate branch of the Nemanjić dynasty...
of Serbia received Satu Mare, Baia Mare
Baia Mare
Baia Mare is a municipality in northwestern Romania and the capital of Maramureş County. The city is situated about 600 kilometres from Bucharest, the capital of Romania, 70 kilometres from the border with Hungary and 50 kilometres from the border with Ukraine...
and Baia Sprie
Baia Sprie
Baia Sprie is a town in the Maramureş County, northern Romania. The Hungarian version of the town's name means "Upper Mine".The town administers three villages: Chiuzbaia, Satu Nou de Sus and Tăuţii de Sus. Neighbouring communities are the city of Baia Mare and the villages of Groşi, Dumbrăviţa,...
in modern Romania, and Mircea I of Wallachia was granted Făgăraş
Fagaras
Făgăraș is a city in central Romania, located in Braşov County . Another source of the name is alleged to derive from the Hungarian language word for "partridge" . A more plausible explanation is that the name is given by Fogaras river coming from the Pecheneg "Fagar šu", which means ash water...
. Sigismund I was also the first monarch who recognized, in 1419, the legislative competence of the Estates
Estates of the realm
The Estates of the realm were the broad social orders of the hierarchically conceived society, recognized in the Middle Ages and Early Modern period in Christian Europe; they are sometimes distinguished as the three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and commoners, and are often referred to by...
in Transylvania. On his initiative, their assembly declared that in case of an Ottoman attack, every third nobleman and every tenth serf would take up arms. Indeed, from 1420 Ottoman attacks occurred on an annual basis. In this period many Saxon churches, and later the Székely churches of the Ciuc region, were fortified, which gave local architecture a distinctive appearance.
The increasing defense costs fell primarily on the serfs: the rent on the land was raised and extraordinary taxes were imposed. The first peasant revolt in the territory of modern Romania broke out due to the efforts taken by the bishop of Transylvania to collect the church taxes. Led by Anton Budai Nagy, the rebellious peasants, who called themselves "the commune of the rightful Hungarian and Romanian inhabitants of this part of Transylvania", established a fortified camp on the Bobâlna hill early in 1437. They fought two important battles against the noblemen; the first one, at Bobâlna, was won by the peasants, and the second one, near the Apatiu River
Apatiu River
The Apatiu River is a tributary of the Meleş River in Romania.-References:* Administraţia Naţională Apelor Române - Cadastrul Apelor - Bucureşti* Institutul de Meteorologie şi Hidrologie - Rîurile României - Bucureşti 1971...
, had no clear winner. The leaders of the noblemen, the Saxons and the Székelys, however, set up a "brotherly union" in order to join forces and crushed the peasants' resistance by the end of January 1438.
The Ottomans' attempt to conquer new territories led to a better organized policy against them. The temporary union of the Eastern and Western Churches proclaimed by the Council of Florence
Council of Florence
The Council of Florence was an Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. It began in 1431 in Basel, Switzerland, and became known as the Council of Ferrara after its transfer to Ferrara was decreed by Pope Eugene IV, to convene in 1438...
in 1439 also created a favorable background for the concentration of Christian forces. Christendom found its champion in John Hunyadi
John Hunyadi
John Hunyadi John Hunyadi (Hungarian: Hunyadi János , Medieval Latin: Ioannes Corvinus or Ioannes de Hunyad, Romanian: Iancu (Ioan) de Hunedoara, Croatian: Janko Hunjadi, Serbian: Сибињанин Јанко / Sibinjanin Janko, Slovak: Ján Huňady) John Hunyadi (Hungarian: Hunyadi János , Medieval Latin: ...
who gained a series of victories over the Ottomans after 1441. For instance, in 1442 he routed an Ottoman army that had been devastating Transylvania. Through his last victory over Mehmed II
Mehmed II
Mehmed II , was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from...
at the siege of Belgrade (in modern Serbia) in 1456, he saved the kingdom from Ottoman occupation for several decades. During the reign of his son, Matthias I of Hungary (1458–1490), the Ottomans launched only one serious attack against Transylvania in 1479 when they were defeated at Câmpul Pâinii.
Matthias I used his officials to assert royal prerogatives that had already fallen into disuse. The noblemen found it particularly irksome that the lucrum camarae, a tax from which they had been exempted was replaced with a new tax. In Transylvania, the "Three Nations" entered into a formal alliance against the king in 1467, but he quickly intervened and took the disorganized rebels by surprise.
By that time, the land once held in common by the Székely community had gradually become divided into smaller and smaller units; thus a vast number of the free warrior-peasants had to enter the service of their more prosperous fellow Székelys. This social stratification was formally recognized by a royal decree in 1473. Thereafter those who performed mounted military service were differentiated from those who fought as foot-soldiers; those who were unable to finance themselves even as foot-soldiers were legally reduced to servitude.
The prominence of the German element in the towns sometimes led to conflicts along ethnic lines. Thus the struggle for leadership in Cluj (now Cluj-Napoca
Cluj-Napoca
Cluj-Napoca , commonly known as Cluj, is the fourth most populous city in Romania and the seat of Cluj County in the northwestern part of the country. Geographically, it is roughly equidistant from Bucharest , Budapest and Belgrade...
) between Hungarians and Saxons only came to an end in 1458 by establishing a rule that municipal offices must be shared equally between the two groups. In 1486, Matthias I united all the Saxon districts in Transylvania in the "University of the Saxons" under the leadership of the elected mayor of Sibiu
Sibiu
Sibiu is a city in Transylvania, Romania with a population of 154,548. Located some 282 km north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Cibin River, a tributary of the river Olt...
.
After Matthias I's death, the assembly of the Estates, called Diet, began to function as a regular organ of power. The peasantry suffered most from the rule of the Estates, for instance, by the limitation of their right to free movement. In 1514 thousands of peasants who had been summoned to Buda
Buda
For detailed information see: History of Buda CastleBuda is the western part of the Hungarian capital Budapest on the west bank of the Danube. The name Buda takes its name from the name of Bleda the Hun ruler, whose name is also Buda in Hungarian.Buda comprises about one-third of Budapest's...
(now Budapest
Budapest
Budapest is the capital of Hungary. As the largest city of Hungary, it is the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation centre. In 2011, Budapest had 1,733,685 inhabitants, down from its 1989 peak of 2,113,645 due to suburbanization. The Budapest Commuter...
, in modern Hungary) to join the crusade proclaimed by Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X , born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, was the Pope from 1513 to his death in 1521. He was the last non-priest to be elected Pope. He is known for granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica and his challenging of Martin Luther's 95 Theses...
against the Ottomans turned the weapons against their masters. The rebels, led by the Székely George Dózsa, occupied several towns, such as Oradea and Şoimoş, but on July 15 John Szapolyai, the voivode defeated them at Timişoara
Timisoara
Timișoara is the capital city of Timiș County, in western Romania. One of the largest Romanian cities, with an estimated population of 311,586 inhabitants , and considered the informal capital city of the historical region of Banat, Timișoara is the main social, economic and cultural center in the...
. As a retaliation, the Diet decreed that peasants were to be tied to the land "perpetually".
The downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary was marked by the battle of Mohács
Battle of Mohács
The Battle of Mohács was fought on August 29, 1526 near Mohács, Hungary. In the battle, forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia were defeated by forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent....
(Hungary) where the royal army was annihilated by the Ottomans on August 29, 1526. Thereafter the noblemen's political factions engaged in conflict and elected two kings. One of them, John I Szapolyai (1526–1540) was supported by the lesser nobility, while Ferdinand I of Habsburg
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand I was Holy Roman Emperor from 1558 and king of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526 until his death. Before his accession, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.The key events during his reign were the contest...
(1526–1564) was recognized mainly in the kingdom's western counties, but the Transylvanian Saxons also supported him. Seeking the assistance of the Ottomans, John I had to pay homage to the sultan at Mohács
Mohács
Mohács is a town in Baranya county, Hungary on the right bank of the Danube.-History:Two famous battles took place there:# Battle of Mohács, 1526# Battle of Mohács, 1687...
in 1529.
Wallachia
Battle of Ankara
The Battle of Ankara or Battle of Angora, fought on July 20, 1402, took place at the field of Çubuk between the forces of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I and the Turko-Mongol forces of Timur, ruler of the Timurid Empire. The battle was a major victory for Timur, and it led to a period of crisis for...
. He even intervened in the Ottoman civil war
Ottoman Interregnum
The Ottoman Interregnum began in 20 July 1402, when chaos reigned in the Ottoman Empire following the defeat of Sultan Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Timur...
and supported the struggle of Musa and Mustafa against their brother, Mehmed I
Mehmed I
Mehmed I Çelebi was a Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1413 to 1421. He was one of the sons of Bayezid I and Valide Sultan Devlet Hatun Mehmed I Çelebi (Ottoman: چلبی محمد, Mehmed I or Mehmed Çelebi) (1382, Bursa – May 26, 1421, Edirne, Ottoman Empire) was a Sultan of the Ottoman Empire...
. After the two pretenders had been defeated, the Ottomans annexed again Dobruja and occupied Giurgiu
Giurgiu
Giurgiu is the capital city of Giurgiu County, Romania, in the Greater Wallachia. It is situated amid mud-flats and marshes on the left bank of the Danube facing the Bulgarian city of Rousse on the opposite bank. Three small islands face the city, and a larger one shelters its port, Smarda...
, and Mircea I was forced to pay an annual tribute to the sultan. Under Mircea I iron mines were opened at Baia de Fier
Baia de Fier
Baia de Fier is a commune in Gorj County, Romania. It is composed of two villages, Baia de Fier and Cernădia.It is a sister city to Boccioleto, Italy since 2007....
and copper mining began at Baia de Aramă
Baia de Arama
Baia de Aramă is a small Romanian town located in the Wallachian county of Mehedinţi with a population of 5,724. The Brebina River runs through the town...
. In addition, sulfur
Sulfur
Sulfur or sulphur is the chemical element with atomic number 16. In the periodic table it is represented by the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent non-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow...
and amber
Amber
Amber is fossilized tree resin , which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Amber is used as an ingredient in perfumes, as a healing agent in folk medicine, and as jewelry. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents...
were extracted in the region of Buzău
Buzau
The city of Buzău is the county seat of Buzău County, Romania, in the historical region of Wallachia. It lies near the right bank of the Buzău River, between the south-eastern curvature of the Carpathian Mountains and the lowlands of Bărăgan Plain.The city's name dates back to 376 AD when the name...
.
After Mircea I's death, princes succeeded one another on the throne with devastating frequency. For instance, Michael I
Michael I of Wallachia
Michael I was a voivode of the principality of Wallachia .In 1418–1420, Mihail I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive...
(1418–1420) was overthrown by his cousin, Dan II
Dan II of Wallachia
Dan II was a voivode of the principality of Wallachia in the 15th Century, ruling an extraordinary five times, and succeeded four times by Radu II Chelul, his rival for the throne...
(1420–1431), and in the next decade the throne was occupied with frequent changes either by Dan II or by his cousin, Radu II the Bald
Radu II of Wallachia
Radu II Prasnaglava was a ruler of the principality of Wallachia in the 15th century, ruling for 4 terms, each time preceded by Dan II, his rival for the throne, and each time succeeded by him. Of those 4 periods on the throne of Wallachia, all were within a period of only 7 years, and 3 terms...
(1421–1427), the former being supported by Sigismund I of Hungary and the latter by the Ottomans.
Alexander I Aldea (1431–1436) was the first Romanian ruler to be forced to render military service to the Ottomans. Two decades later, Vlad III the Impaler
Vlad III the Impaler
Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia , also known by his patronymic Dracula , and posthumously dubbed Vlad the Impaler , was a three-time Voivode of Wallachia, ruling mainly from 1456 to 1462, the period of the incipient Ottoman conquest of the Balkans...
(1448, 1456–1462, 1476), notorious as the model for the Dracula legend
Count Dracula
Count Dracula is a fictional character, the titular antagonist of Bram Stoker's 1897 Gothic horror novel Dracula and archetypal vampire. Some aspects of his character have been inspired by the 15th century Romanian general and Wallachian Prince Vlad III the Impaler...
, turned against the Ottoman Empire. He carried out a series of attacks across the Danube in the winter of 1461–1462. The response was a massive invasion led by Mehmed II who drove Vlad III from the throne and replaced him with his brother, Radu III the Fair (1462–1475). Due to the frequent military operations, the Wallachian Plain was heavily depopulated after the end of the 14th century. On the other hand, Wallachia received a steady flow of immigrants, mostly from the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
.
After 1462 Wallachia preserved its autonomy mainly through the intervention of Stephen the Great of Moldavia. At the end of the century, however, Radu IV the Great (1495–1508) became an obedient subject of the sultan and visited Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
annually to personally offer the tribute. Even so, he could only stay in power by collaborating with the powerful Craioveşti
Craiovesti
The Craiovești , later Brâncovenești , were a boyar family in Wallachia who gave the country several of its Princes and held the title of Ban of Oltenia for ca...
family, strongly connected to the Ottomans by trading. In 1512 a member of this family, Neagoe
Neagoe Basarab
Neagoe Basarab was the Voivode of Wallachia between 1512 and 1521. Born into the boyar family of the Craioveşti as the son of Pârvu Craiovescu or Basarab Ţepeluş cel Tânăr, Neagoe Basarab, who replaced Vlad cel Tânăr after the latter rejected Craioveşti tutelage, was noted for his abilities and...
(1512–1521) rose to throne, but he adopted the dynastic name of Basarab in order to legitimize his rule. He wrote the first original work of Romanian literature, titled Teachings, to his son, Teodosius on moral, political, and military questions.
Under Theodosius I (1521–1522) the Ottoman governor of Nicopolis take advantage of the internal fights among the boyar parties, and thus dominated the political life of Wallachia. Due to the imminent danger of annexation, the boyars grouped around Radu V of Afumaţi
Radu of Afumaţi
-Notes:...
(1522–1529) who fought about 20 battles against the Ottomans. Finally, he was, in 1525, forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty and the rise of the tribute.
Moldavia
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Moldavia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch during the reign of Alexander I the Good (1400–1432). He reinforced Moldavia's traditional pro-Polish orientation and declared himself a vassal of Władysław II of Poland in 1406. Thenceforth, the Moldavian armies fought together with the Poles against the Teutonic KnightsTeutonic Knights
The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem , commonly the Teutonic Order , is a German medieval military order, in modern times a purely religious Catholic order...
. The first Ottoman attack on Moldavia in 1420 was also repulsed by him. Alexander I's death was followed by a long period of political instability, characterized by frequent fights for the throne. For instance, the struggle of his sons, Iliaş I
Ilias of Moldavia
Iliaş or Ilie I was Prince of Moldavia twice: in January 1432–October 1433 and with his brother Stephen II in August 1435–May 1443....
(1432–1442) and Stephen II
Stephen II of Moldavia
Stephen II was a Prince of Moldavia. He ruled alone between September 1434 and August 1435, jointly with Iliaş of Moldavia from August 1435 to May 1443, alone from May 1443 to May 1444, in association with his brother Petru from May 1444 to 1445, and alone until July 1447.He was the son of...
(1433–1447) ended in 1435 by the division of the country.
Although cottage industries, both in boyar and peasant households, were still the main source of clothing, food and construction, specialized production, such as weaving
Weaving
Weaving is a method of fabric production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. The other methods are knitting, lace making and felting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling...
and pottery, started to develop by the middle of the 15th century. The first oil well
Oil well
An oil well is a general term for any boring through the earth's surface that is designed to find and acquire petroleum oil hydrocarbons. Usually some natural gas is produced along with the oil. A well that is designed to produce mainly or only gas may be termed a gas well.-History:The earliest...
s went into production in 1440, but their oil was also only for household use. In Moldavia, Gypsy slaves were first mentioned in 1428 when Alexander I awarded 31 Gypsy families to the Bistriţa Monastery
Bistrita Monastery
The Bistriţa Monastery is a Romanian Orthodox monastery located 8 km west of Piatra Neamţ. It was dedicated in 1402 by Romanian Voivode Alexandru cel Bun whose remains are buried here....
. In time Gypsies became specialized in several crafts: for example, throughout the Middle Ages the working of iron was an occupation reserved almost exclusively for them.
Peter III Aaron (1451–1457) was the first prince who agreed to pay tribute to the Ottomans in 1456. He was ousted by his nephew, Stephen, with the support of Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia. Stephen III the Great was to be the most important medieval Romanian monarch who managed to uphold Moldavia's autonomy against Hungary, Poland and the Ottoman Empire.
Battle of Baia
The Battle of Baia was fought on 15 December 1467 between the Moldavian Prince, Stephen the Great and Hungarian King, Matthias Corvinus. The battle was the last Hungarian attempt to subdue the independent Moldavia, as previous attempts had ended in failure...
. He came to view the Ottoman Empire as his chief enemy in the 1470s, and in 1474 he refused to pay tribute. He soon received the ultimatum of Mehmed II who demanded the surrender of Chilia, a fortress recently captured from Wallachia. Upon Stephen III's refusal, a large Ottoman army was sent against Moldavia. He called on Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Sixtus IV , born Francesco della Rovere, was Pope from 1471 to 1484. His accomplishments as Pope included the establishment of the Sistine Chapel; the group of artists that he brought together introduced the Early Renaissance into Rome with the first masterpiece of the city's new artistic age,...
, pleading for a crusade. Although the pope acknowledged his merits, by naming him "the Athlete of Christ", no anti-Ottoman coalition materialized. Even without external military support, Stephen the Great led his troops to victory in the battle of Vaslui
Battle of Vaslui
The Battle of Vaslui was fought on January 10, 1475 between Stephen III of Moldavia and the Ottoman Beylerbey of Rumelia, Hadân Suleiman Pasha. The battle took place at Podul Înalt , near the town of Vaslui, in Moldavia...
on January 10, 1475. Following the battle, he addressed a letter to the Christian princes, expressing the idea that the two Romanian principalities were the "gateway to the Christian world", and if they fell "all Christendom would be in danger".
He also recognized Matthias I of Hungary as his suzerain and received, in return, Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă in Transylvania. The following year, however, he found himself alone when Mehmed II invaded Moldavia. The Moldavian army was defeated in the Battle of Valea Albă
Battle of Valea Alba
The Battle of Valea Albă or Battle of Războieni or Battle of Akdere was an important event in the medieval history of Moldavia. It took place at Războieni, also known as Valea Albă, on July 26, 1476, between the Moldavian army of Ştefan cel Mare and an invading Ottoman army which was commanded...
, but the Ottomans, suffering from a lack of provisions and an outbreak of the plague, were forced to retreat. Stephen the Great suffered the greatest setback of his carrier in 1484 when the Ottomans captured Chilia and Cetatea Alba (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine) on the Black Sea. Having tried unsuccessfully to regain the fortresses in 1485, he concluded a peace with the sultan and agreed to pay tribute to him.
He was succeeded by his son, Bogdan III the One-Eyed (1504–1517) whose reign was troubled by a long series of military conflicts with Poland and Wallachia. The good relations with Poland were reestablished under the reign of Stephen IV the Younger (1517–1527). His successor, Peter IV Rareş (1527–1538, 1541–1546) intervened in the struggle for the crown of the Kingdom of Hungary: on the order of the sultan, in 1529 he invaded the Székely Land
Székely Land
The Székely Land or Szekler Land refers to the territories inhabited mainly by the Székely, a Hungarian-speaking ethnic group from eastern Transylvania...
and defeated the army of Ferdinand I's partisans.
Establishment of Principality of Transylvania
After 1529, resistance to John I in Transylvania was broken in a series of small campaigns. For instance, the last Transylvanian magnate to side with Ferdinánd I, Stephen Majláth went over to John I in early 1532, and Sibiu was occupied in 1536. On February 24, 1538, a secret pact was signed in Oradea by the representatives of the two kings of Hungary. According to the treaty, both rulers were allowed to retain the territories which they then held, but the childless John I promised to recognize the Habsburgs' succession.However, John I married a daughter of Sigismund I of Poland, Isabella, who in 1540 bore him a son. Already dying, the king took an oath from his barons to evade the treaty of Oradea, and his counselor, George Martinuzzi
George Martinuzzi
George Martinuzzi was a Croatian nobleman, a monk, bishop of Oradea, archbishop of Esztergom, cardinal and Hungarian statesman.-Biography:Martinuzzi was born in Kamičac, Dalmatia...
, had the infant John II Sigismund
John II Sigismund Zápolya
John II Sigismund Zápolya was King of Hungary from 1540 to 1570 and Prince of Transylvania from 1570–1571.-Family:The son of King John I and Isabella Jagiełło, he succeeded his father as an infant...
elected as king (1540–1571). Ferdinand I sent troops to take Buda, but they withdrew upon the advance of the Ottoman army. On August 29, 1541 Suleiman I summoned the Hungarian lords to his camp, and while the reception was taking place, his troops
Janissary
The Janissaries were infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops and bodyguards...
occupied the capital of the kingdom. At the same time the sultan assigned the territories of the kingdom east of the Tisa to Queen Isabella and her son in return for an annual tribute.
On October 18, the kingdom's eastern territories, including Transylvania, swore allegiance to the infant king at the Diet of Debrecen
Debrecen
Debrecen , is the second largest city in Hungary after Budapest. Debrecen is the regional centre of the Northern Great Plain region and the seat of Hajdú-Bihar county.- Name :...
(Hungary). Thus a separate country started to emerge, although George Martinuzzi was still negotiating with Ferdinand I on the reunification of the kingdom. For this purpose, in 1551 Ferdinand I sent an army into Transylvania where he was recognized as sole ruler by the Diet. The Ottomans, however, occupied a great part of Banat in 1552, and neither could Ferdinand I consolidate his rule over the kingdom's eastern territories. Finally, the Diet, meeting in Sebeş on March 12, 1556, swore again allegiance to "the son of King John", thus the young king and his mother returned to Transylvania.
The 16th century also brought about major religious changes: the Saxons converted to Lutheranism
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
, while most of the Hungarians converted to Calvinism
Calvinism
Calvinism is a Protestant theological system and an approach to the Christian life...
or Unitarianism
Unitarianism
Unitarianism is a Christian theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism which defines God as three persons coexisting consubstantially as one in being....
; only the Székelys remained more than the other "nations" Catholic. In 1568, the Transylvanian Diet at Torda decreed the free worship of these four "received denominations", but Orthodoxy still continued to be only tolerated. The Romanians' status worsened in this period. The Diets of 1554 and 1555 decided that a Catholic or Protestant peasant could not be accused of a crime except there were seven Catholic or Protestant witnesses against him, while an Orthodox peasant could be accused if there were three Catholic or Protestant or seven Orthodox witnesses. The Diet of 1559 also decreed that Romanians who had settled on lands abandoned by Catholic serfs were obliged to pay the tithe.
From the Székelys, continuing warfare demanded increased military service, and the royal administration imposed special taxes on them. Although the leaders of the Székely community were exempted from taxation in 1554, but all the foot soldiers continued to be taxed, resulting in a double burden of military and monetary obligations for them. In 1562 many Székelys took up arms against John II Sigismund, but they were defeated. The Saxon towns continued to develop even in the years of upheaval. Their population, however, increased slowly, mainly as a consequence of the Saxons' traditional desire for segregation: even Hungarian craftsmen and merchants were prohibited from settling in their towns.
In the Treaty of Speyer of August 16, 1570, John II Sigismund acknowledged his rival, Maximilian I
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian II was king of Bohemia and king of the Romans from 1562, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1563, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from 1564 until his death...
(1564–1576) as the lawful king of Hungary and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary". The treaty also marked out the borders of the new principality, which included not only the historical province of Transylvania, but also some neighboring counties, such as Bihor and Maramureş, thenceforward collectively known as Partium
Partium
Partium or Részek is the name given in Hungarian to the region located to the north and west of Transylvania.-Origin of the name:...
. The death of John II Sigismund in 1571 threatened to throw the country again into the hands of the Habsburgs whose officers supported the Unitarian Gáspár Bekes
Gáspár Bekes
Gáspár de Kornyath Bekes was a Hungarian noble who fought with Stephen Báthory for the throne of Transylvania after the death of John II Sigismund Zápolya in 1571...
. Now the sultan appointed Stephen Báthory
Stephen Báthory
Stephen Báthory may refer to several noblemen of Hungarian descent:* Stephen III Báthory , Palatine of Hungary* Stephen V Báthory , judge of the Royal Court and Prince of Transylvania...
, a Catholic politician, voivode.
The decisive battle between the two candidates was won by Stephen Báthory at Sânpaul
Sânpaul, Mures
Sânpaul is a commune in Mureş County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of five villages: Chirileu, Dileu Nou, Sânmărghita, Sânpaul and Valea Izvoarelor.-References:...
on July 8, 1575. In the same year, he was elected king of Poland, thus a personal union was formed between the two countries that lasted until his death in 1586. He left the administration of the principality first to his brother, Christopher Báthory
Christopher Báthory
Christopher Báthory was a prince of Transylvania. He succeeded his brother Stephen Báthory. He was the father of Sigismund Báthory....
(1575–1581), and then to his brother's minor son, Sigismund Báthory
Sigismund Báthory
Sigismund Báthory was Prince of Transylvania.-Biography:Hailing from the Báthory family's Somlyó branch, he was the son of Christopher Báthory, Voivod of Transylvania, and nephew of Stephen Báthory, King of Poland...
(1581–1602), bestowing on them the title of voivode, while he himself took the title of prince.
In February, 1594 Sigismund Báthory announced that his country would join the anti-Ottoman alliance formed by the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II
Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor
Rudolf II was Holy Roman Emperor , King of Hungary and Croatia , King of Bohemia and Archduke of Austria...
, Philip II of Spain
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
and many smaller Italian and German states. Although the Estates twice refused to endorse the declaration of war, Transylvania joined the alliance on January 28, 1595 after the leaders of the opposition had been executed on the order of the monarch. In return Rudolph II recognized Sigismund's title of prince.
Wallachia
The short and unworthy reigns of Radu V’s successors only increased the crisis of Wallachia. Starting with Mircea the Shepherd (1545–1559), the first prince placed on the throne by the sultan, the crown became negotiable, according to the largest tribute offered. Even Michael the Brave who in time would turn against the Ottomans ascended the throne with the support of some people who had influence with the Sublime Porte, among them Sir Edward BartonEdward Barton (English diplomat)
Sir Edward Barton was Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, appointed by Queen Elizabeth I of England.Barton went to Constantinople in 1578, in the pay of the Levant Company, as secretary to the founder of the English embassy in the city, William Harborne and in 1588 succeeded Harborne as ambassador....
, the English
English people
The English are a nation and ethnic group native to England, who speak English. The English identity is of early mediaeval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Anglecynn. England is now a country of the United Kingdom, and the majority of English people in England are British Citizens...
ambassador to Istanbul.
He soon embarked upon a program to strengthen the central authority by replacing the members of the sfatul domnesc, an advisory body consisting of boyars, with dregători, that is officials personally loyal to him. Michael the Brave also adopted an anti-Ottoman policy, and upon his initiative Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Aaron the Tyrant of Moldavia (1591–1595) signed a treaty to form an anti-Ottoman alliance. The rebellion started by the massacre of all the Ottomans in Wallachia on November 13, 1594.
Moldavia
In 1531 Peter IV Rareş invaded Poland in order to reoccupy the PocuţiaPokuttya
Pokuttya or Pokuttia is a historical area of East-Central Europe, between upper Prut and Cheremosh rivers, in modern Ukraine. Historically it was a culturally distinct area inhabitated by Ukrainians and Romanians on the previously unpopulated borderlands between the lands of Lviv and Halych...
region (in modern Ukraine), but his army was defeated. Now he concluded a secret treaty with Ferdinand I of Hungary, but soon had to seek refugee in Transylvania when Suleiman I led an army against him. This was the first occasion when a prince, Stephen V Lăcustă (1538–1540) was appointed by the sultan. At the same time, the sultan occupied Brăila
Braila
Brăila is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County, in the close vicinity of Galaţi.According to the 2002 Romanian census there were 216,292 people living within the city of Brăila, making it the 10th most populous city in Romania.-History:A...
and Tighina
Tighina
Bender or Bendery, also known as Tighina is a city within the internationally recognized borders of Moldova under de facto control of the unrecognized Transnistria Republic since 1992...
(now in Moldova
Moldova
Moldova , officially the Republic of Moldova is a landlocked state in Eastern Europe, located between Romania to the West and Ukraine to the North, East and South. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the preceding Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991, as part...
), and the Budjak
Budjak
Budjak or Budzhak is a historical region in the Odessa Oblast of Ukraine. Lying along the Black Sea between the Danube and Dniester rivers this multiethnic region was the southern part of Bessarabia...
region (now in Ukraine). Peter IV Rareş recovered his throne in exchange for a large sum of money in 1541. His death was followed by a period characterized by fights between pretenders to the throne and among the boyar parties.
The idea of anti-Ottoman struggle was revived by John III the Terrible (1572–1574) who refused to pay the tribute to the sultan. As a result Ottoman and Wallachian troops invaded Moldavia, but they were defeated by John III in a surprise attack near Jilişte. Now the sultan sent a large army against Moldavia, and the prince was captured and quartered. Next Aaron the Tyrant joined the anti-Ottoman coalition of Transylvania and Wallachia, and started a rebellion on November 13, 1594, simultaneously with Michael the Brave of Wallachia.
The 16th century was characterized by the flourishing of ecclesiastical mural painting whose technique have remained a secret until today. For example, the interior and exterior frescoes of the Voroneţ Monastery
Voronet Monastery
Voroneț is a monastery in Romania, located in the town of Gura Humorului, Moldavia. It is one of the famous painted monasteries from southern Bukovina, in Suceava County...
represent this "Moldavian style
Painted churches of northern Moldavia
The Churches of Moldavia are eight Romanian Orthodox churches in Suceava County, Romania in northern Moldavia, built approximately between 1487 and 1583.Since 1993, they have been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site...
".
Age of Michael the Brave (1595–1601)
Izmail
Izmail is a historic town near the Danube river in the Odessa Oblast of south-western Ukraine. Serving as the administrative center of the Izmail Raion , the city itself is also designated as a separate raion within the oblast....
(now in Ukraine). In response, the sultan ordered the Grand Vizier
Grand Vizier
Grand Vizier, in Turkish Vezir-i Azam or Sadr-ı Azam , deriving from the Arabic word vizier , was the greatest minister of the Sultan, with absolute power of attorney and, in principle, dismissable only by the Sultan himself...
, Sinan Pasha
Sinan Pasha
Sinan Pasha or Sinan Pashë Kahremanliu was an Albanian Grand Vizier, Ottoman military commander and statesman.-Life:...
to invade Wallachia. The two princes needed the support of Sigismund Báthory who took advantage of the situation to make himself suzerain of Wallachia and Moldavia. When Aaron the Tyrant refused Sigismund Báthory's conditions, he was replaced by the latter's protégé, Ştefan Răzvan
Stefan Razvan
Ştefan Răzvan was a Rom from the historical Romanian state of Wallachia, who became the Voivode of Moldavia .-Biography:...
(1595) on the throne.
According to the treaty signed by Michael the Brave on May 20, 1595 in Alba Iulia, Sigismund Báthory became the ruler of the three principalities and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania, Moldavia and Transalpine Wallachia". The treaty stipulated, that the taxes would be established in Wallachia by the Transylvanian Diet, together with a council of 12 Wallachian boyars. Around that time, the peasants were bound to the land both in Wallachia and Moldavia.
Ottoman troops entered Wallachia in the summer, but they were defeated by Michael the Brave at Călugăreni
Battle of Calugareni
The Battle of Călugăreni was one of the most important battles in the history of medieval Romania. It took place on 23 August 1595 between the Wallachian army led by Michael the Brave and the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha...
and by the united armies of the three principalities at Giurgiu. In the meantime, however, the Poles had invaded Moldavia and replaced Ştefan Răzvan by Ieremia Movilă
Ieremia Movila
Ieremia Movilă was a Hospodar of Moldavia between August 1595 and May 1600, and again between September 1600 and July 10, 1606.-Rule:...
(1595–1606). In June 1598 Michael the Brave recognized the suzerainty of Emperor Rudolph II, who had promised to grant subsidies to him to finance his mercenaries.
On March 30, 1599 Sigismund Báthory abdicated the throne in favor of his cousin, Andrew Báthory
Andrew Báthory
Andrew Báthory was a Hungarian Roman Catholic Cardinal, a Prince-Bishop of Warmia , and Prince of Transylvania . He was also Grand Master of the Order of the Dragon.-Life:Báthory was born at Szilágysomlyó, Transylvania...
(1599). The new prince was loyal to the Poles and promptly demanded that Michael the Brave accept his suzerainty. The latter secured the emperor's approval for an invasion of Transylvania and attacked the principality where the Székelys also joined him. He defeated his opponent at Şelimbar
Battle of Selimbar
The Battle of Şelimbăr is one of the great events of medieval Romanian history. It took place on 18 October 1599 between the Wallachian army of Michael the Brave and the Transylvanian-Hungarian army of Andrew Bathory...
on October 28, 1599 and entered Alba Iulia. Here the Diet recognized him as imperial governor. He respected the traditional organization of Transylvania, and even crushed a revolt of the Romanian peasants, but forced the Diet to relieve the Orthodox priests of feudal obligations. In the spring of 1600, he invaded Moldavia in the name of the emperor and established control over it. In July he even proclaimed himself "prince of Wallachia, Transylvania, and all of Moldavia" in Iaşi
Iasi
Iași is the second most populous city and a municipality in Romania. Located in the historical Moldavia region, Iași has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Romanian social, cultural, academic and artistic life...
, thus bringing about the union of the three principalities.
However, the Hungarian noblemen, dissatisfied with the disorder, rebelled against his rule, and defeated him at Mirăslău
Battle of Miraslau
The Battle of Miriszló or Battle of Mirăslău took place on September 18, 1600 near Miriszló , Transylvania, between the Wallachian troops led by Michael the Brave supported by ethnic Hungarian Szeklers and the troops of Austrian general Giorgio Basta supported by the Hungarian nobility of...
on September 18, 1600. At the same time, the Poles invaded Moldavia and restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne; then they entered Wallachia, where Simion Movilă
Simion Movila
Simion Movilă, a boyar of the Movileşti family, was twice Prince of Wallachia and Prince of Moldavia on one occasion ....
defeated Michael the Brave at Buzău. In this moment of crisis, Michael the Brave left for Prague
Prague
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million...
to appeal to the emperor for support. He returned to Transylvania in July 1601 at the head of an imperial army. Cooperating with the imperial general, Giorgio Basta
Giorgio Basta
Giorgio Basta, Count of Huszt was an Italian general of Arbëreshë descent, employed by the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II to command Habsburg forces in the Long War of 1591-1606 and later to administer Transylvania as an Imperial vassal to restore Catholicism as a predominant religion in...
, he defeated the Transylvanian troops at Guruslău
Battle of Guruslău
The Battle of Goroszló was fought on 3 August 1601, between the troops of the Habsburg Empire led by Giorgio Basta, the Cossacks and Wallachia led by Michael the Brave on one side and the Transylvanian troops led by Sigismund Báthory on the other side...
on August 3, but on August 19 he was assassinated on the order of his former ally, Giorgio Basta.
After the first union
After Michael the Brave's death, Transylvania was ruled by an imperial military commission, but under Stephen BocskayStephen Bocskay
Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai (or Bocskay, (1 January 1557 – 29 December 1606) was a HungarianCalvinist nobleman, Prince of Transylvania (1605–06), who defended Hungarian interests when Hungary was divided into Ottoman...
(1604–1606) the principality voluntarily accepted Ottoman suzerainty. In the next decades, the princes of Transylvania, among them Gabriel Bethlen
Gabriel Bethlen
Gabriel Bethlen was a prince of Transylvania , duke of Opole and leader of an anti-Habsburg insurrection in the Habsburg Royal Hungary. His last armed intervention in 1626 was part of the Thirty Years' War...
(1613–1629), made several unsuccessful attempts to unify Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia.
Wallachia and Moldavia fell back under the control of the Ottoman Empire after Michael the Brave's death. Radu Mihnea
Radu Mihnea
Radu Mihnea was Voivode of Wallachia between September 1601 and March 1602, and again between March and May 1611, September 1611 and August 1616, August 1620 and August 1623, and Voivode of Moldavia in 1616-1619, 1623-1626...
, prince of Wallachia (1611–1616, 1623–1626) and of Moldavia (1616–1623), was the first ruler to appoint Greeks
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
from the Phanar district of Istanbul to high government posts. This started a trend that ultimately led to the so called "Phanariot period
Phanariotes
Phanariots, Phanariotes, or Phanariote Greeks were members of those prominent Greek families residing in Phanar , the chief Greek quarter of Constantinople, where the Ecumenical Patriarchate is situated.For all their cosmopolitanism and often Western education, the Phanariots were...
" in Romania’s history.
See also
- List of Wallachian rulers (up to 1859)
- List of Moldavian rulers (up to 1859)
- List of Transylvanian rulers (up to 1918)
Further reading
- Castellan, Georges (1989). A History of the Romanians. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-880-33154-2.
- Durandin, Catherine (1995). Historie des Roumains (The History of the Romanians). Librairie Artheme Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-59425-5.
External links
- Köpeczi, Béla; Makkai, László; Mócsy, András; Szász, Zoltán; Barta, Gábor. “History of Transylvania”.
- Samuelson, James (1882). “Roumania: Past and Present”
< Early Middle Ages
Romania in the Early Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages in Romania spans the period from the withdrawal of the Roman administration from the province of Dacia in the 271–275 AD, thenceforward modern Romania's territories were to be crisscrossed by migrating populations for almost 1,000 years...
| History of Romania | Early Modern Times
Early Modern Romania
Early Modern Romania is the portion of Romanian history that falls in the early modern period, roughly from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century...
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