Pleistocene Rewilding
Encyclopedia
Pleistocene Rewilding promotes the reintroduction of descendants of Pleistocene megafauna
, or their close ecological equivalents. An extension of the conservation practice of rewilding
, which involves reintroducing species to areas where they became extinct in recent history (hundreds of years ago or less), Pleistocene rewilding is based upon ecosystem dynamics of several thousand years ago. While this gives it greater breadth, it is more controversial than rewilding as presently practiced.
Toward the end of the Pleistocene
era (roughly 13,000 to 10,000 years ago), nearly all megafauna of South, Central, North America and Europe dwindled toward extinction. With the loss of large herbivores and predator species, niches
important for ecosystem functioning were left unoccupied. In the words of the biologist Tim Flannery
, "ever since the extinction of the megafauna 13,000 years ago, the continent has had a seriously unbalanced fauna". This means, for example, that the managers of national park
s in North America have to resort to culling
to keep the population of ungulates under control.
Paul S. Martin
(originator of the Pleistocene rewilding theory) states that present ecological communities
in North America do not function appropriately in the absence of megafauna, because much of the native flora and fauna evolved under the influence of large mammals.
in the southwestern United States
. Native fauna are the first genera for reintroduction. The Bolson tortoise
was widespread during the Pleistocene era, and continued to be common during the Holocene
epoch until recent times. Its reintroduction from northern Mexico
would be a necessary step to recreate the soil humidity present in the Pleistocene, which would support grassland
and extant shrub-land and provide the habitat required for the herbivores set for reintroduction. However, to be successful, ecologists will support fauna already present in the region.
The pronghorn antelope, which is extant in most of the US southwest after almost becoming extinct, is a candidate for the revival of the ancient ecosystem. The pronghorn antelope are native to the region, which once supported large numbers of the species and extinct relatives from the same genus. It would occupy the more arid and mountainous ecosystems within the assigned area.
The plains bison
numbered in the millions during the Pleistocene era, until European settlers drove them to near-extinction in the late 19th century. The bison has made a recovery in many regions of its former range, and is involved in several local rewilding projects across the Midwestern United States
.
Bighorn sheep
and mountain goat
s are already present in the surrounding mountainous areas and therefore should not pose a problem in rewilding more mountainous areas. Reintroducing extant species of deer to the more forested areas of the region would be beneficial for the ecosystems they occupy, providing rich nutrients for the forested regions and helping to maintain them. These species include white-tailed
and mule deer
.
Herbivorous species considered beneficial for the regional ecosystems include the collared peccary
, a species of New World wild pig which was abundant in the Pleistocene. Although this species (along with the flat-headed
and long-nosed peccaries) are extinct, their relatives survive in Central and South America.
The horse
which is today extant as the mustang
is, in fact, a native species reintroduced by the Spanish in the 15th century. Horses originated in North America and spread to Asia via the Ice Age land bridge, but became extinct in their evolutionary homeland alongside the mammoth
and ground sloth
. The Pleistocene grasslands of North America were the birthplace of the modern horse, and by extension the wild horse
. The only remaining species of wild horse is a part of the prairie ecosystem and grazes alongside bison. The plains were home to an equid resembling a zebra, called the Hagerman Horse
, which could be represented by the plains zebra
or Grevy's zebra
. It would be introduced into the Great Plains from Africa as part of the project. The mountainous region was also once home to the extinct Yukon Wild Donkey but its close relative (the onager
) survives in central Asia today, and can be reintroduced to boost biodiversity in the more arid regions of the rewilding area.
Alongside the wild donkey, camels evolved in the drier regions of North America. Proof of this can be seen in the camelids of South America: the llama
, alpaca
, guanaco and vicuna
. North America, therefore, links the South American camelids with those of the Old World (the dromedary
and Bactrian camel
). Pleistocene rewilding suggests that the closest relatives of the North American species of camel (Camelops
) be reintroduced. The best candidates would be the dromedary
for the arid desert regions and the guanaco or vicuna
in the arid mountain regions, but there have been suggestions of breeding and wilding the fertile hybrid camelids (Cama
).
During the Pleistocene there existed two species of tapir
in North America: the California and Florida tapirs. They became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene era, but their relatives survive in South America. The mountain tapir
would be an excellent choice for rewilding humid areas, such as those near lakes and rivers. The mountain tapir is the only non-tropical species of tapir extant.
During the Pleistocene large populations of Proboscidea
ns lived in North America, such as the Columbian mammoth
, the Imperial Mammoth
, and the American mastodon
. The mastodon
s all became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene era, as did the mammoths of North America. However, an extant relative of the mammoth is the Asian elephant
. It now resides only in tropical southeastern Asia but the fossil record shows it much more widespread, living in temperate northern China as well as the Middle East (an area bearing an ecological similarity to the southwestern United States). The Asian elephant is, therefore, a good candidate for the Pleistocene rewilding project. It would probably best be suited to occupy the same humid areas as the tapir, as well as dense forest regions where it would cause soil regeneration and control the spread of forests. Meanwhile the African elephant may be the best extant candidate to refill the niche left empty with the extinction of the mastodon.
During the Pleistocene era North, Central and South America were populated with a group of large animals which moved north as part of the Great American Interchange
caused by the junction of the North and South American continents. Today species such as the ground sloth
and glyptodon
are extinct, although a few "dwarf" species of sloth survived in remote Caribbean-island forests until a few thousand years ago. Their close relatives, the tree sloths and armadillo
s, are a remnant of this once-diverse group of mammals. The reintroduction of armadillos (such as the nine-banded armadillo
and the giant armadillo
) could help regenerate soils in the arid and prairie regions of the rewilding project. Other relatives, such as the giant anteater
, have also been proposed.
Pleistocene America boasted a wide variety of dangerous carnivores (most of which are extinct today), such as the short-faced bear, saber-toothed cat
, Homotherium
, the American lion
, dire wolf
, American cheetah and (possibly) the terror bird. Some carnivores and omnivores survived the end of the Pleistocene era and were widespread in North America until Europeans arrived, such as grizzly bear
s, mountain lions, jaguar
s, grey and red wolves
, bobcat
s, and coyote
s.
s that prey on the herbivore
s. In the mountains, the reintroduction of the mountain lion is necessary to keep mountainous herbivores such as the camelids, asses and mountain goats under control.
In the forest surrounding them, the reintroduction of the jaguar
(which roamed much of southwestern America until recently) will control the populations of animals such as deer, tapirs and peccary. Alongside the jaguar will be the grizzly bear
, an omnivore which was once distributed across North America but now survives in the far north of the US and much of western and northwestern Canada. In heavily-forested areas, the Siberian tiger and dhole
will be introduced to control the populations of deer, wild asses, camels, bighorns, and mountain goats.
In arid regions the Old World cheetah
could be introduced to control the population of pronghorn antelope, the fastest-running herbivore on earth (it can run so fast is because it was once hunted by the American cheetah). The American cheetah was more closely related to the mountain lion, but evolved in a similar way to the Old World cheetah (an example of convergent evolution
).
Reintroduced into its ancient environment, the grey wolf will spread across all ecosystems and compete for prey with all other predators; it may once again be seen hunting camels in arid regions, and bison on the grassy prairies of the Great Plains
.
The final (and most-controversial) aspect of the rewilding project is the reintroduction of lion
s to the American southwest. Whilst many consider the lion to be a strictly an African species, this was not always true. The lion was, in fact, one of the most widespread of all megafauna (certainly of the carnivores). The lion once ranged from Africa through Pleistocene Europe and Asia, across Beringia and down through North America to Argentina in South America. A relict remnant of that distribution across the world is still found in India, where the Asiatic lion
still survives in a small sanctuary in Gir Forest National Park
. In Europe and northern Asia it existed as the cave lion
, and in the Americas as the American lion
. The American lion once hunted in prides across the grasslands of Pleistocene North America, taking down bison and wild horses as their African equivalents take down wildebeest and zebra. The reintroduction of lions is, however, the end of a long line of reintroductions, and will only have realistic prospects of occurring if all goes well with the others first.
The Pleistocene parks
idea was first suggested for Arctic
and South American ecosystems, and was less publicized. Mauro Galetti suggested that several plant species in South America lost their major megafauna seed dispersers at the end of the Pleistocene. Secondary seed dispersal, water and indigenous people were responsible for maintaining the seed-dispersal process over the past 10,000 years. Therefore, rewilding South American savannas will establish lost seed-dispersal services and also control unburned vegetation (due to a lack of megaherbivores). Brazilian savannas burn and release tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere yearly. Asian elephants, horses, llamas and other large mammals may be used to control fires.
and Burro
s) and camelids (dromedary
) has already begun. Musk ox
en roam areas of Europe and Asia last grazed during Rome's heyday, and bison
herds thrive in subarctic Canada and Alaska
. As of 2011 there are no active plans to reintroduce more exotic megafauna such as elephants, cheetahs or lions due to the controversial nature of these reintroductions.
The southwestern United States
and the Brazilian savanna
are the most suitable parts of North and South America where Pleistocene rewilding could be implemented. Besides fencing off large land tracts a natural setting would be maintained, in which predator-prey dynamics would take their course uninterrupted. The long-term plan is for an "ecological history park encompassing thousands of square miles in economically depressed parts of the Great Plains."
The Bolson Tortoise will expand its prehistoric population and thrive in places like Texas
. Feral horses will be encouraged to breed and multiply, and will be proxies for extinct equids. Camelids (of the genera Camelus, Lama
, and Vicugna
) will serve as proxies for the approximately six extinct camel species in North America. The African cheetah will serve for the American cheetah, while the African lion will serve for the American lion. The elephant species will represent the five species of mammoth
, mastodon
, and gomphothere
which thrived in North America.
Other animals which can be used for the project might include: mountain tapir
and Baird's tapir
(formerly part of a widespread Holarctic
family); Saiga antelope
(a Pleistocene resident of the Alaskan steppe
, now found only in Central Asia
); and the dhole
(which thrived throughout North America and Eurasia
during the Pleistocene). Scientific evidence points to the Siberian tiger crossing the Bering Strait into Alaska during the Pleistocene.
Opponents of the Pleistocene rewilding present an alternative conservation program, in which more recent North American natives will be reintroduced into parts of their native ranges where they became extinct during historical times.
and Wrangel island
. In 1988, researcher Sergey Zimov
created Pleistocene Park
- a nature reserve in northeastern Siberia for full-scale megafauna rewilding. Yakutian horse
s, reindeer, snow sheep
, elk and moose were reintroduced to the park. Reintroduction is also planned for yak
, Bactrian camel
s, red deer
, and Siberian tigers. The wood bison, closest relative of the ancient bison which became extinct in Siberia 1,000 to 2,000 years ago, is an important species for the ecology of Siberia. In 2006, 30 bison calves were flown from Edmonton, Alberta to Yakutsk
. Now they live in the government-run reserve of Ust'-Buotama.
Pleistocene megafauna
Pleistocene megafauna is the set of species of large animals — mammals, birds and reptiles — that lived on Earth during the Pleistocene epoch and became extinct in a Quaternary extinction event. These species appear to have died off as humans expanded out of Africa and southern Asia,...
, or their close ecological equivalents. An extension of the conservation practice of rewilding
Rewilding (Conservation Biology)
Rewilding is large-scale conservation aimed at restoring and protecting core wilderness areas, providing connectivity between such areas, and protecting or reintroducing apex predators and keystone species...
, which involves reintroducing species to areas where they became extinct in recent history (hundreds of years ago or less), Pleistocene rewilding is based upon ecosystem dynamics of several thousand years ago. While this gives it greater breadth, it is more controversial than rewilding as presently practiced.
Toward the end of the Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
era (roughly 13,000 to 10,000 years ago), nearly all megafauna of South, Central, North America and Europe dwindled toward extinction. With the loss of large herbivores and predator species, niches
Ecological niche
In ecology, a niche is a term describing the relational position of a species or population in its ecosystem to each other; e.g. a dolphin could potentially be in another ecological niche from one that travels in a different pod if the members of these pods utilize significantly different food...
important for ecosystem functioning were left unoccupied. In the words of the biologist Tim Flannery
Tim Flannery
Timothy Fridtjof Flannery is an Australian mammalogist, palaeontologist, environmentalist and global warming activist....
, "ever since the extinction of the megafauna 13,000 years ago, the continent has had a seriously unbalanced fauna". This means, for example, that the managers of national park
National park
A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual nations designate their own national parks differently A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or...
s in North America have to resort to culling
Culling
Culling is the process of removing animals from a group based on specific criteria. This is done either to reinforce certain desirable characteristics or to remove certain undesirable characteristics from the group...
to keep the population of ungulates under control.
Paul S. Martin
Paul S. Martin
Paul S. Martin was a geoscientist at the University of Arizona who developed the theory that the Pleistocene extinction of large mammals worldwide was caused by overhunting by humans...
(originator of the Pleistocene rewilding theory) states that present ecological communities
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
in North America do not function appropriately in the absence of megafauna, because much of the native flora and fauna evolved under the influence of large mammals.
Ecological and evolutionary implications
Research shows that species interactions play a pivotal role in conservation efforts. Communities where species evolved in response to Pleistocene megafauna (but now lack large mammals) may be in danger of collapse. Most living megafauna are threatened or endangered; extant megafauna have a significant impact on the communities they occupy, which supports the idea that communities evolved in response to large mammals. Pleistocene rewilding could "serve as additional refugia to help preserve that evolutionary potential" of megafauna. Reintroducing megafauna to North America could preserve current megafauna, while filling ecological niches that have been vacant since the Pleistocene.Possible fauna for reintroduction
The Pleistocene rewilding project aims at the promotion of extant fauna and the reintroduction of extinct generaGenus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
in the southwestern United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Native fauna are the first genera for reintroduction. The Bolson tortoise
Bolson Tortoise
The Bolson tortoise , also called the Mexican giant tortoise or Yellow-margined tortoise, is a species of tortoise from North America. Of the four North American tortoise species, it is the largest, having a carapace length of about...
was widespread during the Pleistocene era, and continued to be common during the Holocene
Holocene
The Holocene is a geological epoch which began at the end of the Pleistocene and continues to the present. The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period. Its name comes from the Greek words and , meaning "entirely recent"...
epoch until recent times. Its reintroduction from northern Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
would be a necessary step to recreate the soil humidity present in the Pleistocene, which would support grassland
Grassland
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous plants . However, sedge and rush families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica...
and extant shrub-land and provide the habitat required for the herbivores set for reintroduction. However, to be successful, ecologists will support fauna already present in the region.
The pronghorn antelope, which is extant in most of the US southwest after almost becoming extinct, is a candidate for the revival of the ancient ecosystem. The pronghorn antelope are native to the region, which once supported large numbers of the species and extinct relatives from the same genus. It would occupy the more arid and mountainous ecosystems within the assigned area.
The plains bison
Plains Bison
The Plains Bison or Common bison is one of two subspecies/ecotypes of the American Bison, the other being the Wood Bison . Furthermore, it has been suggested that the Plains Bison consists of a northern and a southern subspecies, bringing the total to three...
numbered in the millions during the Pleistocene era, until European settlers drove them to near-extinction in the late 19th century. The bison has made a recovery in many regions of its former range, and is involved in several local rewilding projects across the Midwestern United States
Midwestern United States
The Midwestern United States is one of the four U.S. geographic regions defined by the United States Census Bureau, providing an official definition of the American Midwest....
.
Bighorn sheep
Bighorn Sheep
The bighorn sheep is a species of sheep in North America named for its large horns. These horns can weigh up to , while the sheep themselves weigh up to . Recent genetic testing indicates that there are three distinct subspecies of Ovis canadensis, one of which is endangered: Ovis canadensis sierrae...
and mountain goat
Mountain goat
The Mountain Goat , also known as the Rocky Mountain Goat, is a large-hoofed mammal found only in North America. Despite its vernacular name, it is not a member of Capra, the genus of true goats...
s are already present in the surrounding mountainous areas and therefore should not pose a problem in rewilding more mountainous areas. Reintroducing extant species of deer to the more forested areas of the region would be beneficial for the ecosystems they occupy, providing rich nutrients for the forested regions and helping to maintain them. These species include white-tailed
White-tailed Deer
The white-tailed deer , also known as the Virginia deer or simply as the whitetail, is a medium-sized deer native to the United States , Canada, Mexico, Central America, and South America as far south as Peru...
and mule deer
Mule Deer
The mule deer is a deer indigenous to western North America. The Mule Deer gets its name from its large mule-like ears. There are believed to be several subspecies, including the black-tailed deer...
.
Herbivorous species considered beneficial for the regional ecosystems include the collared peccary
Collared Peccary
The collared peccary is a species of mammal in the family Tayassuidae that is found in North, Central, and South America. They are commonly referred to as javelina, saíno or báquiro, although these terms are also used to describe other species in the family...
, a species of New World wild pig which was abundant in the Pleistocene. Although this species (along with the flat-headed
Platygonus
Platygonus is an extinct genus of herbivorous peccary of the family Tayassuidae, endemic to North America from the Miocene through Pleistocene epochs , existing for approximately ....
and long-nosed peccaries) are extinct, their relatives survive in Central and South America.
The horse
Horse
The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
which is today extant as the mustang
Mustang (horse)
A Mustang is a free-roaming horse of the North American west that first descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish. Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but there is intense debate over terminology...
is, in fact, a native species reintroduced by the Spanish in the 15th century. Horses originated in North America and spread to Asia via the Ice Age land bridge, but became extinct in their evolutionary homeland alongside the mammoth
Mammoth
A mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus. These proboscideans are members of Elephantidae, the family of elephants and mammoths, and close relatives of modern elephants. They were often equipped with long curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair...
and ground sloth
Ground sloth
Ground sloths are a diverse group of extinct sloths, in the mammalian superorder Xenarthra. Their most recent survivors lived in the Antilles, where it has been proposed they may have survived until 1550 CE; however, the youngest AMS radiocarbon date reported is 4190 BP, calibrated to c. 4700 BP...
. The Pleistocene grasslands of North America were the birthplace of the modern horse, and by extension the wild horse
Wild Horse
The wild horse is a species of the genus Equus, which includes as subspecies the domesticated horse as well as the undomesticated Tarpan and Przewalski's Horse. The Tarpan became extinct in the 19th century, and Przewalski's Horse was saved from the brink of extinction and reintroduced...
. The only remaining species of wild horse is a part of the prairie ecosystem and grazes alongside bison. The plains were home to an equid resembling a zebra, called the Hagerman Horse
Hagerman Horse
The Hagerman horse , also called the Hagerman zebra or the American zebra, was a North American species of equid from the Pliocene period and the Pleistocene period. It was one of the oldest horses of the genus Equus. Discovered in 1928 in Hagerman, Idaho, it is believed to have been like the...
, which could be represented by the plains zebra
Plains Zebra
The plains zebra , also known as the common zebra or Burchell's zebra, is the most common and geographically widespread species of zebra. It ranges from the south of Ethiopia through East Africa to as far south as Angola and eastern South Africa...
or Grevy's zebra
Grevy's Zebra
The Grévy's zebra , also known as the Imperial zebra, is the largest extant wild equid and one of three species of zebra, the other two being the plains zebra and the mountain zebra. Named after Jules Grévy, it is the sole extant member of the subgenus Dolichohippus. The Grévy's zebra is found in...
. It would be introduced into the Great Plains from Africa as part of the project. The mountainous region was also once home to the extinct Yukon Wild Donkey but its close relative (the onager
Onager
The Onager is a large member of the genus Equus of the family Equidae native to the deserts of Syria, Iran, Pakistan, India, Israel and Tibet...
) survives in central Asia today, and can be reintroduced to boost biodiversity in the more arid regions of the rewilding area.
Alongside the wild donkey, camels evolved in the drier regions of North America. Proof of this can be seen in the camelids of South America: the llama
Llama
The llama is a South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since pre-Hispanic times....
, alpaca
Alpaca
An alpaca is a domesticated species of South American camelid. It resembles a small llama in appearance.Alpacas are kept in herds that graze on the level heights of the Andes of southern Peru, northern Bolivia, Ecuador, and northern Chile at an altitude of to above sea level, throughout the year...
, guanaco and vicuna
Vicuña
The vicuña or vicugna is one of two wild South American camelids, along with the guanaco, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes. It is a relative of the llama, and is now believed to share a wild ancestor with domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their fibre...
. North America, therefore, links the South American camelids with those of the Old World (the dromedary
Dromedary
The dromedary or Arabian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back. Its native range is unclear, but it was probably the Arabian Peninsula. The domesticated form occurs widely in North Africa and the Middle East...
and Bactrian camel
Bactrian camel
The Bactrian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate native to the steppes of central Asia. It is presently restricted in the wild to remote regions of the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts of Mongolia and Xinjiang. A small number of wild Bactrian camels still roam the Mangystau Province of southwest...
). Pleistocene rewilding suggests that the closest relatives of the North American species of camel (Camelops
Camelops
Camelops is an extinct genus of camels that once roamed western North America, where it disappeared at the end of the Pleistocene about 10,000 years ago. Its name is derived from the Greek κάμελος + , thus "camel-face."-Background:...
) be reintroduced. The best candidates would be the dromedary
Dromedary
The dromedary or Arabian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back. Its native range is unclear, but it was probably the Arabian Peninsula. The domesticated form occurs widely in North Africa and the Middle East...
for the arid desert regions and the guanaco or vicuna
Vicuña
The vicuña or vicugna is one of two wild South American camelids, along with the guanaco, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes. It is a relative of the llama, and is now believed to share a wild ancestor with domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their fibre...
in the arid mountain regions, but there have been suggestions of breeding and wilding the fertile hybrid camelids (Cama
Cama (animal)
A cama is a hybrid between a male dromedary camel and a female llama, produced via artificial insemination at the Camel Reproduction Centre in Dubai. The first cama was born on January 14, 1998...
).
During the Pleistocene there existed two species of tapir
Tapir
A Tapir is a large browsing mammal, similar in shape to a pig, with a short, prehensile snout. Tapirs inhabit jungle and forest regions of South America, Central America, and Southeast Asia. There are four species of Tapirs: the Brazilian Tapir, the Malayan Tapir, Baird's Tapir and the Mountain...
in North America: the California and Florida tapirs. They became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene era, but their relatives survive in South America. The mountain tapir
Mountain Tapir
The Mountain Tapir or Woolly Tapir is the smallest of the four species of tapir and is the only one to live outside of tropical rainforests in the wild...
would be an excellent choice for rewilding humid areas, such as those near lakes and rivers. The mountain tapir is the only non-tropical species of tapir extant.
During the Pleistocene large populations of Proboscidea
Proboscidea
Proboscidea is a taxonomic order containing one living family, Elephantidae, and several extinct families. This order was first described by J. Illiger in 1881 and encompasses the trunked mammals...
ns lived in North America, such as the Columbian mammoth
Columbian Mammoth
The Columbian Mammoth is an extinct species of elephant of the Quaternary period that appeared in North America during the late Pleistocene. It is believed by some authorities to be the same species as its slightly larger cousin, M...
, the Imperial Mammoth
Mammuthus imperator
The Imperial Mammoth is an extinct species of mammoth endemic to North America from the Pliocene through Pleistocene, living from 4.9 mya—11,000 years ago....
, and the American mastodon
American mastodon
The American mastodon is an extinct North American proboscidean that lived from about 3.7 million years ago until about 10,000 BC. It was the last surviving member of the mastodon family. Fossil finds range from present-day Alaska and New England in the north, to Florida, southern...
. The mastodon
Mastodon
Mastodons were large tusked mammal species of the extinct genus Mammut which inhabited Asia, Africa, Europe, North America and Central America from the Oligocene through Pleistocene, 33.9 mya to 11,000 years ago. The American mastodon is the most recent and best known species of the group...
s all became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene era, as did the mammoths of North America. However, an extant relative of the mammoth is the Asian elephant
Asian Elephant
The Asian or Asiatic elephant is the only living species of the genus Elephas and distributed in Southeast Asia from India in the west to Borneo in the east. Three subspecies are recognized — Elephas maximus maximus from Sri Lanka, the Indian elephant or E. m. indicus from mainland Asia, and E. m....
. It now resides only in tropical southeastern Asia but the fossil record shows it much more widespread, living in temperate northern China as well as the Middle East (an area bearing an ecological similarity to the southwestern United States). The Asian elephant is, therefore, a good candidate for the Pleistocene rewilding project. It would probably best be suited to occupy the same humid areas as the tapir, as well as dense forest regions where it would cause soil regeneration and control the spread of forests. Meanwhile the African elephant may be the best extant candidate to refill the niche left empty with the extinction of the mastodon.
During the Pleistocene era North, Central and South America were populated with a group of large animals which moved north as part of the Great American Interchange
Great American Interchange
The Great American Interchange was an important paleozoogeographic event in which land and freshwater fauna migrated from North America via Central America to South America and vice versa, as the volcanic Isthmus of Panama rose up from the sea floor and bridged the formerly separated continents...
caused by the junction of the North and South American continents. Today species such as the ground sloth
Ground sloth
Ground sloths are a diverse group of extinct sloths, in the mammalian superorder Xenarthra. Their most recent survivors lived in the Antilles, where it has been proposed they may have survived until 1550 CE; however, the youngest AMS radiocarbon date reported is 4190 BP, calibrated to c. 4700 BP...
and glyptodon
Glyptodon
Glyptodon was a large, armored mammal of the family Glyptodontidae, a relative of armadillos that lived during the Pleistocene Epoch. It was roughly the same size and weight as a Volkswagen Beetle, though flatter in shape...
are extinct, although a few "dwarf" species of sloth survived in remote Caribbean-island forests until a few thousand years ago. Their close relatives, the tree sloths and armadillo
Armadillo
Armadillos are New World placental mammals, known for having a leathery armor shell. Dasypodidae is the only surviving family in the order Cingulata, part of the superorder Xenarthra along with the anteaters and sloths. The word armadillo is Spanish for "little armored one"...
s, are a remnant of this once-diverse group of mammals. The reintroduction of armadillos (such as the nine-banded armadillo
Nine-banded Armadillo
The nine-banded armadillo , or the nine-banded, long-nosed armadillo, is a species of armadillo found in North, Central, and South America, making it the most widespread of the armadillos...
and the giant armadillo
Giant Armadillo
The giant armadillo , colloquially tatou, ocarro, tatu-canastra or tatú carreta, is the largest living species of armadillo...
) could help regenerate soils in the arid and prairie regions of the rewilding project. Other relatives, such as the giant anteater
Giant Anteater
The Giant Anteater, Myrmecophaga tridactyla, is the largest species of anteater. It is the only species in the genus Myrmecophaga. It is found in Central and South America from Honduras to northern Argentina...
, have also been proposed.
Pleistocene America boasted a wide variety of dangerous carnivores (most of which are extinct today), such as the short-faced bear, saber-toothed cat
Saber-toothed cat
Saber-toothed cat or Sabre-toothed cat refers to the extinct subfamilies of Machairodontinae , Barbourofelidae , and Nimravidae as well as two families related to marsupials that were found worldwide from the Eocene Epoch to the end of the Pleistocene Epoch ,...
, Homotherium
Homotherium
Homotherium is an extinct genus of machairodontine saber-toothed cats, often termed scimitar cats, endemic to North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs , existing for approximately .It first became extinct in Africa some 1.5 million years ago...
, the American lion
American lion
The American lion — also known as the North American lion, Naegele’s giant jaguar or American cave lion — is an extinct lion of the family Felidae, endemic to North America during the Pleistocene epoch , existing for approximately...
, dire wolf
Dire Wolf
The Dire Wolf, Canis dirus, is an extinct carnivorous mammal of the genus Canis, and was most common in North America and South America from the Irvingtonian stage to the Rancholabrean stage of the Pleistocene epoch living 1.80 Ma – 10,000 years ago, existing for approximately .- Relationships...
, American cheetah and (possibly) the terror bird. Some carnivores and omnivores survived the end of the Pleistocene era and were widespread in North America until Europeans arrived, such as grizzly bear
Grizzly Bear
The grizzly bear , also known as the silvertip bear, the grizzly, or the North American brown bear, is a subspecies of brown bear that generally lives in the uplands of western North America...
s, mountain lions, jaguar
Jaguar
The jaguar is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus, and is the only Panthera species found in the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, and the largest in the Western Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends from Southern United States and Mexico...
s, grey and red wolves
Red Wolf
The red wolf is a North American canid which once roamed throughout the Southeastern United States and is a glacial period survivor of the Late Pleistocene epoch...
, bobcat
Bobcat
The bobcat is a North American mammal of the cat family Felidae, appearing during the Irvingtonian stage of around 1.8 million years ago . With twelve recognized subspecies, it ranges from southern Canada to northern Mexico, including most of the continental United States...
s, and coyote
Coyote
The coyote , also known as the American jackal or the prairie wolf, is a species of canine found throughout North and Central America, ranging from Panama in the south, north through Mexico, the United States and Canada...
s.
Recreating a lost ecosystem
In order for a functioning and balanced ecosystem to exist, there must be carnivoreCarnivore
A carnivore meaning 'meat eater' is an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging...
s that prey on the herbivore
Herbivore
Herbivores are organisms that are anatomically and physiologically adapted to eat plant-based foods. Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in...
s. In the mountains, the reintroduction of the mountain lion is necessary to keep mountainous herbivores such as the camelids, asses and mountain goats under control.
In the forest surrounding them, the reintroduction of the jaguar
Jaguar
The jaguar is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus, and is the only Panthera species found in the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, and the largest in the Western Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends from Southern United States and Mexico...
(which roamed much of southwestern America until recently) will control the populations of animals such as deer, tapirs and peccary. Alongside the jaguar will be the grizzly bear
Grizzly Bear
The grizzly bear , also known as the silvertip bear, the grizzly, or the North American brown bear, is a subspecies of brown bear that generally lives in the uplands of western North America...
, an omnivore which was once distributed across North America but now survives in the far north of the US and much of western and northwestern Canada. In heavily-forested areas, the Siberian tiger and dhole
Dhole
The dhole is a species of canid native to South and Southeast Asia. It is the only extant member of the genus Cuon, which differs from Canis by the reduced number of molars and greater number of teats...
will be introduced to control the populations of deer, wild asses, camels, bighorns, and mountain goats.
In arid regions the Old World cheetah
Cheetah
The cheetah is a large-sized feline inhabiting most of Africa and parts of the Middle East. The cheetah is the only extant member of the genus Acinonyx, most notable for modifications in the species' paws...
could be introduced to control the population of pronghorn antelope, the fastest-running herbivore on earth (it can run so fast is because it was once hunted by the American cheetah). The American cheetah was more closely related to the mountain lion, but evolved in a similar way to the Old World cheetah (an example of convergent evolution
Convergent evolution
Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Although their last common ancestor did not have wings, both birds and bats do, and are capable of powered flight. The wings are...
).
Reintroduced into its ancient environment, the grey wolf will spread across all ecosystems and compete for prey with all other predators; it may once again be seen hunting camels in arid regions, and bison on the grassy prairies of the Great Plains
Great Plains
The Great Plains are a broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, which lies west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. This area covers parts of the U.S...
.
The final (and most-controversial) aspect of the rewilding project is the reintroduction of lion
Lion
The lion is one of the four big cats in the genus Panthera, and a member of the family Felidae. With some males exceeding 250 kg in weight, it is the second-largest living cat after the tiger...
s to the American southwest. Whilst many consider the lion to be a strictly an African species, this was not always true. The lion was, in fact, one of the most widespread of all megafauna (certainly of the carnivores). The lion once ranged from Africa through Pleistocene Europe and Asia, across Beringia and down through North America to Argentina in South America. A relict remnant of that distribution across the world is still found in India, where the Asiatic lion
Asiatic Lion
The Asiatic lion also known as the Indian lion, Persian lion and Eurasian Lion is a subspecies of lion. The only place in the wild where the lion is found is in the Gir Forest of Gujarat, India...
still survives in a small sanctuary in Gir Forest National Park
Gir Forest National Park
The Gir Forest National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary is a forest and wildlife sanctuary in Gujarat, India...
. In Europe and northern Asia it existed as the cave lion
Panthera leo vereshchagini
Panthera leo vereshchagini, known as the East Siberian- or Beringian cave lion is an extinct prehistoric lion that inhabited Yakutia , Alaska , and the Yukon Territory during the Pleistocene epoch. Analysis of skulls and mandibles of this lion suggest that it is a new subspecies different from the...
, and in the Americas as the American lion
American lion
The American lion — also known as the North American lion, Naegele’s giant jaguar or American cave lion — is an extinct lion of the family Felidae, endemic to North America during the Pleistocene epoch , existing for approximately...
. The American lion once hunted in prides across the grasslands of Pleistocene North America, taking down bison and wild horses as their African equivalents take down wildebeest and zebra. The reintroduction of lions is, however, the end of a long line of reintroductions, and will only have realistic prospects of occurring if all goes well with the others first.
The Pleistocene parks
Pleistocene Park
Pleistocene Park is a nature reserve south of Chersky in the Sakha Republic in northeastern Siberia, where an attempt is being made to recreate the northern steppe grassland ecosystem that flourished in the area during the last ice age.-Goals:...
idea was first suggested for Arctic
Arctic
The Arctic is a region located at the northern-most part of the Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Russia, Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The Arctic region consists of a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by treeless permafrost...
and South American ecosystems, and was less publicized. Mauro Galetti suggested that several plant species in South America lost their major megafauna seed dispersers at the end of the Pleistocene. Secondary seed dispersal, water and indigenous people were responsible for maintaining the seed-dispersal process over the past 10,000 years. Therefore, rewilding South American savannas will establish lost seed-dispersal services and also control unburned vegetation (due to a lack of megaherbivores). Brazilian savannas burn and release tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere yearly. Asian elephants, horses, llamas and other large mammals may be used to control fires.
Implementation
The reintroduction of Bolson tortoise, equids (MustangsMustang (horse)
A Mustang is a free-roaming horse of the North American west that first descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish. Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but there is intense debate over terminology...
and Burro
Burro
The burro is a small donkey used primarily as a pack animal. In addition, significant numbers of feral burros live in the Southwestern United States, where they are protected by law, and in Mexico...
s) and camelids (dromedary
Dromedary
The dromedary or Arabian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back. Its native range is unclear, but it was probably the Arabian Peninsula. The domesticated form occurs widely in North Africa and the Middle East...
) has already begun. Musk ox
Musk Ox
The muskox is an Arctic mammal of the family Bovidae, noted for its thick coat and for the strong odor emitted by males, from which its name derives. This musky odor is used to attract females during mating season...
en roam areas of Europe and Asia last grazed during Rome's heyday, and bison
American Bison
The American bison , also commonly known as the American buffalo, is a North American species of bison that once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds...
herds thrive in subarctic Canada and Alaska
Alaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
. As of 2011 there are no active plans to reintroduce more exotic megafauna such as elephants, cheetahs or lions due to the controversial nature of these reintroductions.
The southwestern United States
Southwestern United States
The Southwestern United States is a region defined in different ways by different sources. Broad definitions include nearly a quarter of the United States, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas and Utah...
and the Brazilian savanna
Mato Grosso Plateau
The Mato Grosso Plateau is a plateau in central Brazil occupying most of the state of Mato Grosso. It contains mostly savannah and woodland. It is an ancient erosional plateau that extends from the border of Goiás state westward to the Serra dos Parecis, which lies near the Bolivian border. In the...
are the most suitable parts of North and South America where Pleistocene rewilding could be implemented. Besides fencing off large land tracts a natural setting would be maintained, in which predator-prey dynamics would take their course uninterrupted. The long-term plan is for an "ecological history park encompassing thousands of square miles in economically depressed parts of the Great Plains."
The Bolson Tortoise will expand its prehistoric population and thrive in places like Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
. Feral horses will be encouraged to breed and multiply, and will be proxies for extinct equids. Camelids (of the genera Camelus, Lama
Lama (genus)
Lama is the modern genus name for two South American camelids, the wild guanaco and the domesticated llama. This genus is closely allied to the wild vicuña and domesticated alpaca of the genus Vicugna. Before the Spanish conquest of the Americas, llamas and alpacas were the only domesticated...
, and Vicugna
Vicugna
Vicugna is a genus containing two South American camelids, the vicuña and the alpaca.Previously thought to be descended from the llama, the alpaca was reclassified as part of Vicugna after a 2001 paper on alpaca DNA. The paper showed that the alpaca is descended from the vicuña, not the...
) will serve as proxies for the approximately six extinct camel species in North America. The African cheetah will serve for the American cheetah, while the African lion will serve for the American lion. The elephant species will represent the five species of mammoth
Mammoth
A mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus. These proboscideans are members of Elephantidae, the family of elephants and mammoths, and close relatives of modern elephants. They were often equipped with long curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair...
, mastodon
Mastodon
Mastodons were large tusked mammal species of the extinct genus Mammut which inhabited Asia, Africa, Europe, North America and Central America from the Oligocene through Pleistocene, 33.9 mya to 11,000 years ago. The American mastodon is the most recent and best known species of the group...
, and gomphothere
Gomphothere
Gomphotheriidae is a diverse taxonomic family of extinct elephant-like animals , called gomphotheres. They were widespread in North America during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, 12-1.6 million years ago. Some lived in parts of Eurasia, Beringia and, following the Great American Interchange,...
which thrived in North America.
Other animals which can be used for the project might include: mountain tapir
Mountain Tapir
The Mountain Tapir or Woolly Tapir is the smallest of the four species of tapir and is the only one to live outside of tropical rainforests in the wild...
and Baird's tapir
Baird's Tapir
Baird’s Tapir is a species of tapir that is native to Central America and northern South America. It is one of three Latin American species of tapir.-Names:...
(formerly part of a widespread Holarctic
Holarctic
The Holarctic ecozone refers to the habitats found throughout the northern continents of the world as a whole. This region is divided into the Palearctic, consisting of Northern Africa and all of Eurasia, with the exception of Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent, and the Nearctic,...
family); Saiga antelope
Saiga Antelope
The saiga is a Critically Endangered antelope which originally inhabited a vast area of the Eurasian steppe zone from the foothills of the Carpathians and Caucasus into Dzungaria and Mongolia. They also lived in North America during the Pleistocene...
(a Pleistocene resident of the Alaskan steppe
Steppe
In physical geography, steppe is an ecoregion, in the montane grasslands and shrublands and temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biomes, characterized by grassland plains without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes...
, now found only in Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
); and the dhole
Dhole
The dhole is a species of canid native to South and Southeast Asia. It is the only extant member of the genus Cuon, which differs from Canis by the reduced number of molars and greater number of teats...
(which thrived throughout North America and Eurasia
Eurasia
Eurasia is a continent or supercontinent comprising the traditional continents of Europe and Asia ; covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres...
during the Pleistocene). Scientific evidence points to the Siberian tiger crossing the Bering Strait into Alaska during the Pleistocene.
Criticism
The main criticism of the Pleistocene rewilding is that it is unrealistic to assume that communities today are functionally similar to their state 10,000 years ago. Opponents argue that there has been more than enough time for communities to evolve in the absence of mega-fauna, and thus the reintroduction of large mammals could thwart ecosystem dynamics and possibly cause collapse. Under this argument, the prospective taxa for reintroduction are considered exotic and could potentially harm natives of North America through invasion, disease, or other factors.Opponents of the Pleistocene rewilding present an alternative conservation program, in which more recent North American natives will be reintroduced into parts of their native ranges where they became extinct during historical times.
List of species proposed for the Pleistocene Rewilding project
Animals which have been already introduced
- Bolson TortoiseBolson TortoiseThe Bolson tortoise , also called the Mexican giant tortoise or Yellow-margined tortoise, is a species of tortoise from North America. Of the four North American tortoise species, it is the largest, having a carapace length of about...
- Californian Condor (has been introduced to sites, where it is only known from the Pleistocene and reported by rare, unconfirmed sightings in historic times)
- MustangMustang (horse)A Mustang is a free-roaming horse of the North American west that first descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish. Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses, but there is intense debate over terminology...
(feral horses roam north American grasslands and can count as proxies for extinct horses)
Considered to be reintroduced as ecological proxies
- African Bush ElephantAfrican Bush ElephantThe African Bush Elephant or African Savanna Elephant is the larger of the two species of African elephant. Both it and the African Forest Elephant have usually been classified as a single species, known simply as the African Elephant...
(as a proxy for the extinct Columbian mammothColumbian MammothThe Columbian Mammoth is an extinct species of elephant of the Quaternary period that appeared in North America during the late Pleistocene. It is believed by some authorities to be the same species as its slightly larger cousin, M...
) - Sumatran ElephantSumatran ElephantThe Sumatran Elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian Elephant, and native to Sumatra island of Indonesia. Since 1986, Elephas maximus has been listed as endangered by IUCN as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years...
(as a proxy for the extinct American MastodonAmerican mastodonThe American mastodon is an extinct North American proboscidean that lived from about 3.7 million years ago until about 10,000 BC. It was the last surviving member of the mastodon family. Fossil finds range from present-day Alaska and New England in the north, to Florida, southern...
) - African Forest ElephantAfrican Forest ElephantThe African Forest Elephant is a forest dwelling elephant of the Congo Basin. Formerly considered either a synonym or a subspecies of the African Savanna Elephant , a 2010 study established that the two are distinct species...
(as a proxy for the extinct Pygmy MammothPygmy MammothThe Pygmy Mammoth or Channel Islands Mammoth is an extinct species of dwarf elephant descended from the Columbian mammoth . A case of island or insular dwarfism, M. exilis was only to tall at the shoulder and weighed about , in contrast to its tall, ancestor.Remains of M...
of Channel Islands of CaliforniaChannel Islands of CaliforniaThe Channel Islands of California are a chain of eight islands located in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Southern California along the Santa Barbara Channel in the United States of America...
) - Mountain tapirMountain TapirThe Mountain Tapir or Woolly Tapir is the smallest of the four species of tapir and is the only one to live outside of tropical rainforests in the wild...
(as a proxy for the extinct California tapir) - DromedaryDromedaryThe dromedary or Arabian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back. Its native range is unclear, but it was probably the Arabian Peninsula. The domesticated form occurs widely in North Africa and the Middle East...
or Bactrian camelBactrian camelThe Bactrian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate native to the steppes of central Asia. It is presently restricted in the wild to remote regions of the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts of Mongolia and Xinjiang. A small number of wild Bactrian camels still roam the Mangystau Province of southwest...
(as a proxy for the extinct camelopsCamelopsCamelops is an extinct genus of camels that once roamed western North America, where it disappeared at the end of the Pleistocene about 10,000 years ago. Its name is derived from the Greek κάμελος + , thus "camel-face."-Background:...
) - CapybaraCapybaraThe capybara , also known as capivara in Portuguese, and capibara, chigüire in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador ronsoco in Peru, chigüiro, and carpincho in Spanish, is the largest living rodent in the world. Its closest relatives are agouti, chinchillas, coyphillas, and guinea pigs...
(as a proxy for the extinct species of North American capybara) - OnagerOnagerThe Onager is a large member of the genus Equus of the family Equidae native to the deserts of Syria, Iran, Pakistan, India, Israel and Tibet...
(as a proxy for the extinct species of North American horses/asses) - Grant's ZebraGrant's ZebraThe Grant's Zebra is the smallest of six subspecies of the Plains Zebra.-Distribution:The distribution of this subspecies is in Zambia west of the Luangwa river and west to Kariba, Shaba Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, north to the Kibanzao Plateau. In Tanzania north from...
(as a proxy for the extinct Hagerman horseHagerman HorseThe Hagerman horse , also called the Hagerman zebra or the American zebra, was a North American species of equid from the Pliocene period and the Pleistocene period. It was one of the oldest horses of the genus Equus. Discovered in 1928 in Hagerman, Idaho, it is believed to have been like the...
) - Asiatic CheetahAsiatic CheetahThe Asiatic Cheetah is now also known as the Iranian Cheetah, as the world's last few are known to survive mostly in Iran. Although recently presumed to be extinct in India, it is also known as the Indian Cheetah...
(as a proxy for the extinct American cheetah) - Barbary LionBarbary LionThe Barbary lion , also known as the Atlas lion or Nubian lion, is a subspecies of lion that became extinct in the wild or extinct in the 20th century....
(as a proxy for the extinct American lionAmerican lionThe American lion — also known as the North American lion, Naegele’s giant jaguar or American cave lion — is an extinct lion of the family Felidae, endemic to North America during the Pleistocene epoch , existing for approximately...
) - Siberian Tiger (occurred in Alaska during the Pleistocene; might also serve as a proxy for the extinct American Lion)
Pleistocene rewilding in Europe
This plan was considered by Josh Donlan and Jens-C. Svenning, and involves (as in rewilding North America) creating a Pleistocene habitat in portions of Europe. Svenning claims that "Pleistocene Rewilding can be taken for consideration outside of North America". The proxies which may be used for this project are:Species which went extinct in historic past but still exist as domestic descendants
- KonikKonikThe Konik or Polish primitive horse is a small horse, a kind of semi-feral horse, originating in Poland. The Polish word konik is the diminutive of koń, the Polish word for "horse" . However, the name "konik" or "Polish konik" is used to refer to certain specific breeds...
(A proxy for the extinct TarpanTarpanTarpan is an extinct subspecies of wild horse. The last individual of this subspecies died in captivity in Russia in 1909....
) - Heck horseHeck horseHeck horse is a horse breed that resembles the extinct wild equine, the Tarpan, . The breed was created by the German zoologist brothers Heinz Heck and Lutz Heck, director of the Berlin Zoo, at the Tierpark Hellabrunn in Germany in their attempt to breed back the tarpan...
(Another proxy for the Tarpan) - Heck CattleHeck cattleHeck Cattle are a hardy breed of domestic cattle. They are the result of an attempt to breed back the aurochs, which became extinct in 1627, from modern aurochs-derived cattle...
(A proxy for the extinct AurochsAurochsThe aurochs , the ancestor of domestic cattle, were a type of large wild cattle which inhabited Europe, Asia and North Africa, but is now extinct; it survived in Europe until 1627....
)
Species still extant outside Europe
- Asian Lion (Widespread in Europe during the Pleistocene. In historical times in southeastern Europe, ranging as far as Hungary. Can also serve as a proxy for the extinct European Cave Lion)
- Persian LeopardPersian LeopardThe Persian leopard , also called Caucasian leopard, is the largest leopard subspecies, and is native to eastern Turkey, the Caucasus mountains, northern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, and parts of western Afghanistan...
(Leopards thrived in Europe until the end of the Pleistocene and are still present in the Caucasus) - Spotted HyenaSpotted HyenaThe spotted hyena also known as laughing hyena, is a carnivorous mammal of the family Hyaenidae, of which it is the largest extant member. Though the species' prehistoric range included Eurasia extending from Atlantic Europe to China, it now only occurs in all of Africa south of the Sahara save...
(Last occurrence during the Late-Glacial Period) - DholeDholeThe dhole is a species of canid native to South and Southeast Asia. It is the only extant member of the genus Cuon, which differs from Canis by the reduced number of molars and greater number of teats...
(Also last occurred during Late-Glacial Period) - HippopotamusHippopotamusThe hippopotamus , or hippo, from the ancient Greek for "river horse" , is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae After the elephant and rhinoceros, the hippopotamus is the third largest land mammal and the heaviest...
(Occurred in Europe during the Pleistocene; suitable in warmer parts of Europe)
Considered to be reintroduced as ecological proxies
- Asian Wild Ass (Occurred in southeastern Europe as recently as the medieval period, can serve as proxy for the extinct European Wild Ass – Equus hydruntinus)
- Sri Lankan ElephantSri Lankan ElephantThe Sri Lankan Elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian Elephant, and native to Sri Lanka. Since 1986, Elephas maximus has been listed as endangered by IUCN as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years...
(A proxy for the extinct Straight-tusked ElephantStraight-tusked ElephantThe Straight-tusked Elephant is an extinct species of elephant closely related to the living Asian Elephant. It inhabited Europe during the Middle and Late Pleistocene . Some experts regard the smaller Asian species E...
Elephas (maximus) antiquus) - African Forest ElephantAfrican Forest ElephantThe African Forest Elephant is a forest dwelling elephant of the Congo Basin. Formerly considered either a synonym or a subspecies of the African Savanna Elephant , a 2010 study established that the two are distinct species...
(as a proxy for the extinct species of Dwarf elephantDwarf elephantDwarf elephants are prehistoric members of the order Proboscidea, that, through the process of allopatric speciation, evolved to a fraction of the size of their immediate ancestors...
in Malta, Crete, Cyprus, and Sicily) - Wild Asian Water BuffaloWild Asian Water BuffaloThe wild water buffalo also called Asian buffalo and Asiatic buffalo is a large bovine native to Southeast Asia...
(A proxy for the extinct species Bubalus murrensis) - Sumatran RhinocerosSumatran RhinocerosThe Sumatran Rhinoceros is a member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant rhinoceroses. It is the only extant species of the genus Dicerorhinus. It is the smallest rhinoceros, although is still a large mammal. This rhino stands high at the shoulder, with a head-and-body length of ...
(A proxy for the extinct species Merck's Rhinoceros)
South America
Possibilities for reintroduction as ecological proxies
- Guanaco and VicunaVicuñaThe vicuña or vicugna is one of two wild South American camelids, along with the guanaco, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes. It is a relative of the llama, and is now believed to share a wild ancestor with domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their fibre...
(as proxies for the extinct Paleolama major and Paleolama niedae in BrazilBrazilBrazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
) - Feral horseFeral horseA feral horse is a free-roaming horse of domesticated ancestry. As such, a feral horse is not a wild animal in the sense of an animal without domesticated ancestors. However, some populations of feral horses are managed as wildlife, and these horses often are popularly called "wild" horses...
(as a proxy the extinct Hippidion bonaerensis) - GiraffeGiraffeThe giraffe is an African even-toed ungulate mammal, the tallest of all extant land-living animal species, and the largest ruminant...
and OkapiOkapiThe okapi , Okapia johnstoni, is a giraffid artiodactyl mammal native to the Ituri Rainforest, located in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in Central Africa...
(as proxies for the extinct genera of Ground SlothGround slothGround sloths are a diverse group of extinct sloths, in the mammalian superorder Xenarthra. Their most recent survivors lived in the Antilles, where it has been proposed they may have survived until 1550 CE; however, the youngest AMS radiocarbon date reported is 4190 BP, calibrated to c. 4700 BP...
) - White RhinocerosWhite RhinocerosThe White Rhinoceros or Square-lipped rhinoceros is one of the five species of rhinoceros that still exist. It has a wide mouth used for grazing and is the most social of all rhino species...
, Black RhinocerosBlack RhinocerosThe Black Rhinoceros or Hook-lipped Rhinoceros , is a species of rhinoceros, native to the eastern and central areas of Africa including Kenya, Tanzania, Cameroon, South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Angola...
and Indian RhinocerosIndian RhinocerosThe Indian Rhinoceros is also called Greater One-horned Rhinoceros and Asian One-horned Rhinoceros and belongs to the Rhinocerotidae family...
(as proxies for some the extinct GlyptodontidaeGlyptodontidaeGlyptodonts were large, more heavily armored relatives of extinct pampatheres and modern armadillos.They first evolved during the Miocene in South America, which remained their center of species diversity...
) - HippopotamusHippopotamusThe hippopotamus , or hippo, from the ancient Greek for "river horse" , is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae After the elephant and rhinoceros, the hippopotamus is the third largest land mammal and the heaviest...
and Pygmy hippopotamusPygmy HippopotamusThe pygmy hippopotamus is a large mammal native to the forests and swamps of western Africa . The pygmy hippo is reclusive and nocturnal...
(as proxies for the extinct ToxodonToxodonToxodon is an extinct mammal of the late Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs about 2.6 million to 16,500 years ago. It was indigenous to South America, and was probably the most common large-hoofed mammal in South America at the time of its existence....
and MixotoxodonMixotoxodonMixotoxodon is an extinct genus of notoungulate of the family Toxodontidae which inhabited South America during the Pleistocene living from 1.8—0.30 Ma and existed for approximately ....
) - DromedaryDromedaryThe dromedary or Arabian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate with one hump on its back. Its native range is unclear, but it was probably the Arabian Peninsula. The domesticated form occurs widely in North Africa and the Middle East...
(as a proxy the extinct Macrauchenia patachonica) - Indian elephantIndian ElephantThe Indian Elephant is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant, and native to mainland Asia. Since 1986, Elephas maximus has been listed as endangered by IUCN as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years...
and Borneo ElephantBorneo ElephantThe Borneo Elephant also called the Borneo Pygmy Elephant inhabits northeastern Borneo. Its origin remains the subject of debate. A definitive subspecific classification as Elephas maximus borneensis awaits a detailed range-wide morphometric and genetic study...
(as proxies for the extinct HaplomastodonHaplomastodonHaplomastodon is an extinct genus of proboscidea endemic to South America during the Pleistocene from 1.810 Ma—11,000 years ago, living for approximately .It had two tusks on either side of a trunk like other members of Gomphotheriidae...
waringi and CuvieroniusCuvieroniusCuvieronius is an extinct New World genus of gomphothere. It is named after the French naturalist Georges Cuvier, stood 2.7 m tall and looked like a modern elephant except for its spiral-shaped tusks.-Origin:...
tropicus) - Lycaon pictus (as a proxy the extinct Protocyon troglodytes)
- Spectacled bearSpectacled BearThe spectacled bear , also known as the Andean bear and locally as ukuko, jukumari or ucumari, is the last remaining short-faced bear and the closest living relative to the Florida spectacled bear and short-faced bears of the Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene age.The spectacled bear is a...
and Kodiak bearKodiak BearThe Kodiak bear , also known as the Kodiak brown bear or the Alaskan grizzly bear or American brown bear, occupies the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago in South-Western Alaska. Its name in the Alutiiq language is Taquka-aq. It is the largest subspecies of brown bear.- Taxonomy :Taxonomist C.H...
(as a proxies for the extinct Arctodus brasiliensis and South American giant short-faced bear) - African lion (as a proxy the extinct SmilodonSmilodonSmilodon , often called a saber-toothed cat or saber-toothed tiger, is an extinct genus of machairodonts. This saber-toothed cat was endemic to North America and South America, living from near the beginning through the very end of the Pleistocene epoch .-Etymology:The nickname "saber-tooth" refers...
populator)
Northern Siberia
The aim of Siberian Pleistocene rewilding is to recreate the ancient mammoth steppe by reintroducing megafauna. The first step was the successful reintroduction of musk oxen on the Taymyr PeninsulaTaymyr Peninsula
The Taymyr Peninsula is a peninsula in the Far North of Russia, in the Siberian Federal District, that forms the northernmost part of mainland Eurasia and Asia...
and Wrangel island
Wrangel Island
Wrangel Island is an island in the Arctic Ocean, between the Chukchi Sea and East Siberian Sea. Wrangel Island lies astride the 180° meridian. The International Date Line is displaced eastwards at this latitude to avoid the island as well as the Chukchi Peninsula on the Russian mainland...
. In 1988, researcher Sergey Zimov
Sergey Zimov
Sergei Zimov is a Russian scientist who serves as the Director of the Northeast Science Station and is one of the founders of Pleistocene Park. He is best known for his work in advocating the theory that human overhunting of large herbivores during the Pleistocene caused Siberia’s grassland-steppe...
created Pleistocene Park
Pleistocene Park
Pleistocene Park is a nature reserve south of Chersky in the Sakha Republic in northeastern Siberia, where an attempt is being made to recreate the northern steppe grassland ecosystem that flourished in the area during the last ice age.-Goals:...
- a nature reserve in northeastern Siberia for full-scale megafauna rewilding. Yakutian horse
Yakutian horse
The Yakutian horse , sometimes called the Yakut horse, Yakut pony or simply the Yakut, is a rare native horse breed from the Siberian Sakha Republic region. It is large compared to the otherwise similar Mongolian horse and Przewalski's horse breeds...
s, reindeer, snow sheep
Snow sheep
The snow sheep , or Siberian bighorn sheep, is a species of sheep, which comes from the mountainous areas in the northeast of Siberia. One subspecies, the Putorana Snow Sheep lives isolated from the other forms in the Putoran mountains...
, elk and moose were reintroduced to the park. Reintroduction is also planned for yak
Yak
The yak, Bos grunniens or Bos mutus, is a long-haired bovine found throughout the Himalayan region of south Central Asia, the Tibetan Plateau and as far north as Mongolia and Russia. In addition to a large domestic population, there is a small, vulnerable wild yak population...
, Bactrian camel
Bactrian camel
The Bactrian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate native to the steppes of central Asia. It is presently restricted in the wild to remote regions of the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts of Mongolia and Xinjiang. A small number of wild Bactrian camels still roam the Mangystau Province of southwest...
s, red deer
Red Deer
The red deer is one of the largest deer species. Depending on taxonomy, the red deer inhabits most of Europe, the Caucasus Mountains region, Asia Minor, parts of western Asia, and central Asia. It also inhabits the Atlas Mountains region between Morocco and Tunisia in northwestern Africa, being...
, and Siberian tigers. The wood bison, closest relative of the ancient bison which became extinct in Siberia 1,000 to 2,000 years ago, is an important species for the ecology of Siberia. In 2006, 30 bison calves were flown from Edmonton, Alberta to Yakutsk
Yakutsk
With a subarctic climate , Yakutsk is the coldest city, though not the coldest inhabited place, on Earth. Average monthly temperatures range from in July to in January. The coldest temperatures ever recorded on the planet outside Antarctica occurred in the basin of the Yana River to the northeast...
. Now they live in the government-run reserve of Ust'-Buotama.
Animals which have been already introduced
- Musk OxMusk OxThe muskox is an Arctic mammal of the family Bovidae, noted for its thick coat and for the strong odor emitted by males, from which its name derives. This musky odor is used to attract females during mating season...
(went extinct in Siberia about 200 years ago, but has been reintroduced in Taimyr Peninsula and on Wrangel IslandWrangel IslandWrangel Island is an island in the Arctic Ocean, between the Chukchi Sea and East Siberian Sea. Wrangel Island lies astride the 180° meridian. The International Date Line is displaced eastwards at this latitude to avoid the island as well as the Chukchi Peninsula on the Russian mainland...
)
Considered for reintroduction
- Siberian Tiger (occurred up to Beringia during the late Pleistocene, now restricted to southeastern Siberia)
- Amur LeopardAmur LeopardThe Amur leopard , also known as the Far Eastern leopard, Korean leopard, and Manchurian leopard is one of nine recognised subspecies of leopard. It is a wild feline predator native to the mountainous areas of the Russian Far East. It used to inhabit the forests of Korea and China, but it has...
(Before, covered an area much larger than today) - Saiga
- Bactrian camelBactrian camelThe Bactrian camel is a large, even-toed ungulate native to the steppes of central Asia. It is presently restricted in the wild to remote regions of the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts of Mongolia and Xinjiang. A small number of wild Bactrian camels still roam the Mangystau Province of southwest...
Ecological proxies
- European Bison or Wood bisonWood BisonThe Wood Bison, Bison bison athabascae, also called Mountain Bison, Wood Buffalo or Mountain Buffalo, is a distinct northern subspecies or ecotype of the American Bison...
(proxies for extinct Steppe bison) - Yakutian horseYakutian horseThe Yakutian horse , sometimes called the Yakut horse, Yakut pony or simply the Yakut, is a rare native horse breed from the Siberian Sakha Republic region. It is large compared to the otherwise similar Mongolian horse and Przewalski's horse breeds...
(has been introduced at Pleistocene Park as proxy for extinct pleistocene horses) - Asiatic LionAsiatic LionThe Asiatic lion also known as the Indian lion, Persian lion and Eurasian Lion is a subspecies of lion. The only place in the wild where the lion is found is in the Gir Forest of Gujarat, India...
(proxy for Cave Lion) - African Elephant (proxy for Woolly MammothWoolly mammothThe woolly mammoth , also called the tundra mammoth, is a species of mammoth. This animal is known from bones and frozen carcasses from northern North America and northern Eurasia with the best preserved carcasses in Siberia...
)
Expanding populations
- KoalaKoalaThe koala is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia, and the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae....
- Tasmanian DevilTasmanian DevilThe Tasmanian devil is a carnivorous marsupial of the family Dasyuridae, now found in the wild only on the Australian island state of Tasmania. The size of a small dog, it became the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936...
(possible reintroduction to mainland Australia) - Eastern WallarooEastern WallarooThe Eastern Wallaroo also known as the Common Wallaroo or the Hill Wallaroo is part of the Wallaroo family . It is a large, variable species of macropod ....
- Southern CassowarySouthern CassowaryThe Southern Cassowary, Casuarius casuarius, also known as Double-wattled Cassowary, Australian Cassowary or Two-wattled Cassowary, is a large flightless black bird...
Extant outside Australia
- Western Long-beaked EchidnaWestern Long-beaked EchidnaThe western long-beaked echidna is one of the four extant echidnas and one of three species of Zaglossus that occur in New Guinea. As Tachyglossus bruijni, this is the type species of Zaglossus....
- Dwarf CassowaryDwarf CassowaryThe Dwarf Cassowary, Casuarius bennetti, also known as the Bennett's Cassowary, Little Cassowary, Mountain Cassowary, or Mooruk, is the smallest of the three species of cassowaries.-Taxonomy:...
- Komodo DragonKomodo dragonThe Komodo dragon , also known as the Komodo monitor, is a large species of lizard found in the Indonesian islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Gili Motang and Gili Dasami. A member of the monitor lizard family , it is the largest living species of lizard, growing to a maximum length of in rare cases...
(also serves as proxy for MegalaniaMegalaniaMegalania is a giant extinct goanna or monitor lizard. It was part of a megafaunal assemblage that inhabited southern Australia during the Pleistocene, and appears to have disappeared around 40,000 years ago...
) - Southern Elephant SealSouthern Elephant SealThe Southern Elephant Seal is one of the two extant species of elephant seal. It is both the most massive pinniped and member of the order Carnivora living today...
(colony wiped out by sealers on King Island during the 19th century) - New Zealand Pigeon (endemic race was exterminated on Lord Howe Island)
Ecological proxies
- Common WombatCommon WombatThe common wombat , also known as the coarse-haired wombat or bare-nosed wombat, is a marsupial, one of three species of wombats and the only one in the genus Vombatus. The common wombat grows to an average of long and a weight of .- Taxonomy :The common wombat was first described by George Shaw...
or Southern Hairy-nosed WombatSouthern Hairy-nosed WombatThe Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat is one of three species of wombats. It is found in scattered areas of semi-arid scrub and mallee from the eastern Nullarbor Plain to the New South Wales border area. It is the smallest of all three wombat species. The young often do not survive dry seasons... - EmuEmuThe Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae) is the largest bird native to Australia and the only extant member of the genus Dromaius. It is the second-largest extant bird in the world by height, after its ratite relative, the ostrich. There are three subspecies of Emus in Australia...
(as a proxy for the extinct Tasmanian subspecies Dromaius novaehollandiae diemenensis) - Red KangarooRed KangarooThe Red Kangaroo is the largest of all kangaroos, the largest mammal native to Australia, and the largest surviving marsupial. It is found across mainland Australia, avoiding only the more fertile areas in the south, the east coast, and the northern rainforests.-Description:This species is a very...
or Grey Kangaroo (as a proxy for the extinct Macropus titanMacropus titanMacropus titan is an extinct Australian vertebrate species belonging to the family Macropodidae , the same family as the kangaroos. M. titan lived during the Pleistocene.-External links:*...
) - New Zealand Kaka (as a proxy for the extinct Norfolk Island Kaka, Nestor meridionalis)
- Norfolk Parakeet (as a proxy for the extinct Lord Howe Red-crowned Parakeet, Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae subflavescens)
- Reischek’s Parakeet (as a proxy for the extinct Macquarie Island Parakeet, Cyanoramphus erythrotis)
- African Lion (as a proxy for Thylacoleo)
- HippopotamusHippopotamusThe hippopotamus , or hippo, from the ancient Greek for "river horse" , is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae After the elephant and rhinoceros, the hippopotamus is the third largest land mammal and the heaviest...
(as a proxy for DiprotodonDiprotodonDiprotodon, meaning "two forward teeth", sometimes known as the Giant Wombat or the Rhinoceros Wombat, was the largest known marsupial that ever lived...
)
Ecological proxies
- Australian PelicanAustralian PelicanThe Australian Pelican is a large water bird, widespread on the inland and coastal waters of Australia and New Guinea, also in Fiji, parts of Indonesia and as a vagrant to New Zealand.-Taxonomy:...
(as a proxy for the extinct New Zealand Pelican, Pelecanus novaezelandiae) - Australian Little BitternAustralian Little BitternThe Black-backed Bittern , also known as the Black-backed Least Bittern or Australian Little Bittern, is a little-known species of heron in the Ardeidae family found in Australia and southern New Guinea...
(as a proxy for the extinct New Zealand Little Bittern, Ixobrychus novaaezelandiae) - Australian Owlet-nightjarAustralian Owlet-nightjarThe Australian Owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles cristatus, is a nocturnal bird found in open woodland across Australia and in southern New Guinea. It is colloquially known as "Moth Owl". It is the most common of the owlet-nightjars, and the best known of this secretive family...
(as a proxy for the extinct New Zealand Owlet-Nightjar Aegotheles novazelandiae) - Stubble QuailStubble QuailThe Stubble Quail, Coturnix pectoralis is an Australian quail of the family Phasianidae. It has sometimes been considered conspecific with the extinct New Zealand Quail. In this case, the latter species' name would have priority and the Stubble Quail would become Coturnix novaezelandiae pectoralis...
(as a proxy for the extinct New Zealand Quail Coturnix novaezelandiae) - Pink-eared DuckPink-eared DuckThe Pink-eared Duck is a species of duck found in Australia.It has a large spatulate bill like the Australasian Shoveler, but is smaller at 38–40 cm length. Its brown back and crown, black and white barred sides and black eye patches on its otherwise white face make this bird unmistakable...
(as a proxy for the extinct Scarlett's Duck Malacorhynchus scarletti) - Black SwanBlack SwanThe Black Swan is a large waterbird, a species of swan, which breeds mainly in the southeast and southwest regions of Australia. The species was hunted to extinction in New Zealand, but later reintroduced. Within Australia they are nomadic, with erratic migration patterns dependent upon climatic...
(as a proxy for the extinct New Zealand Swan, Cygnus atratus sumnerensis; breeding populations have been established)
External links
- Mauro Galetti
- Paulo Guimarães Jr.
- Pedro Jordano
- The Rewilding Institute
- C. Josh Donlan
- Re-wilding North America
- Rewilding Megafauna: Lions and Camels in North America?
- Pleistocene Park Could Solve Mystery of Mammoth's Extinction
- Pleistocene Rewilding merits serious consideration also outside North America for Rewilding Europe
- Megafauna: First Victims of the Human-Caused Extinction