List of people convicted of treason
Encyclopedia
This is a list of people convicted of treason
.
Some countries, such as the U.S., have a high constitution
al hurdle to conviction for treason, while many countries, especially absolute monarchies
and dictatorship
s, have less stringent definitions.
NTINOS transferred to another office on 30 - 11 - 2011
government had one trial for treason after the failed 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii
. Those charged were found guilty, but pardoned after serving time in prison.
to Gestapo
:
, a former terrorist rebel leader who fought with government for 30 years.
Treason
In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against one's sovereign or nation. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife. Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a...
.
Some countries, such as the U.S., have a high constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
al hurdle to conviction for treason, while many countries, especially absolute monarchies
Absolute monarchy
Absolute monarchy is a monarchical form of government in which the monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state and head of government, his or her power not being limited by a constitution or by the law. An absolute monarch thus wields unrestricted political power over the...
and dictatorship
Dictatorship
A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by an individual, the dictator. It has three possible meanings:...
s, have less stringent definitions.
Armenia
- Meruzhan ArtzruniMeruzhan ArtzruniMeruzhan Artzruni was a Nakharar from the Artzruni family. He lived in the decades following the official conversion of Armenia to Christianity, but himself remained a Zoroastrian...
, Lord Prince of VaspurakanVaspurakanVaspurakan was the first and biggest province of Greater Armenia, which later became an independent kingdom during the Middle Ages, centered around Lake Van...
(? - 369), for conspiring with one of the Great Persian Kings, Shapur II against his liege-lord, Armenian King Arshak II, whom he betrayed to Persia. He was captured by Arshak's son King Pap and executed.
Austria
- Count Lajos Batthyány de NémetújvárLajos BatthyányCount Lajos Batthyány de Németújvár was the first Prime Minister of Hungary. He was born in Pressburg on 10 February 1807, and was executed by firing squad in Pest on 6 October 1849, the same day as the 13 Martyrs of Arad.-Career:His father was Count József Sándor Batthyány , his mother Borbála...
, for involvement in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848Hungarian Revolution of 1848The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was one of many of the European Revolutions of 1848 and closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas...
. Executed by firing squad on the same day as the 13 Martyrs of Arad.
Austria-Hungary
- Nedeljko ČabrinovićNedeljko CabrinovicNedeljko Čabrinović was a member of the nationalist Young Bosnia movement, and one of a group of seven who intended to assassinate Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria during his announced visit to Sarajevo.Born in Sarajevo, Čabrinović spent many of his post-school years as a handyman, before...
, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz FerdinandArchduke Franz Ferdinand of AustriaFranz Ferdinand was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Austro-Hungarian and Royal Prince of Hungary and of Bohemia, and from 1889 until his death, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. His assassination in Sarajevo precipitated Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia... - Vaso ČubrilovićVaso CubrilovicVaso Čubrilović was a student in Sarajevo, when Danilo Ilić recruited him and his friend, Cvjetko Popović, to help assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria...
, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Veljko ČubrilovićVeljko CubrilovicVeljko Čubrilović was involved in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria.He was born in Bosnia and Herzegovina. He became a schoolteacher in Priboj Majevicki, but in 1914, as a member of the Black Hand secret society, agreed to help Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic, and...
, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Dragutin DimitrijevićDragutin DimitrijevicDragutin Dimitrijević was a Serbian soldier and leader of the Black Hand group implicated with assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria in 1914...
, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Trifko GrabežTrifko GrabežTrifun "Trifko" Grabež was a Bosnian Serb member of the organization the Black Hand involved in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria....
, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Danilo IlićDanilo IlicDanilo Ilić was born in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1891 and died in 1915. He attended the State Teachers' College in Sarajevo and for a while taught at a school in Bosnia. In 1913 Ilic moved to Belgrade where he became a journalist and a member of the Black Hand secret society.Ilic returned to...
, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Cvjetko PopovićCvjetko PopovicCvjetko Popović was a Serb born in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1896. He was a student in Sarajevo when Danilo Ilić recruited him and his friend, Vaso Čubrilović to help assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand....
, for conspiring to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Gavrilo PrincipGavrilo PrincipGavrilo Princip was the Bosnian Serb who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914...
, for assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Nazario SauroNazario SauroNazario Sauro was an Austrian-born Italian irredentist and sailor.-Life:Born in Capodistria, in what was then the Austrian Littoral , he took to sailing from a very young age, and became the captain of a cargo ship when he was only 20...
, for fighting for ItalyItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
in the First World War
Canada
- Louis RielLouis RielLouis David Riel was a Canadian politician, a founder of the province of Manitoba, and a political and spiritual leader of the Métis people of the Canadian prairies. He led two resistance movements against the Canadian government and its first post-Confederation Prime Minister, Sir John A....
, MétisMétis people (Canada)The Métis are one of the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who trace their descent to mixed First Nations parentage. The term was historically a catch-all describing the offspring of any such union, but within generations the culture syncretised into what is today a distinct aboriginal group, with...
leader who opposed CanadaCanadaCanada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's expansion into the west. - Kanao InouyeKanao InouyeKanao Inouye was a Canadian citizen convicted of high treason and war crimes for his actions during World War II. Known as the "Kamloops Kid", he served as an interpreter and prison camp guard for the Imperial Japanese Army and the political police, or Kempeitai.- Early life in Canada :A Nisei ,...
, Kamloops-born sergeantSergeantSergeant is a rank used in some form by most militaries, police forces, and other uniformed organizations around the world. Its origins are the Latin serviens, "one who serves", through the French term Sergent....
in the Imperial Japanese armyImperial Japanese Army-Foundation:During the Meiji Restoration, the military forces loyal to the Emperor were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist feudal domains of Satsuma and Chōshū...
in World War IIWorld War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, for killing eight Canadian prisoners of warPrisoner of warA prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war is a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict...
captured at the Battle of Hong KongBattle of Hong KongThe Battle of Hong Kong took place during the Pacific campaign of World War II. It began on 8 December 1941 and ended on 25 December 1941 with Hong Kong, then a Crown colony, surrendering to the Empire of Japan.-Background:...
.
England
- For those convicted on or after 1 May 1707, see Great Britain and United Kingdom.
France
- Robert BrasillachRobert BrasillachRobert Brasillach was a French author and journalist. Brasillach is best known as the editor of Je suis partout, a nationalist newspaper which came to advocate various fascist movements and supported Jacques Doriot...
- Marcel BucardMarcel BucardMarcel Bucard was a French Fascist politician.Early career=...
- Louis-Ferdinand CélineLouis-Ferdinand CélineLouis-Ferdinand Céline was the pen name of French writer and physician Louis-Ferdinand Destouches . Céline was chosen after his grandmother's first name. He is considered one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century, developing a new style of writing that modernized both French and...
- Joseph DarnandJoseph DarnandJoseph Darnand was a French soldier and later a leader of the Vichy French collaborators with Nazi Germany....
, for leading the Vichy FrenchVichy FranceVichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
MiliceMiliceThe Milice française , generally called simply Milice, was a paramilitary force created on January 30, 1943 by the Vichy Regime, with German aid, to help fight the French Resistance. The Milice's formal leader was Prime Minister Pierre Laval, though its chief of operations, and actual leader, was...
. - Émile DewoitineÉmile DewoitineÉmile Dewoitine was a French aviation industrialist.- Prewar industrial activities :Born in Crépy-en-Laonnois, Émile Dewoitine entered the aviation industry by working at Latécoère during Word War I...
, aviation industrialist sentenced to 20 years forced labour sentence for collaboration. - Pierre LavalPierre LavalPierre Laval was a French politician. He was four times President of the council of ministers of the Third Republic, twice consecutively. Following France's Armistice with Germany in 1940, he served twice in the Vichy Regime as head of government, signing orders permitting the deportation of...
, for being Prime Minister of Vichy FranceVichy FranceVichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
. - Michel NeyMichel NeyMichel Ney , 1st Duc d'Elchingen, 1st Prince de la Moskowa was a French soldier and military commander during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original 18 Marshals of France created by Napoleon I...
- Henri Philippe Pétain
- Marie AntoinetteMarie AntoinetteMarie Antoinette ; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was an Archduchess of Austria and the Queen of France and of Navarre. She was the fifteenth and penultimate child of Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa and Holy Roman Emperor Francis I....
- Louis XVILouis XVI of FranceLouis XVI was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre until 1791, and then as King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before being executed in 1793....
Germany
- Adolf HitlerAdolf HitlerAdolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
, for his role in the Beer Hall PutschBeer Hall PutschThe Beer Hall Putsch was a failed attempt at revolution that occurred between the evening of 8 November and the early afternoon of 9 November 1923, when Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler, Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff, and other heads of the Kampfbund unsuccessfully tried to seize power...
in 1923 - Sophie SchollSophie SchollSophia Magdalena Scholl was a German student, active within the White Rose non-violent resistance group in Nazi Germany. She was convicted of high treason after having been found distributing anti-war leaflets at the University of Munich with her brother Hans...
, Hans SchollHans SchollHans Fritz Scholl was a founding member of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany.-Biography:...
and Christoph ProbstChristoph ProbstChristoph Hermann Probst was a German student of medicine and a member of the White Rose resistance group.-White Rose:...
in 1943 for their involvement in the anti Nazi White RoseWhite RoseThe White Rose was a non-violent/intellectual resistance group in Nazi Germany, consisting of students from the University of Munich and their philosophy professor...
movement. - Claus Schenk Graf von StauffenbergClaus Schenk Graf von StauffenbergClaus Philipp Maria Justinian Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg commonly referred to as Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg was a German army officer and Catholic aristocrat who was one of the leading members of the failed 20 July plot of 1944 to assassinate Adolf Hitler and remove the Nazi Party from...
, for the attempted assassination of Hitler in the July 20 plotJuly 20 PlotOn 20 July 1944, an attempt was made to assassinate Adolf Hitler, Führer of the Third Reich, inside his Wolf's Lair field headquarters near Rastenburg, East Prussia. The plot was the culmination of the efforts of several groups in the German Resistance to overthrow the Nazi-led German government...
in 1944
Great Britain
- For those before 1 May 1707, see England and Scotland. For those convicted on or after 1 January 1801, see United Kingdom
- Archibald Cameron of LocheilArchibald Cameron of LocheilDr Archibald Cameron of Lochiel was a prominent leader in the Jacobite uprising of 1745 and the last Jacobite to be executed for high treason on June 7, 1753.-Before the uprising:...
, for his part in the 1745 Jacobite risingJacobite risingThe Jacobite Risings were a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in Great Britain and Ireland occurring between 1688 and 1746. The uprisings were aimed at returning James VII of Scotland and II of England, and later his descendants of the House of Stuart, to the throne after he was deposed by... - William Maxwell, 5th Earl of NithsdaleWilliam Maxwell, 5th Earl of NithsdaleWilliam Maxwell, 5th Earl of Nithsdale was a Catholic nobleman, who took part in the Jacobite Rising of 1715.He was the eldest son of Robert, fourth Earl of Nithsdale , and Lady Lucie Douglas , daughter of William, eleventh earl of Angus and first Marquess of Douglas. He was probably born at...
, for supporting the JacobiteJacobite risingThe Jacobite Risings were a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in Great Britain and Ireland occurring between 1688 and 1746. The uprisings were aimed at returning James VII of Scotland and II of England, and later his descendants of the House of Stuart, to the throne after he was deposed by...
Rebellion of 1715 - Thomas PaineThomas PaineThomas "Tom" Paine was an English author, pamphleteer, radical, inventor, intellectual, revolutionary, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States...
, for publishing anti-British revolutionary literature - Charles RadclyffeCharles RadclyffeCharles Radclyffe titular 5th Earl of Derwentwater, who claimed the title Fifth Earl of Derwentwater...
, for supporting the JacobiteJacobite risingThe Jacobite Risings were a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in Great Britain and Ireland occurring between 1688 and 1746. The uprisings were aimed at returning James VII of Scotland and II of England, and later his descendants of the House of Stuart, to the throne after he was deposed by...
Rebellion of 1715
- Archibald Cameron of Locheil
Greece
- Dimitrios GounarisDimitrios GounarisDimitrios Gounaris was the Prime Minister of Greece from March 10, 1915 to August 23, 1915 and April 8, 1921 to May 16, 1922...
, Prime Minister of Greece (1921–1922), convicted of treason in 1922 for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922. - Petros ProtopapadakisPetros Protopapadakis-Life and work:Born in 1854 in Apeiranthos, Naxos, Protopapadakis studied mathematics and engineering in Paris but was keenly interested in politics. He was a professor at the Scholi Evelpidon, the military academy of Greece....
, Minister of Economy in Dimitrios Gounaris' government and later Prime Minister of Greece (1922), convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922. - Nikolaos StratosNikolaos StratosNikolaos Stratos was a Prime Minister of Greece for a few days in May, 1922. He was later tried and executed for his role in the Catastrophe of 1922.-Early political career:...
, Minister of Internal Affairs in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922. - Georgios Baltatzis, Minister of Foreign Affairs in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
- Nikolaos Theotokis, Minister of Military Affairs in Gounaris' government, convicted of trason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
- Georgios Hatzanestis, commanding officer of the Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace Greek army, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Executed 15 November 1922.
- Michail Goudas, rear admiral and minister in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Sentenced to life imprisonment.
- Xenophon Stratigos, major general and minister in Gounaris' government, convicted of treason for the Asia Minor catastrophe. Sentenced to life imprisonment.
- George PapadopoulosGeorge PapadopoulosColonel Georgios Papadopoulos was the head of the military coup d'état that took place in Greece on 21 April 1967 and leader of the military government that ruled the country from 1967 to 1974. Papadopoulos was a Colonel of Artillery...
, Greek colonel, leader of a military junta (1967-1973), convicted of treason and jailed for life, dying in Korydallos prison.
NTINOS transferred to another office on 30 - 11 - 2011
Hawaii
The Republic of HawaiiRepublic of Hawaii
The Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of the government that controlled Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands...
government had one trial for treason after the failed 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii
1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii
The 1895 Counter-revolution in Hawaii was a brief war from January 6 to January 9, 1895, that consisted of three battles on the island of Oahu, Hawaii...
. Those charged were found guilty, but pardoned after serving time in prison.
- Charles T. GulickCharles T. GulickCharles Thomas Gulick was a politician in the Kingdom of Hawaii. He was one of the few members of missionary families to side with the monarchy in the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii.-Life:...
(1841–1897), former cabinet minister - Robert William WilcoxRobert William WilcoxRobert William Kalanihiapo Wilcox , nicknamed the Iron Duke of Hawaii, was a native Hawaiian revolutionary soldier and politician. He led uprisings against both the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii under King Kalākaua and the Republic of Hawaii under Sanford Dole, what are now known as the...
(1855–1903), military leader, later delegate to US Congress
Hungary
- Imre NagyImre NagyImre Nagy was a Hungarian communist politician who was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Hungary on two occasions...
, Prime Minister of Hungary, for leading the 1956 Hungarian Revolution1956 Hungarian RevolutionThe Hungarian Revolution or Uprising of 1956 was a spontaneous nationwide revolt against the government of the People's Republic of Hungary and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956....
. - Count Fidel PalffyFidél PálffyCount Fidél Pálffy de Erdőd was a Hungarian nobleman who emerged as a leading supporter of Nazism in Hungary.-Early life:...
- László RajkLászló RajkLászló Rajk was a Hungarian Communist; politician, former Minister of Interior and former Minister of Foreign Affairs...
- Sándor SzűcsSándor SzucsSándor Szűcs was a Hungarian football player. He started to play for Szolnoki MÁV, but he spent his best years playing for Újpest FC as a defender and helped the club win the Hungarian League in three consecutive years from 1945 to 1947.Between 1941 and 1948 Szűcs played 19 times for Hungary,...
, international footballer, for defecting.
Israel
- Mordechai VanunuMordechai VanunuMordechai Vanunu ; is a former Israeli nuclear technician who, citing his opposition to weapons of mass destruction, revealed details of Israel's nuclear weapons program to the British press in 1986. He was subsequently lured to Italy by a Mossad agent, where he was drugged and kidnapped by...
, for revealing details of IsraelIsraelThe State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
's nuclear weapons program to the British press in 1986. - Meir TobianskiMeir TobianskiMeir Tobianski also Tubianski was an officer in the Israel Defense Forces who was executed as a traitor on circumstantial evidence on the orders of Isser Be'eri, the first director of the IDF's intelligence branch...
, falsely accused of treason during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war1948 Arab-Israeli WarThe 1948 Arab–Israeli War, known to Israelis as the War of Independence or War of Liberation The war commenced after the termination of the British Mandate for Palestine and the creation of an independent Israel at midnight on 14 May 1948 when, following a period of civil war, Arab armies invaded...
. Executed by firing squad but pardoned after his death.
Japan
- Kotoku ShusuiKotoku Shusui, better known by the nom de plume , was a Japanese socialist and anarchist who played a leading role in introducing anarchism to Japan in the early 20th century, particularly by translating the works of contemporary European and Russian anarchists, such as Peter Kropotkin, into Japanese...
, Japanese anarchist - Daisuke Namba, Japanese left-wing activist
- Ozaki Hotsumi, journalist and Soviet agent (nominally convicted under Peace Preservation LawPeace Preservation LawThe Public Security Preservation Laws were a series of laws enacted during the Empire of Japan. Collectively, the laws were designed to suppress political dissent.-the Safety Preservation Law of 1894:...
)
Kenya
- Hezekiah OchukaHezekiah OchukaHezekiah Rabala Ochuka, was Senior Private in the Kenya Air Force, who ruled Kenya for about six hours after planning and executing a coup against president Daniel arap Moi on August 1, 1982....
, Kenya airforce soldier, for conspiring to overthrow the government of Daniel Moi in 1982
Kuwait
- Alaa Hussein AliAlaa Hussein AliAla'a Hussein Ali Al-Khafaji Al-Jaber served at the head of a puppet government in Kuwait during the initial stages of the Gulf War from August 4, 1990 to August 8, 1990....
, for heading the IraqIraqIraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
i puppet government during the Gulf WarGulf WarThe Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
Mexico
- Agustín de IturbideAgustín de IturbideAgustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Aramburu , also known as Augustine I of Mexico, was a Mexican army general who built a successful political and military coalition that was able to march into Mexico City on 27 September 1821, decisively ending the Mexican War of Independence...
, for fighting for the royalists army during the Mexican War of IndependenceMexican War of IndependenceThe Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial authorities which started on 16 September 1810. The movement, which became known as the Mexican War of Independence, was led by Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians who sought...
.
Norway
- Vidkun QuislingVidkun QuislingVidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonssøn Quisling was a Norwegian politician. On 9 April 1940, with the German invasion of Norway in progress, he seized power in a Nazi-backed coup d'etat that garnered him international infamy. From 1942 to 1945 he served as Minister-President, working with the occupying...
, for being Minister President of NaziNazismNazism, the common short form name of National Socialism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany...
-occupied NorwayNorwayNorway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
during World War IIWorld War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. The word 'quisling' now means 'traitor'. - Albert Viljam HagelinAlbert Viljam HagelinAlbert Viljam Hagelin was a Norwegian businessman and opera singer who became the Minister of Domestic Affairs in the Quisling regime, the puppet government headed by Vidkun Quisling during Germany's World War II occupation of Norway....
, member of QuislingQuislingQuisling is a term used in reference to fascist and collaborationist political parties and military and paramilitary forces in occupied Allied countries which collaborated with Axis occupiers in World War II, as well as for their members and other collaborators.- Etymology :The term was coined by...
s government. - Ragnar SkanckeRagnar SkanckeRagnar Sigvald Skancke was the Norwegian Minister of Labour and Minister for Church and Educational Affairs in Vidkun Quisling's government of the Nasjonal Samling party during World War II.Before the war, Skancke was a highly respected professor of electrical engineering at the Norwegian...
, Quislings minister of Church and Educational Affairs. - Arne TreholtArne TreholtArne Treholt is a former Norwegian Labour Party politician and diplomat convicted of high treason and espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union and Iraq during the Cold War. Treholt's espionage is generally seen as the most serious spy case in the modern history of Norway...
Norwegian diplomat, turned by the KGB
Poland
For the betrayal of General Stefan RoweckiStefan Rowecki
Stefan Paweł Rowecki was a Polish general, journalist and the leader of the Armia Krajowa. He was murdered by the Gestapo in prison, probably on the direct order of Heinrich Himmler.-Life:Rowecki was born in Piotrków Trybunalski...
to Gestapo
Gestapo
The Gestapo was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police...
:
- Eugeniusz Swierczewski (“Genes”), executed 1944
- Ludwik Kalkstein ("Hanka"), protected by GestapoGestapoThe Gestapo was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police...
during the war, emigrated to France in 1982 - Blanka Kaczorowska (“Sroka”), as above, emigrated to France in 1971
Russia
- Mikhail SheinMikhail SheinMikhail Borisovich Shein was a Russian warlord of Tsar Mikhail Romanov. Despite his tactical skills and successful military career, he ended up losing his army under Smolensk and being executed for this defeat...
- Leonid Eitingon circa 1953
- Igor SutyaginIgor SutyaginIgor V. Sutyagin is a Russian arms control and nuclear weapons specialist. In 1998 he became the head of the subdivision for Military-Technical and Military-Economic Policy at the Institute for US and Canadian Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow, where he worked before he was...
(2004) - 15 years for espionage for USA. Exchanged for Russian spiesIllegals ProgramThe Illegals Program, as it was called by the United States Department of Justice, was a network of Russian sleeper agents under non-official cover whose investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation culminated in the arrest of ten agents and a prisoner swap between Russia and the United...
in 2010. - Valentin DanilovValentin DanilovValentin Danilov is a Russian physicist, whose research deals with the effect of solar activity on space satellites. On November 2004 , he was found guilty and sentenced to 14 years for espionage...
- 14 years for espionage for China - Aleksandar Georgijevic October, 2009 - FSB claims Aleksandar gathered sensitive information for USA agents. Light sentence due to confession.
- Dzhemal Nakaidze October, 2009 - Russian soldier, convicted of spying for Georgia. Light sentence due to confession (9 years of imprisonment instead of 12 to 20 years listed in the Criminal Code of Russia).
Scotland
- For those convicted on or after 1 May 1707, see Great Britain and United Kingdom.
- Robert BaillieBaillie of JerviswoodRobert Baillie was a Scottish conspirator implicated in the Rye House Plot against King Charles II. He was executed for treason....
, for involvement in the Rye House PlotRye House PlotThe Rye House Plot of 1683 was a plan to assassinate King Charles II of England and his brother James, Duke of York. Historians vary in their assessment of the degree to which details of the conspiracy were finalized.... - William Ruthven, 1st Earl of GowrieWilliam Ruthven, 1st Earl of GowrieWilliam Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie , known as The Lord Ruthven between 1566 and 1581, was a son of Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven.-Life account:...
, for leading the Raid of RuthvenRaid of RuthvenThe Raid of Ruthven was a political conspiracy in Scotland which took place on 22 August 1582. It was composed of several Presbyterian nobles, led by William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie, who abducted King James VI of Scotland. He was seized while staying at the castle of Ruthven , and kept under...
on King James VIJames I of EnglandJames VI and I was King of Scots as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the English and Scottish crowns on 24 March 1603... - Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of AlbanyMurdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of AlbanyMurdoch Stewart, Duke of Albany was a leading Scottish nobleman, the son of Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany and the grandson of King Robert II of Scotland, who founded the Stewart dynasty. In 1389 he was Justiciar North of the Forth. In 1402 he was captured at the Battle of Homildon Hill and would...
- Patrick StewartPatrick Stewart, 2nd Earl of OrkneyPatrick Stewart, 2nd Earl of Orkney and Lord of Shetland was the son of Robert Stewart, 1st Earl of Orkney.On the death of his uncle, Lord Robert Stewart, junior, in 1581 Patrick was given the gift of the Priory of Whithorn...
, Earl of OrkneyEarl of OrkneyThe Earl of Orkney was originally a Norse jarl ruling Orkney, Shetland and parts of Caithness and Sutherland. The Earls were periodically subject to the kings of Norway for the Northern Isles, and later also to the kings of Alba for those parts of their territory in mainland Scotland . The Earl's...
, for usurping King James VI on the Orkney IslandsOrkney IslandsOrkney also known as the Orkney Islands , is an archipelago in northern Scotland, situated north of the coast of Caithness...
Soviet Union
- Oleg PenkovskyOleg PenkovskyOleg Vladimirovich Penkovsky, codenamed HERO ; April 23, 1919, Vladikavkaz, North Ossetia, Soviet Russia, – May 16, 1963, Soviet Union), was a colonel with Soviet military intelligence in the late 1950s and early 1960s who informed the United Kingdom and the United States about the Soviet Union...
- Adolf TolkachevAdolf TolkachevAdolf Georgievich Tolkachev Адольф Георгиевич Толкачёв was a Soviet Union electronics engineer who provided key documents to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency over the years between 1979 and 1985...
, worked with CIA, executed 1986 - Gennady VarenikGennady VarenikGennady Varenik was a KGB official who was also a CIA agent. He was arrested in East Berlin in 1985 by the KGB, interrogated using a truth drug, tried for treason and executed. He is one of the 25 Soviets betrayed by Aldrich Ames.-External links:...
KGB, worked for CIA - Andrey VlasovAndrey VlasovAndrey Andreyevich Vlasov or Wlassow was a Russian Red Army general who collaborated with Nazi Germany during World War II.-Early career:...
- Genrikh YagodaGenrikh YagodaGenrikh Grigoryevich Yagoda , born Enokh Gershevich Ieguda , was a Soviet state security official who served as director of the NKVD, the Soviet Union's Stalin-era security and intelligence agency, from 1934 to 1936...
Spain
- Camilo Torres TenorioCamilo Torres TenorioCamilo Torres Tenorio was a Colombian politician. He is credited as being an early founder of the nation due to his role in early struggles for independence from Spain.-Biography:...
, for leading the independence movement in EcuadorEcuadorEcuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border... - Francisco Xavier Mina, for fighting against the Spanish government in the Mexican War of IndependenceMexican War of IndependenceThe Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial authorities which started on 16 September 1810. The movement, which became known as the Mexican War of Independence, was led by Mexican-born Spaniards, Mestizos and Amerindians who sought...
.
Sweden
- Gustaf Mauritz ArmfeltGustaf Mauritz ArmfeltCount Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt was a Finnish and Swedish courtier and diplomat. In Finland, he is considered one of the great Finnish statesmen. Born in Tarvasjoki, Finland, he was the great grandson of Charles XII of Sweden's general, Carl Gustaf Armfeldt...
, attempted to overthrow the guardian-government of king Gustav IV Adolf with Russian military assistance. - Johann PatkulJohann PatkulJohann Reinhold Patkul was a Livonian politician and agitator of Baltic German extraction.Patkul was born in prison at Stockholm, where his father had been imprisoned under suspicion of treason...
, protested the land-recovery project of Charles XI of SwedenCharles XI of SwedenCharles XI also Carl, was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death, in a period in Swedish history known as the Swedish empire ....
and, when unsuccessful, sided with Augustus the Strong and tried to wrest Livonia from Sweden. - Magdalena RudenschöldMagdalena RudenschöldMagdalena Charlotta Rudenschöld, commonly known as Malla Rudenschöld and privately as Malin Rudenschöld , was a member of the Swedish nobility and a lady-in-waiting. She was one of the main participants in the so-called Armfelt conspiracy against the guardian government of 1792...
, for taking part in the Armfelt-conspiracy. - Brita TottBrita TottBrita Olovsdotter Tott or Birgitte Olufsdatter Thott , , called the Lady of Hammersta, was a Danish and Swedish noble, landowner, royal county administrator, spy and forger. She was judged for treason and for the forgery of seals...
, for exposing military movements to Denmark
Switzerland
- Jean-Louis JeanmaireJean-Louis JeanmaireJean-Louis Jeanmaire was a brigadier in the Swiss army who passed highly classified, but rather insensitive, Swiss military secrets to the Soviet Union from 1962 up until his retirement at 65 in 1975...
, sentenced to 18 years of prison (released after 12 for good behavior) for leaking information to the Soviet KGB.
Sri Lanka
Velupillai PrabhakaranVelupillai Prabhakaran
Thiruvenkadam Velupillai Prabhakaran was the founder and leader of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , a militant organization that sought to create an independent Tamil state in the north and east of Sri Lanka...
, a former terrorist rebel leader who fought with government for 30 years.
Turkey
- Abdullah ÖcalanAbdullah ÖcalanAbdullah Öcalan , Kurdish founder of the terrorist organization called Kurdistan Workers' Party in 1978.Öcalan was captured in Nairobi and extradited to the Turkish security force, and sentenced to death under Article 125 of the Turkish Penal Code, which concerns the formation of armed gangs...
, life sentence (originally death penalty) for trying to establish a Kurdish State - Adnan MenderesAdnan MenderesAdnan Menderes was the first democratically elected Turkish Prime Minister between 1950–1960. He was one of the founders of the Democratic Party in 1946, the fourth legal opposition party of Turkey. He was hanged by the military junta after the 1960 coup d'état, along with two other cabinet...
, treason against the Kemalist State and Constitution; for his rôle in the 1955 SeptemvrianaIstanbul PogromThe Istanbul riots , were mob attacks directed primarily at Istanbul's Greek minority on 6–7 September 1955. The riots were orchestrated by the Turkish government under Adnan Menderes. The events were triggered by the false news that the Turkish consulate in Thessaloniki, north Greece—the...
United Kingdom
- For those before 1 January 1801, see England, Scotland, and Great Britain.
- James Wilson (revolutionary)James Wilson (revolutionary)James Wilson was born on September 3, 1760, in the parish of Avondale in Scotland. He was a weaver from the town of Strathaven in Lanarkshire, but as the Industrial Revolution affected the weaving trade he had to find alternative work....
convicted and executed for High Treason, following his part in the Scottish Insurrection of 1820. - Arthur ThistlewoodArthur ThistlewoodArthur Thistlewood was a British conspirator in the Cato Street Conspiracy.-Early life:He was born in Tupholme the extramarital son of a farmer and stockbreeder. He attended Horncastle Grammar School and was trained as a land surveyor. Unsatisfied with his job, he obtained a commission in the army...
, John Brunt, William Davidson, James Ings and Richard Tidd, participants of the 1820 Cato Street ConspiracyCato Street ConspiracyThe Cato Street Conspiracy was an attempt to murder all the British cabinet ministers and Prime Minister Lord Liverpool in 1820. The name comes from the meeting place near Edgware Road in London. The Cato Street Conspiracy is notable due to dissenting public opinions regarding the punishment of the... - William Comstive, Charles Stanfield, Richard Addy, Benjamin Hanson and eighteen others were tried and convicted for High Treason for revolt in the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1820Yorkshire West Riding Revolt of 1820The Yorkshire West Riding Revolt of April 1820 was an uprising planned by working class radicals. It is thought to have been associated with Scottish uprisings, and occurred just as those arrested in the Peterloo Massacre and other reform demonstrations of 1819 were coming to trial...
. - John Mitchell, Maurice Leyne, Pat Donahue, Thomas McGee, Charles Duffy, Thomas Francis MeagherThomas Francis Meagher-Young Ireland:Meagher returned to Ireland in 1843, with undecided plans for a career in the Austrian army, a tradition among a number of Irish families. In 1844 he traveled to Dublin with the intention of studying for the bar. He became involved in the Repeal Association, which worked for repeal...
, Richard O'Gorman, Terrance McManus and Michael Ireland convicted of treason after Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848The Young Irelander Rebellion was a failed Irish nationalist uprising led by the Young Ireland movement. It took place on 29 July 1848 in the village of Ballingarry, County Tipperary. After being chased by a force of Young Irelanders and their supporters, an Irish Constabulary unit raided a house...
under Queen Victoria - John AmeryJohn AmeryJohn Amery was a British fascist who proposed to the Wehrmacht the formation of a British volunteer force and made recruitment efforts and propaganda broadcasts for Nazi Germany...
, for trying to recruit soldiers and broadcasting propagandaPropagandaPropaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
for Nazi GermanyNazi GermanyNazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by... - Members of the British Free CorpsBritish Free CorpsDuring World War II, the British Free Corps was a unit of the consisting of British and Dominion prisoners of war who had been recruited by the Nazis. The unit was originally known as The Legion of St...
: Thomas Haller Cooper and Walter Purdy (death sentences commutted) - Roger CasementRoger CasementRoger David Casement —Sir Roger Casement CMG between 1911 and shortly before his execution for treason, when he was stripped of his British honours—was an Irish patriot, poet, revolutionary, and nationalist....
, for negotiating with Germany to provide arms to Irish revolutionaries during the First World War for use in the Irish Easter 1916 rising; hanged in August 1916. - Participants in the 1916 Easter RisingEaster RisingThe Easter Rising was an insurrection staged in Ireland during Easter Week, 1916. The Rising was mounted by Irish republicans with the aims of ending British rule in Ireland and establishing the Irish Republic at a time when the British Empire was heavily engaged in the First World War...
in IrelandIrelandIreland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
: Patrick PearsePatrick PearsePatrick Henry Pearse was an Irish teacher, barrister, poet, writer, nationalist and political activist who was one of the leaders of the Easter Rising in 1916...
, Thomas J. Clarke, Thomas MacDonaghThomas MacDonaghThomas MacDonagh was an Irish nationalist, poet, playwright, and a leader of the 1916 Easter Rising.-Early life:MacDonagh was born in Cloughjordan, County Tipperary...
, Joseph Mary PlunkettJoseph Mary PlunkettJoseph Mary Plunkett was an Irish nationalist, poet, journalist, and a leader of the 1916 Easter Rising.-Background:...
, Edward (Ned) Daly, William Pearse, Michael O'HanrahanMichael O'HanrahanMichael O'Hanrahan was an Irish rebel who took an active role in the 1916 Easter Rising.-Background:Born in New Ross, County Wexford, Ireland, he was the son of Richard O’Hanrahan and Mary Williams. His father appears to have been involved in the 1867 Fenian rising...
, John MacBrideJohn MacBrideMajor John MacBride was an Irish republican executed for participation in the 1916 Easter Rising.-Early life:...
, Éamonn CeanntÉamonn CeanntÉamonn Ceannt , born Edward Thomas Kent, was an Irish republican, mostly known for his role in the Easter Rising of 1916.-Background:...
, Michael MallinMichael MallinMichael Mallin was an Irish rebel and socialist who took an active role in the 1916 Easter Rising....
, Cornelius ColbertCornelius Colbert-Legacy:*Colbert Railway Station in Limerick City is named after him.*Con Colbert Road in Dublin is named in his honour.*Fianna Fáil Cumann in University of Limerick is named after him....
, Seán HeustonSean HeustonSeán Heuston, , born Jack Heuston, and sometimes referred to as J. J. Heuston, was an Irish rebel and member of Fianna Éireann who took part in the Easter Rising of 1916. With about 20 Volunteers, he held the Mendicity Institution on the River Liffey for over two days, though it was originally only...
, Seán Mac Diarmada, James ConnollyJames ConnollyJames Connolly was an Irish republican and socialist leader. He was born in the Cowgate area of Edinburgh, Scotland, to Irish immigrant parents and spoke with a Scottish accent throughout his life. He left school for working life at the age of 11, but became one of the leading Marxist theorists of...
, and Thomas KentThomas KentThomas Kent was an Irish nationalist court-martialled and executed following a gunfight with the Royal Irish Constabulary on 2 May 1916, in the immediate aftermath of the Easter Rising.-The Easter Rising:...
were shot by firing squad in May 1916. - William JoyceWilliam JoyceWilliam Joyce , nicknamed Lord Haw-Haw, was an Irish-American fascist politician and Nazi propaganda broadcaster to the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He was hanged for treason by the British as a result of his wartime activities, even though he had renounced his British nationality...
, alias 'Lord Haw-Haw', for broadcasting Nazi propaganda to the United Kingdom during World War IIWorld War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
- James Wilson (revolutionary)
United States
- Philip Vigol and John Mitchell, convicted of treason and sentenced to hanging; pardoned by George WashingtonGeorge WashingtonGeorge Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
; see Whiskey RebellionWhiskey RebellionThe Whiskey Rebellion, or Whiskey Insurrection, was a tax protest in the United States in the 1790s, during the presidency of George Washington. Farmers who sold their corn in the form of whiskey had to pay a new tax which they strongly resented...
. - Governor Thomas Dorr 1844, convicted of treason against the state of Rhode IslandRhode IslandThe state of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, more commonly referred to as Rhode Island , is a state in the New England region of the United States. It is the smallest U.S. state by area...
; see Dorr RebellionDorr RebellionThe Dorr Rebellion was a short-lived armed insurrection in the U.S. state of Rhode Island led by Thomas Wilson Dorr, who was agitating for changes to the state's electoral system.- Precursors :...
; released in 1845; civil rights restored in 1851; verdict annulled in 1854. - John BrownJohn Brown (abolitionist)John Brown was an American revolutionary abolitionist, who in the 1850s advocated and practiced armed insurrection as a means to abolish slavery in the United States. He led the Pottawatomie Massacre during which five men were killed, in 1856 in Bleeding Kansas, and made his name in the...
, convicted of treason against the Commonwealth of VirginiaVirginiaThe Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
in 1859 and executed for attempting to organize armed resistance to slavery. - Aaron Dwight StevensAaron Dwight StevensAaron Dwight Stevens was an American abolitionist and chief military aide to John Brown during Brown's failed raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia...
, took part in John Brown's raid and was executed in 1860 for treason against Virginia. - William Bruce Mumford, convicted of treason and hanged in 1862 for tearing down a United States flag during the American Civil WarAmerican Civil WarThe American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
. - Mary SurrattMary SurrattMary Elizabeth Jenkins Surratt was an American boarding house owner who was convicted of taking part in the conspiracy to assassinate Abraham Lincoln. Sentenced to death, she was hanged, becoming the first woman executed by the United States federal government. She was the mother of John H...
, Lewis PowellLewis Powell (assassin)Lewis Thornton Powell , also known as Lewis Paine or Payne, attempted unsuccessfully to assassinate United States Secretary of State William H...
, David HeroldDavid HeroldDavid Edgar Herold was an accomplice of John Wilkes Booth in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. After guiding fellow conspirator Lewis Powell to the home of Secretary of State William H. Seward, whom Powell intended to kill, Herold fled and rendezvoused outside of Washington, D.C., with Booth...
, and George AtzerodtGeorge AtzerodtGeorge Andreas Atzerodt was a conspirator, with John Wilkes Booth, in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Assigned to assassinate Vice-President Andrew Johnson, he lost his nerve and did not make an attempt. He was executed along with three other conspirators by hanging.-Early life:Atzerodt...
, all hanged on July 7, 1865 for treason and conspiracy for the Lincoln assassination and conspiracy - by military tribunal. - Iva Toguri D'AquinoIva Toguri D'AquinoIva Ikuko Toguri D'Aquino , was an American citizen who participated in English-language propaganda broadcast transmitted by Radio Tokyo to Allied soldiers in the South Pacific during World War II...
, who is frequently identified with "Tokyo RoseTokyo RoseTokyo Rose was a generic name given by Allied forces in the South Pacific during World War II to any of approximately a dozen English-speaking female broadcasters of Japanese propaganda. The intent of these broadcasts was to disrupt the morale of Allied forces listening to the broadcast...
" convicted 1949. Subsequently pardoned by President Gerald FordGerald FordGerald Rudolph "Jerry" Ford, Jr. was the 38th President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and the 40th Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974...
. - Herbert Hans HauptHerbert Hans HauptHerbert Hans Haupt was a German-American United States citizen with dual nationality who was executed as an enemy agent for Nazi Germany during World War II.-Early life:...
, German-born naturalized U.S. citizen, was convicted of treason in 1942 and executed after being named as a German spy by fellow German spies defecting to the United States. - Martin James MontiMartin James MontiMartin James Monti was a United States airman who enlisted in the Army Air Forces as an aviation cadet. Monti reported for training and later was commissioned as a Flight Officer. He subsequently qualified in the P-39 Aircobra and the P-38 Lightning, and was promoted to second lieutenant, when he...
, United States Army Air Force pilot, convicted of treason for defecting to the Waffen SS in 1944. - Robert Henry Best, convicted of treason on April 16, 1948 and served a life sentence.
- Mildred Gillars, also known as "Axis Sally", convicted of treason on March 8, 1949; served 12 years of a 10- to 30-year prison sentence.
- Tomoya Kawakita, sentenced to death for treason in 1952, but eventually released by President John F. KennedyJohn F. KennedyJohn Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy , often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963....
to be deported to JapanJapanJapan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
.
Zimbabwe
- Ndabaningi SitholeNdabaningi SitholeNdabaningi Sithole founded the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant organization that opposed the government of Rhodesia, in July 1963. A member of the Ndau ethnic group, he also worked as a Methodist minister. He spent 10 years in prison after the government banned ZANU...
, for conspiring to kill Robert MugabeRobert MugabeRobert Gabriel Mugabe is the President of Zimbabwe. As one of the leaders of the liberation movement against white-minority rule, he was elected into power in 1980...