Juliusz Slowacki
Encyclopedia
Juliusz Słowacki (ˈjuljuʂ swɔˈvat͡ski; 4 September 1809 – 3 April 1849) was a Polish
Romantic poet. He is considered one of the "Three Bards
" of Polish literature
— a major figure in the Polish Romantic period
, and the father of modern Polish drama
. His works often feature elements of Slavic pagan traditions
, Polish history
, mysticism
and orientalism
. His style includes the employment of neologisms and irony
. His primary genre was the drama
, and secondly, lyric poetry
. His most popular works include the dramas Kordian
and Balladyna
and the poem Beniowski.
Słowacki spent his youth in Stolen Lands, in Kremenets
and Vilnius
. He briefly worked for the government of the Kingdom of Poland
. During the November 1830 Uprising
, he was a courier for the Polish revolutionary government
. When the uprising ended in defeat, he found himself abroad and thereafter, like many compatriots
, lived the life of an émigré. He settled briefly in Paris
, France
, and later in Geneva
, Switzerland
. He also traveled through Italy
, Greece
and the Middle East
. Eventually he returned to Paris, where he spent the last decade of his life. He briefly returned to Poland when another uprising broke out during the Spring of Nations (1848).
(Krzemieniec), Volhynia
, formerly part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
, then in the Russian Empire
, now in Ukraine
. His father, Euzebiusz Słowacki, a Polish nobleman
of the Leliwa coat of arms, was a professor
of the history of literature
, rhetoric
, poetry
and Polish language
. He was a teacher at the Liceum Krzemienieckie
(Krzemieniec Lycée) in Kremenets, and from 1811, he headed the academic department
(katedra) of rhetoric and poetry at the Vilnius Imperial University
in Vilnius
(Wilno). He died in 1814, leaving Juliusz to be raised solely by his mother, Salomea z Januszewskich Słowacka, a noblewoman of disputed descent, either Jewish
or Armenian. In 1818 she married a professor of medicine, August Bécu. She ran a literary salon, and young Juliusz was exposed to many influences there. It was there in 1822 that Słowacki, then only 13 years old, met Adam Mickiewicz
, the first of the Three Bards
of Polish literature
. Two years later, in 1824, Mickiewicz was arrested and exiled by the Russian authorities for his involvement with the patriotic Philomaths
society; Słowacki likely met with him on his final day in Wilno.
Słowacki was educated at the Liceum Krzemienieckie and later attended a Vilnius Imperial University preparatory gymnasium
in Wilno. From 1825 to 1828 Słowacki studied law at the Vilnius Imperial University. His earliest surviving poems date to that period, although it is presumed he wrote some earlier, none of which have survived.
In 1829 he moved to Warsaw
, where he found a job in the Congress Poland
's Governmental Commission of Revenues and Treasury. In early 1830 he began his literary career, debuting with the novel Hugo, published in the periodical Melitele. That year, the November Uprising
began, and Słowacki published several poems with patriotic and religious undertones. His Hymn, first published in Polak Sumienny ("The Conscientious Pole") on 4 December 1830, and other works such as Oda do Wolności (An Ode to Freedom) gained him much acclaim and was quickly reprinted several times.
In January 1831 he joined the diplomatic staff of the revolutionary Polish National Government
, led by Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski
. Initially he served as a copist. On 8 March he was sent on a courier mission to Dresden
(although some sources say this was not an official mission, but Słowacki's private voyage). Many others left Warsaw around that time, in the aftermath of the battle of Olszynka Grochowska
, and expected Russian advance on Warsaw. In Dresden Słowacki was well received by the local emigree Polish community, and even welcomed as the "bard of fighting Warsaw." In July, he volunteered to deliver messages from the National Government to its representatives in London
and Paris
, where he heard about the failure of the Uprising. Details of his mission (what letters he was carrying, and to whom) are not known.
, Słowacki decided to stay in France
as a political refugee. In 1832 he published his first collections of poems and his first two dramas (Mindowe and Maria Stuart). He also met Mickiewicz again; reportedly, Mickiewicz approached his younger colleague and shook his hand. However, Słowacki's poems, written in the 1820s, were unpopular among his Polish compatriots, as they failed to capture the sentiment of a people living under foreign occupation
. Słowacki was also angered by Mickiewicz, who not only stole the limelight with his Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (Books of the Polish nation and pilgrimage), but his part three of Dziady
(1832) cast Słowacki's stepfather, professor Bécu, in the role of a villain. In a letter to his mother Słowacki wrote that immediately after reading that work he was ready to challenge Mickiewicz for a duel
; that did not come to pass but from that moment on, Słowacki would see Mickiewicz as his main rival. Few days later, antagonized by worsening reception of his works among the Polish émigré community in Paris, including sharp criticism from Mickiewicz, Słowacki left on a trip to Geneva
, Switzerland
. The French authorities denied him the right to return to France as part of a larger program to rid the country of the potentially subversive Polish exiles who had settled there. From 1833 to 1836 he lived in Switzerland. A third volume of his poems, published in 1833 and containing works from the period of the Uprising, was far more nationalist in tone, and won more recognition in his homeland. At the same time, he wrote several works featuring romantic themes, and beautiful scenery, such as W Szwajcarii (In Switzerland), Rozłączenie (Separation), Stokrótki (Daisies) and Chmury (Clouds). In 1834 he published the drama Kordian
, a romantic drama, illustrating the soul searching of the Polish people in the aftermath of the failed insurrection; this work is considered one of his best creations.
In 1836, Słowacki left Switzerland and embarked on a journey that started in Italy
. In Rome
he met and befriended Zygmunt Krasiński
, the third of the Three Bards
. Krasiński is also considered the first serious literary critic of Słowacki's work. Słowacki would dedicate several of his works, including Balladyna
, to Krasiński. From Rome, Słowacki went to Naples
and later, to Sorrento
. In August he left for Greece
(Corfu
, Argos
, Athens
, Syros
), Egypt
(Alexandria
, Cairo
, El Arish) and the Middle East
, including the Holy Land
(Jerusalem, Bethlehem
, Jericho
, Nazareth
) and neighboring territories (Damascus
, Beirut
). It was a journey Słowacki described in his epic poem Podróż do Ziemi Świętej z Neapolu ("Travel to the Holy Land from Naples"); his other works of that period inclucded the poem Ojciec zadżumionych (The Father of the Plague-stricken), Grób Agamemnon (Agammemnon's Grave), Rozmowa z piramidami (A talk with the pyramids), Anhelli and Listy poetyckie z Egiptu (Poetic Letters from Egypt). In June 1837 he returned to Italy, settling briefly in Florence
, and moved back to Paris in December 1838.
In 1840 Mickiewicz was elected to the position of professor of Slavic literature
at Collége de France
; it was one of the events that cemented his position over Słowacki in the Polish émigré community. The rivalry between the two Bards for primacy would continue till the ends of lives. In 1841 Słowacki traveled briefly to Frankfurt
, but Paris would become his main home till his death. In 1840 and 1841 he wrote two notable dramas: Mazepa, the only of his dramas that was put on stage during his lifetime, and Fantazy, published posthumously, well-received by critics. Over the next few years Słowacki wrote and published many works, including Testament Mój (My Last Will), in which he described his faith that his works would endure after his death. Between 1841 and 1846, he published Beniowski, considered by some his best lyrical poetry. Starting as a story of a historical figure, it developed into a discussion of the poet's own life and opinions. In 1842 he joined the religious-philosophical group, Koło Sprawy Bożej (Circle of God's Cause), led by Andrzej Towiański
. This group included, among others, Mickiewicz. Towiański's influence is credited with a new, mystical current in Słowacki's works, seen in works such as the poem Beniowski and the drama Ksiądz Marek (Father Mark). Słowacki left the Circle a year later, in 1843.
In the summers of 1843 and 1844 Słowacki traveled to Pornic
, a resort on the Atlantic coast in Brittany
. It was there, in 1844, that he wrote Genezis z Ducha (Genesis from the Spirit). This work introduced his own philosophical system that would have a visible influence on his works in his last decade. Around 1839 Słowacki put his capital into the Parisian stock market
. He was a shrewd investor who earned enough from the investments to dedicate his life to his literary career; he was also able to pay the costs of having his books published.
. Others included enthusiasts of his work, such as Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński
, Józef Alojzy Reitzenheim and Józef Komierowski. Despite poor health, when he heard about the events of the Spring of Nations, Słowacki traveled with some friends to Poznań
, then under Prussian control
, hoping to participate in the Wielkopolska Uprising of 1848. He addressed the National Committee
(Komitet Narodowy) in Poznań on 27 April. "I tell you," he declared as the rebels faced military confrontation with the Prussian Army, "that the new age has dawned, the age of holy anarchy
." But by 9 May, the revolt was crushed.
Arrested by the Prussian police, Słowacki was sent back to Paris. On his way there, he passed through Wrocław, where in mid-June he was reunited with his mother, whom he had not seen for almost twenty years. He returned to Paris in July 1848. His poem Papież Słowiański (The Slavic Pope), published in late 1848, gained new fame a century later when it seemed to foretell the 1978 ascent of Karol Wojtyła to the throne of St. Peter as Pope John Paul II
. His final dramas (Zawisza Czarny, Samuel Zborowski), attempted to explain history of Poland
through Słowacki's genesic philosophy. In March 1849 Słowacki, his health failing, was visited three times by another Polish writer and poet, Cyprian Norwid
, who later wrote about his visits in Czarne kwiaty (Black Flowers). Up to his final days, Słowacki was writing poetry; a day before his death he dictated passages of his final work, Król-Duch (King-Spirit). This grandiose, visionary-symbolic poem, "summary of the entire Romantic culture", Słowacki's masterpiece, weaving together Poland's history and its contemporary political and literary thought, was never finished.
Słowacki died in Paris on 3 April 1849 from tuberculosis
, and on 5 April he was buried in the Montmartre Cemetery
in Paris. He never married. Only about 30 people attended his funeral. Krasiński, although estranged from Słowacki in the last few years, wrote of the funeral:
Słowacki's tombstone at Montmartre was designed by his friend and executor of his last will
, painter Charles Pétiniaud-Dubos; it did not weather the passage of time well however, and in 1851 a new, similar tombstone was put in place, this one designed by Polish sculptor Władysław Oleszczyński. In 1927 Słowacki's remains were moved to Wawel Cathedral
in Poland, but an empty grave still remains at Montmartre.
s: drama
s, lyrical poems, literary criticism
, letters, journals and memoir
s, fragments of two novel
s, and a political brochure
; he was also a translator. His letters to his mother are among the finest letters in all Polish literature
. Although the majority of his works were in Polish, he also tried his hand at several works in French language
(Le roi de Landawa, Beatrice Cenci). Many of his works were published only posthumously, often under arbitrary titles, as Słowacki never named them himself. He also left notes on works that he never began or never completed. Słowacki is also considered the father of modern Polish drama.
Polish historian of literature Włodzimierz Szturc divides Słowacki's work into four periods: Wolter's circle (pseudoclassicism), Christian ethic, Towiański's ethic and genesic ethic. Other scholars offer slighlty different periodizations; for example dividing his works into a classical period, a Swiss period, a Parisian period and a genesis period. Jarosław Ławski combines Towiański's period with the genesic ones, speaking of a "mystical" period. Overall, Słowacki's early work was influenced by Byron and Shakespeare, and included works that was often historical in nature, like (as in Maria Stuart or Mindowe), or exotic, Oriental locales (as in Arab). His work took on a more patriotic
tone following the failed November Insurrection of 1830–1831. His final works are heavy in mystical and philosophical undertones. In the 1840s he developed his own philosophy, or mystical system, with works such as Król-Duch and Genesis z Ducha being an exposition of his philosophical ideas ("genesic philosophy") according to which the material world is an expression of an ever-improving spirit capable of progression (transmigration) into constantly newer forms. As Ławski notes, his philosophical works can transcend clear boundaries of simple literary genres.
Słowacki's works, situated in the period of romanticism in Poland
, contain rich and inventive vocabulary, including many neologisms. They use fantasy
, mysticism
and symbolism
and feature themes related to Poland's history
, essence of Polishness, and relation to a larger universe. Ławski, enumerating the main characteristics of Słowacki's writings, notes first that he was a "creationist", in the sense of creating new meanings and words (many of his characters bear names he invented himself, such as Kordian). Second, he notes that Słowacki was not only inspired by works of others, from poets and writers to scholars and philosophers, but that his texts were often a masterful, ironic-grotesque polemic
with other creators. For example, Słowacki was so impressed by Antoni Malczewski
's Maria that he wrote a sequel to it, Jan Bielecki. Likewise, Kordian is seen as building on William Shakespeare
's Hamlet
, and as Słowacki's response to Mickiewicz's Dziady
. This Ławski calls "ivy-like imagination", comparing Słowacki's approach to that of an ivy
, growing around works of others and reshaping them into new forms in a sophisticated literary game. Third, Słowacki was a master of irony
; he used it not only on others, but on himself, and even on irony itself - the "irony of irony". He is thus seen as one of the forerunners to the literature of irony and grotesque, popular in the 20th century.
" (wieszczs) of Polish literature
.
Słowacki was not a very popular figure in Paris, nor among his contemporaries. He wrote many dramas, which can be seen as his favorite genre, yet he was a playwright who never saw any of his work performed on stage (only Mazepa was staged during his lifetime, and not in his presence). His works, written in Polish, dense with Slavic myths, philosophy and symbols, were difficult to translate to other languages. Słowacki's unpopularity among other Polish émigrés can be attributed to his unwillingness to pander to contemporary tastes; and in particular, his refusal to comfort his compatriots, shaken by the loss of Polish statehood
and the failure of the November Uprising
. Though a patriot as well, Słowacki's ironic and sometimes pessimistic attitude was not appreciated by his contemporaries, nor was his denial of Polish uniqueness. Whereas Mickiewicz followed the Messianic tradition
and in Konrad suggested that Poland's fate was in the hands of God, Słowacki's Kordian
questioned whether his country was not instead a plaything of Satan
. In Anhelli, Słowacki's describes the tragic fate of Polish exiles in Siberia, painting a gloomy vision of Poland's destiny; the same topic was taken by Mickiewicz in the Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrimage as a call for Poles to spread hope and spirituality across Europe. While a small circle of his friends talked about his wit, perseverance and inspiration, in popular memory he was a "sickly man of weak character", egocentric, bitter due to his failed rivalry with Mickiewicz. Mickiewicz himself wrote of Słowacki's work as a "beautiful church, but without God inside".
After his death, however, Słowacki gained a cult-like status in Poland; in particular, in the cultural center of Kraków
. Several obituaries
and longer articles appeared in the Polish press upon Słowacki's death. His works, many of them published posthumously for the first time, found growing acceptance among a new generation; an 1868 work noted that "Słowacki took the fancy of the Polish youth. He was its singer, its spiritual leader in the full meaning of the term". Through undoubtedly a poet of the romantic era
, he was increasingly popular among the positivists
and the authors of the Young Poland
period in the late 1800s and early 1900s. His works were popularized by other writers, such as Adam Asnyk
and Michał Bałucki, and his dramas were shown in theaters. He became a major literary figure for the new generation of Polish writers. He also became respected abroad; a 1902 English language
book edited by Charles Dudley Warner
noted that "the splendid exuberance of his thought and fancy ranks him among the great poets of the nineteenth century".
In 1927, some eight years after Poland had regained independence, the Polish government arranged for Słowacki's remains to be transferred from Paris to Wawel Cathedral
, in Kraków
. He was interred in the Crypt of the National Bards, beside Mickiewicz. Słowacki's interment at Wawel Cathedral was controversial, as many of his works were considered heretic
al by Polish Catholic-Church officials. It took almost two decades and the backing of Józef Piłsudski, for whom Słowacki was a favorite poet, to obtain the Church's agreement to interring Słowacki at Wawel Cathedral. At the 1927 ceremony, Piłsudski commanded:
Several streets and schools in modern Poland bear the name of Juliusz Słowacki. Three parks are dedicated to him: in Bielsko-Biała
, in Łódź and in Wrocław. There are several monuments of Juliusz Słowacki, including ones in Warsaw
(2001) and Wrocław (1984). Among the most notable landmarks bearing his name is the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków
.
In 2004, a Juliusz Slowacki Museum in Kremenets, Ukraine, was opened in his family's former manor house. In 2009 the Polish Sejm
(parliament) declared that year, the two-hundredth anniversary of Słowacki's birth, to be the Year of Juliusz Słowacki.
Poles
thumb|right|180px|The state flag of [[Poland]] as used by Polish government and diplomatic authoritiesThe Polish people, or Poles , are a nation indigenous to Poland. They are united by the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe...
Romantic poet. He is considered one of the "Three Bards
Three Bards
The Three Bards are the national poets of Polish Romantic literature. They lived and worked in exile during the partitions of Poland which ended the existence of the Polish sovereign state...
" of Polish literature
Polish literature
Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages, used in Poland over the centuries, have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Yiddish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, German and...
— a major figure in the Polish Romantic period
Romanticism in Poland
Romanticism in Poland was a literary, artistic and intellectual period in the evolution of Polish culture that began around 1820, coinciding with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz's first poems in 1822. It ended with the suppression of the January 1863 Uprising against the Russian Empire in 1864. ...
, and the father of modern Polish drama
Drama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action" , which is derived from "to do","to act" . The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a...
. His works often feature elements of Slavic pagan traditions
Slavic mythology
Slavic mythology is the mythological aspect of the polytheistic religion that was practised by the Slavs before Christianisation.The religion possesses many common traits with other religions descended from the Proto-Indo-European religion....
, Polish history
History of Poland
The History of Poland is rooted in the arrival of the Slavs, who gave rise to permanent settlement and historic development on Polish lands. During the Piast dynasty Christianity was adopted in 966 and medieval monarchy established...
, mysticism
Mysticism
Mysticism is the knowledge of, and especially the personal experience of, states of consciousness, i.e. levels of being, beyond normal human perception, including experience and even communion with a supreme being.-Classical origins:...
and orientalism
Orientalism
Orientalism is a term used for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists, as well as having other meanings...
. His style includes the employment of neologisms and irony
Irony
Irony is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or situation in which there is a sharp incongruity or discordance that goes beyond the simple and evident intention of words or actions...
. His primary genre was the drama
Drama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action" , which is derived from "to do","to act" . The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a...
, and secondly, lyric poetry
Lyric poetry
Lyric poetry is a genre of poetry that expresses personal and emotional feelings. In the ancient world, lyric poems were those which were sung to the lyre. Lyric poems do not have to rhyme, and today do not need to be set to music or a beat...
. His most popular works include the dramas Kordian
Kordian
Kordian is a drama written in 1833, and published in 1834, by Juliusz Słowacki, one of the "Three Bards" of Polish literature. Kordian is one of the most notable works of Polish Romanticism and drama, , PWN Encyklopedia and is considered one of Słowacki's best works.-History:Słowacki began work on...
and Balladyna
Balladyna (drama)
"Balladyna is a tragedy written by Juliusz Słowacki in 1834 and published in 1839 in Paris. It is a notable work of Polish romanticism, focusing on the issues such as thirst for power and evolution of the criminal mind...
and the poem Beniowski.
Słowacki spent his youth in Stolen Lands, in Kremenets
Kremenets
Kremenets is a city in the Ternopil Oblast of western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Kremenets Raion , and rests 18 km north-east of the great Pochayiv Monastery...
and Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
. He briefly worked for the government of the Kingdom of Poland
Congress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
. During the November 1830 Uprising
November Uprising
The November Uprising , Polish–Russian War 1830–31 also known as the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress...
, he was a courier for the Polish revolutionary government
Polish National Government (November Uprising)
Polish National Government of 1831 was a Polish supreme authority during November Uprising against Russian occupation of Poland. It was created by the decree of the Sejm of the Congress Poland on 29 January 1831 to assume the competences of the Polish head of state in the aftermath of another...
. When the uprising ended in defeat, he found himself abroad and thereafter, like many compatriots
Great Emigration
The Great Emigration was an emigration of political elites from Poland from 1831–1870. Since the end of the 18th century, a major role in Polish political life was played by people who carried out their activities outside the country as émigrés...
, lived the life of an émigré. He settled briefly in Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and later in Geneva
Geneva
Geneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
, Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
. He also traveled through Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
and the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. Eventually he returned to Paris, where he spent the last decade of his life. He briefly returned to Poland when another uprising broke out during the Spring of Nations (1848).
Youth
Słowacki was born on 4 September 1809 at KremenetsKremenets
Kremenets is a city in the Ternopil Oblast of western Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Kremenets Raion , and rests 18 km north-east of the great Pochayiv Monastery...
(Krzemieniec), Volhynia
Volhynia
Volhynia, Volynia, or Volyn is a historic region in western Ukraine located between the rivers Prypiat and Southern Bug River, to the north of Galicia and Podolia; the region is named for the former city of Volyn or Velyn, said to have been located on the Southern Bug River, whose name may come...
, formerly part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
, then in the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
, now in Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
. His father, Euzebiusz Słowacki, a Polish nobleman
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
of the Leliwa coat of arms, was a professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
of the history of literature
History of literature
The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry which attempts to provide entertainment, enlightenment, or instruction to the reader/hearer/observer, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces. Not all...
, rhetoric
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the facility of speakers or writers who attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. As a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the Western...
, poetry
Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
and Polish language
Polish language
Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...
. He was a teacher at the Liceum Krzemienieckie
Liceum Krzemienieckie
Liceum Krzemienieckie was a renowned Polish high school, which existed from 1805 to 1831, and then in the interbellum period, from 1922 to 1939.-Beginnings:...
(Krzemieniec Lycée) in Kremenets, and from 1811, he headed the academic department
Academic department
An academic department is a division of a university or school faculty devoted to a particular academic discipline. This article covers United States usage at the university level....
(katedra) of rhetoric and poetry at the Vilnius Imperial University
Vilnius University
Vilnius University is the oldest university in the Baltic states and one of the oldest in Eastern Europe. It is also the largest university in Lithuania....
in Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
(Wilno). He died in 1814, leaving Juliusz to be raised solely by his mother, Salomea z Januszewskich Słowacka, a noblewoman of disputed descent, either Jewish
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
or Armenian. In 1818 she married a professor of medicine, August Bécu. She ran a literary salon, and young Juliusz was exposed to many influences there. It was there in 1822 that Słowacki, then only 13 years old, met Adam Mickiewicz
Adam Mickiewicz
Adam Bernard Mickiewicz ) was a Polish poet, publisher and political writer of the Romantic period. One of the primary representatives of the Polish Romanticism era, a national poet of Poland, he is seen as one of Poland's Three Bards and the greatest poet in all of Polish literature...
, the first of the Three Bards
Three Bards
The Three Bards are the national poets of Polish Romantic literature. They lived and worked in exile during the partitions of Poland which ended the existence of the Polish sovereign state...
of Polish literature
Polish literature
Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages, used in Poland over the centuries, have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Yiddish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, German and...
. Two years later, in 1824, Mickiewicz was arrested and exiled by the Russian authorities for his involvement with the patriotic Philomaths
Philomaths
The Philomaths, or Philomath Society , was a secret student organization that existed from 1817 to 1823 at the Imperial University of Vilnius.-History:...
society; Słowacki likely met with him on his final day in Wilno.
Słowacki was educated at the Liceum Krzemienieckie and later attended a Vilnius Imperial University preparatory gymnasium
Gymnasium (school)
A gymnasium is a type of school providing secondary education in some parts of Europe, comparable to English grammar schools or sixth form colleges and U.S. college preparatory high schools. The word γυμνάσιον was used in Ancient Greece, meaning a locality for both physical and intellectual...
in Wilno. From 1825 to 1828 Słowacki studied law at the Vilnius Imperial University. His earliest surviving poems date to that period, although it is presumed he wrote some earlier, none of which have survived.
In 1829 he moved to Warsaw
Warsaw
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
, where he found a job in the Congress Poland
Congress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
's Governmental Commission of Revenues and Treasury. In early 1830 he began his literary career, debuting with the novel Hugo, published in the periodical Melitele. That year, the November Uprising
November Uprising
The November Uprising , Polish–Russian War 1830–31 also known as the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress...
began, and Słowacki published several poems with patriotic and religious undertones. His Hymn, first published in Polak Sumienny ("The Conscientious Pole") on 4 December 1830, and other works such as Oda do Wolności (An Ode to Freedom) gained him much acclaim and was quickly reprinted several times.
In January 1831 he joined the diplomatic staff of the revolutionary Polish National Government
Polish National Government (November Uprising)
Polish National Government of 1831 was a Polish supreme authority during November Uprising against Russian occupation of Poland. It was created by the decree of the Sejm of the Congress Poland on 29 January 1831 to assume the competences of the Polish head of state in the aftermath of another...
, led by Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski
Adam Jerzy Czartoryski
Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski was a Polish-Lithuanian noble, statesman and author. He was the son of Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski and Izabela Fleming....
. Initially he served as a copist. On 8 March he was sent on a courier mission to Dresden
Dresden
Dresden is the capital city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the Czech border. The Dresden conurbation is part of the Saxon Triangle metropolitan area....
(although some sources say this was not an official mission, but Słowacki's private voyage). Many others left Warsaw around that time, in the aftermath of the battle of Olszynka Grochowska
Battle of Olszynka Grochowska
Battle of Olszynka Grochowska was the largest battle of the November Uprising and biggest friction in Europe since the battle of Waterloo. It was fought between the armies of Poland and Russia on February 25 in the woods near Grochów, at the eastern outskirts of Warsaw.- Before the battle :The...
, and expected Russian advance on Warsaw. In Dresden Słowacki was well received by the local emigree Polish community, and even welcomed as the "bard of fighting Warsaw." In July, he volunteered to deliver messages from the National Government to its representatives in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
and Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, where he heard about the failure of the Uprising. Details of his mission (what letters he was carrying, and to whom) are not known.
Emigré
Like many of his countrymenGreat Emigration
The Great Emigration was an emigration of political elites from Poland from 1831–1870. Since the end of the 18th century, a major role in Polish political life was played by people who carried out their activities outside the country as émigrés...
, Słowacki decided to stay in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
as a political refugee. In 1832 he published his first collections of poems and his first two dramas (Mindowe and Maria Stuart). He also met Mickiewicz again; reportedly, Mickiewicz approached his younger colleague and shook his hand. However, Słowacki's poems, written in the 1820s, were unpopular among his Polish compatriots, as they failed to capture the sentiment of a people living under foreign occupation
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
. Słowacki was also angered by Mickiewicz, who not only stole the limelight with his Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (Books of the Polish nation and pilgrimage), but his part three of Dziady
Dziady
Dziady was an ancient Slavic feast to commemorate the dead. Literally, the word is translated as "Grandfathers". It was held twice every year . During the feast the ancient Slavs organized libations and ritual meals...
(1832) cast Słowacki's stepfather, professor Bécu, in the role of a villain. In a letter to his mother Słowacki wrote that immediately after reading that work he was ready to challenge Mickiewicz for a duel
Duel
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals, with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules.Duels in this form were chiefly practised in Early Modern Europe, with precedents in the medieval code of chivalry, and continued into the modern period especially among...
; that did not come to pass but from that moment on, Słowacki would see Mickiewicz as his main rival. Few days later, antagonized by worsening reception of his works among the Polish émigré community in Paris, including sharp criticism from Mickiewicz, Słowacki left on a trip to Geneva
Geneva
Geneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
, Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
. The French authorities denied him the right to return to France as part of a larger program to rid the country of the potentially subversive Polish exiles who had settled there. From 1833 to 1836 he lived in Switzerland. A third volume of his poems, published in 1833 and containing works from the period of the Uprising, was far more nationalist in tone, and won more recognition in his homeland. At the same time, he wrote several works featuring romantic themes, and beautiful scenery, such as W Szwajcarii (In Switzerland), Rozłączenie (Separation), Stokrótki (Daisies) and Chmury (Clouds). In 1834 he published the drama Kordian
Kordian
Kordian is a drama written in 1833, and published in 1834, by Juliusz Słowacki, one of the "Three Bards" of Polish literature. Kordian is one of the most notable works of Polish Romanticism and drama, , PWN Encyklopedia and is considered one of Słowacki's best works.-History:Słowacki began work on...
, a romantic drama, illustrating the soul searching of the Polish people in the aftermath of the failed insurrection; this work is considered one of his best creations.
In 1836, Słowacki left Switzerland and embarked on a journey that started in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
. In Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
he met and befriended Zygmunt Krasiński
Zygmunt Krasinski
Count Napoleon Stanisław Adam Ludwig Zygmunt Krasiński , a Polish count, is traditionally ranked with Mickiewicz and Słowacki as one of Poland's Three National Bards — the trio of great Romantic poets who influenced national consciousness during the period of Poland's political bondage.-Life and...
, the third of the Three Bards
Three Bards
The Three Bards are the national poets of Polish Romantic literature. They lived and worked in exile during the partitions of Poland which ended the existence of the Polish sovereign state...
. Krasiński is also considered the first serious literary critic of Słowacki's work. Słowacki would dedicate several of his works, including Balladyna
Balladyna (drama)
"Balladyna is a tragedy written by Juliusz Słowacki in 1834 and published in 1839 in Paris. It is a notable work of Polish romanticism, focusing on the issues such as thirst for power and evolution of the criminal mind...
, to Krasiński. From Rome, Słowacki went to Naples
Naples
Naples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
and later, to Sorrento
Sorrento
Sorrento is the name of many cities and towns:*Sorrento, Italy*Sorrento, Florida, United States*Sorrento, Louisiana, United States*Sorrento, Maine, United States*Sorrento, Victoria, a township on the Mornington Peninsula, Victoria, Australia...
. In August he left for Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
(Corfu
Corfu
Corfu is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea. It is the second largest of the Ionian Islands, and, including its small satellite islands, forms the edge of the northwestern frontier of Greece. The island is part of the Corfu regional unit, and is administered as a single municipality. The...
, Argos
Argos
Argos is a city and a former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. It is 11 kilometres from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour...
, Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
, Syros
Syros
Syros , or Siros or Syra is a Greek island in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea. It is located south-east of Athens. The area of the island is . The largest towns are Ermoupoli, Ano Syros, and Vari. Ermoupoli is the capital of the island and the Cyclades...
), Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
(Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
, El Arish) and the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
, including the Holy Land
Holy Land
The Holy Land is a term which in Judaism refers to the Kingdom of Israel as defined in the Tanakh. For Jews, the Land's identifiction of being Holy is defined in Judaism by its differentiation from other lands by virtue of the practice of Judaism often possible only in the Land of Israel...
(Jerusalem, Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Bethlehem is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank of the Jordan River, near Israel and approximately south of Jerusalem, with a population of about 30,000 people. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate of the Palestinian National Authority and a hub of Palestinian culture and tourism...
, Jericho
Jericho
Jericho ; is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently...
, Nazareth
Nazareth
Nazareth is the largest city in the North District of Israel. Known as "the Arab capital of Israel," the population is made up predominantly of Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel...
) and neighboring territories (Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
, Beirut
Beirut
Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon, with a population ranging from 1 million to more than 2 million . Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coastline, it serves as the country's largest and main seaport, and also forms the Beirut Metropolitan...
). It was a journey Słowacki described in his epic poem Podróż do Ziemi Świętej z Neapolu ("Travel to the Holy Land from Naples"); his other works of that period inclucded the poem Ojciec zadżumionych (The Father of the Plague-stricken), Grób Agamemnon (Agammemnon's Grave), Rozmowa z piramidami (A talk with the pyramids), Anhelli and Listy poetyckie z Egiptu (Poetic Letters from Egypt). In June 1837 he returned to Italy, settling briefly in Florence
Florence
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the province of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with approximately 370,000 inhabitants, expanding to over 1.5 million in the metropolitan area....
, and moved back to Paris in December 1838.
In 1840 Mickiewicz was elected to the position of professor of Slavic literature
Slavic literature
Slavic literature refers to the literature in any of the Slavic languages:*Belarusian literature*Bosnian literature*Bulgarian literature*Croatian literature*Czech literature*Kashubian literature*Macedonian literature*Polish literature...
at Collége de France
Collège de France
The Collège de France is a higher education and research establishment located in Paris, France, in the 5th arrondissement, or Latin Quarter, across the street from the historical campus of La Sorbonne at the intersection of Rue Saint-Jacques and Rue des Écoles...
; it was one of the events that cemented his position over Słowacki in the Polish émigré community. The rivalry between the two Bards for primacy would continue till the ends of lives. In 1841 Słowacki traveled briefly to Frankfurt
Frankfurt
Frankfurt am Main , commonly known simply as Frankfurt, is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany, with a 2010 population of 688,249. The urban area had an estimated population of 2,300,000 in 2010...
, but Paris would become his main home till his death. In 1840 and 1841 he wrote two notable dramas: Mazepa, the only of his dramas that was put on stage during his lifetime, and Fantazy, published posthumously, well-received by critics. Over the next few years Słowacki wrote and published many works, including Testament Mój (My Last Will), in which he described his faith that his works would endure after his death. Between 1841 and 1846, he published Beniowski, considered by some his best lyrical poetry. Starting as a story of a historical figure, it developed into a discussion of the poet's own life and opinions. In 1842 he joined the religious-philosophical group, Koło Sprawy Bożej (Circle of God's Cause), led by Andrzej Towiański
Andrzej Towianski
Andrzej Tomasz Towiański was a Polish philosopher and Messianist religious leader.-Life:Towiański was born in Antoszwińce, a village near Wilno, which after Partitions of Poland belonged to the Russian Empire. He was the charismatic leader of the Towiańskiite sect, known also as Koło Sprawy Bożej...
. This group included, among others, Mickiewicz. Towiański's influence is credited with a new, mystical current in Słowacki's works, seen in works such as the poem Beniowski and the drama Ksiądz Marek (Father Mark). Słowacki left the Circle a year later, in 1843.
In the summers of 1843 and 1844 Słowacki traveled to Pornic
Pornic
Pornic is a commune in the Loire-Atlantique département in western France.-Breton language:The municipality launched a linguistic plan through Ya d'ar brezhoneg on 1 March 2006.-Climate:...
, a resort on the Atlantic coast in Brittany
Brittany
Brittany is a cultural and administrative region in the north-west of France. Previously a kingdom and then a duchy, Brittany was united to the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province. Brittany has also been referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain...
. It was there, in 1844, that he wrote Genezis z Ducha (Genesis from the Spirit). This work introduced his own philosophical system that would have a visible influence on his works in his last decade. Around 1839 Słowacki put his capital into the Parisian stock market
Stock market
A stock market or equity market is a public entity for the trading of company stock and derivatives at an agreed price; these are securities listed on a stock exchange as well as those only traded privately.The size of the world stock market was estimated at about $36.6 trillion...
. He was a shrewd investor who earned enough from the investments to dedicate his life to his literary career; he was also able to pay the costs of having his books published.
Last years
In the late 1840s Słowacki attached himself to a group of like-minded young exiles, determined to return to Poland and win its independence. One of his friends was the pianist and composer Frédéric ChopinFrédéric Chopin
Frédéric François Chopin was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist. He is considered one of the great masters of Romantic music and has been called "the poet of the piano"....
. Others included enthusiasts of his work, such as Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński
Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński
Saint Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński, SFO was Archbishop of Warsaw and founder of the Franciscan Sisters of the Family of Mary. He was canonized on 11 October 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI.-Early life:...
, Józef Alojzy Reitzenheim and Józef Komierowski. Despite poor health, when he heard about the events of the Spring of Nations, Słowacki traveled with some friends to Poznań
Poznan
Poznań is a city on the Warta river in west-central Poland, with a population of 556,022 in June 2009. It is among the oldest cities in Poland, and was one of the most important centres in the early Polish state, whose first rulers were buried at Poznań's cathedral. It is sometimes claimed to be...
, then under Prussian control
Prussian partition
The Prussian partition refers to the former territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired during the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century by the Kingdom of Prussia.-History:...
, hoping to participate in the Wielkopolska Uprising of 1848. He addressed the National Committee
Polish National Committee (1848)
Polish National Committee was as organisation created during the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848. It was located in Poznań.Its members were:*Gustaw Potworowski,*Maciej Mielżyński,*Cyprian Jarochowski,*Jędrzej Moraczewski,*Walenty Stefański,...
(Komitet Narodowy) in Poznań on 27 April. "I tell you," he declared as the rebels faced military confrontation with the Prussian Army, "that the new age has dawned, the age of holy anarchy
Anarchism
Anarchism is generally defined as the political philosophy which holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, or alternatively as opposing authority in the conduct of human relations...
." But by 9 May, the revolt was crushed.
Arrested by the Prussian police, Słowacki was sent back to Paris. On his way there, he passed through Wrocław, where in mid-June he was reunited with his mother, whom he had not seen for almost twenty years. He returned to Paris in July 1848. His poem Papież Słowiański (The Slavic Pope), published in late 1848, gained new fame a century later when it seemed to foretell the 1978 ascent of Karol Wojtyła to the throne of St. Peter as Pope John Paul II
Pope John Paul II
Blessed Pope John Paul II , born Karol Józef Wojtyła , reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City from 16 October 1978 until his death on 2 April 2005, at of age. His was the second-longest documented pontificate, which lasted ; only Pope Pius IX ...
. His final dramas (Zawisza Czarny, Samuel Zborowski), attempted to explain history of Poland
History of Poland
The History of Poland is rooted in the arrival of the Slavs, who gave rise to permanent settlement and historic development on Polish lands. During the Piast dynasty Christianity was adopted in 966 and medieval monarchy established...
through Słowacki's genesic philosophy. In March 1849 Słowacki, his health failing, was visited three times by another Polish writer and poet, Cyprian Norwid
Cyprian Norwid
Cyprian Kamil Norwid, a.k.a. Cyprian Konstanty Norwid is a nationally esteemed Polish poet, dramatist, painter, and sculptor. He was born in the Masovian village of Laskowo-Głuchy near Warsaw. One of his maternal ancestors was Polish King John III Sobieski.Norwid is regarded as one of the second...
, who later wrote about his visits in Czarne kwiaty (Black Flowers). Up to his final days, Słowacki was writing poetry; a day before his death he dictated passages of his final work, Król-Duch (King-Spirit). This grandiose, visionary-symbolic poem, "summary of the entire Romantic culture", Słowacki's masterpiece, weaving together Poland's history and its contemporary political and literary thought, was never finished.
Słowacki died in Paris on 3 April 1849 from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body...
, and on 5 April he was buried in the Montmartre Cemetery
Montmartre Cemetery
Montmartre Cemetery is a cemetery in the 18th arrondissement of Paris, France.-History:Cemeteries had been banned from Paris since the shutting down of the Cimetière des Innocents in 1786, as they presented health hazards...
in Paris. He never married. Only about 30 people attended his funeral. Krasiński, although estranged from Słowacki in the last few years, wrote of the funeral:
Słowacki's tombstone at Montmartre was designed by his friend and executor of his last will
Last Will
Last Will is a 2011 mystery drama film starring Tatum O'Neal and Tom Berenger. It was shot in Kansas City, Missouri on a modest budget.-Plot:A woman named Hayden is framed for the murder of her wealthy husband Frank...
, painter Charles Pétiniaud-Dubos; it did not weather the passage of time well however, and in 1851 a new, similar tombstone was put in place, this one designed by Polish sculptor Władysław Oleszczyński. In 1927 Słowacki's remains were moved to Wawel Cathedral
Wawel Cathedral
The Wawel Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral Basilica of Sts. Stanisław and Vaclav, is a church located on Wawel Hill in Kraków–Poland's national sanctuary. It has a 1,000-year history and was the traditional coronation site of Polish monarchs. It is the Cathedral of the Archdiocese of Kraków...
in Poland, but an empty grave still remains at Montmartre.
Work
Słowacki was a prolific writer; his collected works (Dzieła wszystkie) were published in 17 volumes. His legacy includes 25 dramas and 253 works of poetry. He wrote in many genreGenre
Genre , Greek: genos, γένος) is the term for any category of literature or other forms of art or culture, e.g. music, and in general, any type of discourse, whether written or spoken, audial or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria. Genres are formed by conventions that change over time...
s: drama
Drama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action" , which is derived from "to do","to act" . The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a...
s, lyrical poems, literary criticism
Literary criticism
Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals...
, letters, journals and memoir
Memoir
A memoir , is a literary genre, forming a subclass of autobiography – although the terms 'memoir' and 'autobiography' are almost interchangeable. Memoir is autobiographical writing, but not all autobiographical writing follows the criteria for memoir set out below...
s, fragments of two novel
Novel
A novel is a book of long narrative in literary prose. The genre has historical roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern romance and in the tradition of the novella. The latter supplied the present generic term in the late 18th century....
s, and a political brochure
Brochure
A brochure is a type of leaflet. Brochures are most commonly found at places that tourists frequently visit, such as museums, major shops, and tourist information. Brochure racks or stands may suggest visits to amusement parks and other points of interest...
; he was also a translator. His letters to his mother are among the finest letters in all Polish literature
Polish literature
Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages, used in Poland over the centuries, have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Yiddish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, German and...
. Although the majority of his works were in Polish, he also tried his hand at several works in French language
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
(Le roi de Landawa, Beatrice Cenci). Many of his works were published only posthumously, often under arbitrary titles, as Słowacki never named them himself. He also left notes on works that he never began or never completed. Słowacki is also considered the father of modern Polish drama.
Polish historian of literature Włodzimierz Szturc divides Słowacki's work into four periods: Wolter's circle (pseudoclassicism), Christian ethic, Towiański's ethic and genesic ethic. Other scholars offer slighlty different periodizations; for example dividing his works into a classical period, a Swiss period, a Parisian period and a genesis period. Jarosław Ławski combines Towiański's period with the genesic ones, speaking of a "mystical" period. Overall, Słowacki's early work was influenced by Byron and Shakespeare, and included works that was often historical in nature, like (as in Maria Stuart or Mindowe), or exotic, Oriental locales (as in Arab). His work took on a more patriotic
Patriotism
Patriotism is a devotion to one's country, excluding differences caused by the dependencies of the term's meaning upon context, geography and philosophy...
tone following the failed November Insurrection of 1830–1831. His final works are heavy in mystical and philosophical undertones. In the 1840s he developed his own philosophy, or mystical system, with works such as Król-Duch and Genesis z Ducha being an exposition of his philosophical ideas ("genesic philosophy") according to which the material world is an expression of an ever-improving spirit capable of progression (transmigration) into constantly newer forms. As Ławski notes, his philosophical works can transcend clear boundaries of simple literary genres.
Słowacki's works, situated in the period of romanticism in Poland
Romanticism in Poland
Romanticism in Poland was a literary, artistic and intellectual period in the evolution of Polish culture that began around 1820, coinciding with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz's first poems in 1822. It ended with the suppression of the January 1863 Uprising against the Russian Empire in 1864. ...
, contain rich and inventive vocabulary, including many neologisms. They use fantasy
Fantasy
Fantasy is a genre of fiction that commonly uses magic and other supernatural phenomena as a primary element of plot, theme, or setting. Many works within the genre take place in imaginary worlds where magic is common...
, mysticism
Mysticism
Mysticism is the knowledge of, and especially the personal experience of, states of consciousness, i.e. levels of being, beyond normal human perception, including experience and even communion with a supreme being.-Classical origins:...
and symbolism
Symbolism (arts)
Symbolism was a late nineteenth-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. In literature, the style had its beginnings with the publication Les Fleurs du mal by Charles Baudelaire...
and feature themes related to Poland's history
History of Poland
The History of Poland is rooted in the arrival of the Slavs, who gave rise to permanent settlement and historic development on Polish lands. During the Piast dynasty Christianity was adopted in 966 and medieval monarchy established...
, essence of Polishness, and relation to a larger universe. Ławski, enumerating the main characteristics of Słowacki's writings, notes first that he was a "creationist", in the sense of creating new meanings and words (many of his characters bear names he invented himself, such as Kordian). Second, he notes that Słowacki was not only inspired by works of others, from poets and writers to scholars and philosophers, but that his texts were often a masterful, ironic-grotesque polemic
Polemic
A polemic is a variety of arguments or controversies made against one opinion, doctrine, or person. Other variations of argument are debate and discussion...
with other creators. For example, Słowacki was so impressed by Antoni Malczewski
Antoni Malczewski
Antoni Malczewski was an influential Polish romantic poet, known for his only work, "a narrative poem of dire pessimism", Maria ....
's Maria that he wrote a sequel to it, Jan Bielecki. Likewise, Kordian is seen as building on William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon"...
's Hamlet
Hamlet
The Tragical History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, or more simply Hamlet, is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1599 and 1601...
, and as Słowacki's response to Mickiewicz's Dziady
Dziady
Dziady was an ancient Slavic feast to commemorate the dead. Literally, the word is translated as "Grandfathers". It was held twice every year . During the feast the ancient Slavs organized libations and ritual meals...
. This Ławski calls "ivy-like imagination", comparing Słowacki's approach to that of an ivy
Ivy
Ivy, plural ivies is a genus of 12–15 species of evergreen climbing or ground-creeping woody plants in the family Araliaceae, native to western, central and southern Europe, Macaronesia, northwestern Africa and across central-southern Asia east to Japan and Taiwan.-Description:On level ground they...
, growing around works of others and reshaping them into new forms in a sophisticated literary game. Third, Słowacki was a master of irony
Irony
Irony is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or situation in which there is a sharp incongruity or discordance that goes beyond the simple and evident intention of words or actions...
; he used it not only on others, but on himself, and even on irony itself - the "irony of irony". He is thus seen as one of the forerunners to the literature of irony and grotesque, popular in the 20th century.
Legacy
After his death, Słowacki acquired the reputation of a national prophet. He is now considered to be one of the "Three BardsThree Bards
The Three Bards are the national poets of Polish Romantic literature. They lived and worked in exile during the partitions of Poland which ended the existence of the Polish sovereign state...
" (wieszczs) of Polish literature
Polish literature
Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages, used in Poland over the centuries, have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Yiddish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, German and...
.
Słowacki was not a very popular figure in Paris, nor among his contemporaries. He wrote many dramas, which can be seen as his favorite genre, yet he was a playwright who never saw any of his work performed on stage (only Mazepa was staged during his lifetime, and not in his presence). His works, written in Polish, dense with Slavic myths, philosophy and symbols, were difficult to translate to other languages. Słowacki's unpopularity among other Polish émigrés can be attributed to his unwillingness to pander to contemporary tastes; and in particular, his refusal to comfort his compatriots, shaken by the loss of Polish statehood
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
and the failure of the November Uprising
November Uprising
The November Uprising , Polish–Russian War 1830–31 also known as the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress...
. Though a patriot as well, Słowacki's ironic and sometimes pessimistic attitude was not appreciated by his contemporaries, nor was his denial of Polish uniqueness. Whereas Mickiewicz followed the Messianic tradition
Christ of Europe
The Christ of Europe is the messianic doctrine based in New Testament, first popularized among various European nations by the Church of Jesus Christ of Europe in the 16th to the 18th centuries...
and in Konrad suggested that Poland's fate was in the hands of God, Słowacki's Kordian
Kordian
Kordian is a drama written in 1833, and published in 1834, by Juliusz Słowacki, one of the "Three Bards" of Polish literature. Kordian is one of the most notable works of Polish Romanticism and drama, , PWN Encyklopedia and is considered one of Słowacki's best works.-History:Słowacki began work on...
questioned whether his country was not instead a plaything of Satan
Satan
Satan , "the opposer", is the title of various entities, both human and divine, who challenge the faith of humans in the Hebrew Bible...
. In Anhelli, Słowacki's describes the tragic fate of Polish exiles in Siberia, painting a gloomy vision of Poland's destiny; the same topic was taken by Mickiewicz in the Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrimage as a call for Poles to spread hope and spirituality across Europe. While a small circle of his friends talked about his wit, perseverance and inspiration, in popular memory he was a "sickly man of weak character", egocentric, bitter due to his failed rivalry with Mickiewicz. Mickiewicz himself wrote of Słowacki's work as a "beautiful church, but without God inside".
After his death, however, Słowacki gained a cult-like status in Poland; in particular, in the cultural center of Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
. Several obituaries
Obituary
An obituary is a news article that reports the recent death of a person, typically along with an account of the person's life and information about the upcoming funeral. In large cities and larger newspapers, obituaries are written only for people considered significant...
and longer articles appeared in the Polish press upon Słowacki's death. His works, many of them published posthumously for the first time, found growing acceptance among a new generation; an 1868 work noted that "Słowacki took the fancy of the Polish youth. He was its singer, its spiritual leader in the full meaning of the term". Through undoubtedly a poet of the romantic era
Romantic poetry
Romanticism, a philosophical, literary, artistic and cultural era which began in the mid/late-1700s as a reaction against the prevailing Enlightenment ideals of the day , also influenced poetry...
, he was increasingly popular among the positivists
Positivism in Poland
Positivism in Poland was a socio-cultural movement that defined progressive thought in literature and social sciences of Partitioned Poland following the suppression of the 1863 January Uprising against the occupying army of Imperial Russia...
and the authors of the Young Poland
Young Poland
Young Poland is a modernist period in Polish visual arts, literature and music, covering roughly the years between 1890 and 1918. It was a result of strong aesthetic opposition to the ideas of Positivism...
period in the late 1800s and early 1900s. His works were popularized by other writers, such as Adam Asnyk
Adam Asnyk
Adam Asnyk , was a Polish poet and dramatist. Born September 11, 1838 in Kalisz to a szlachta family, he was educated for an heir of his family's estate. As such he received education at the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Marymont and then the Medical Surgeon School in Warsaw. He...
and Michał Bałucki, and his dramas were shown in theaters. He became a major literary figure for the new generation of Polish writers. He also became respected abroad; a 1902 English language
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
book edited by Charles Dudley Warner
Charles Dudley Warner
Charles Dudley Warner was an American essayist, novelist, and friend of Mark Twain, with whom he co-authored the novel The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today.-Biography:...
noted that "the splendid exuberance of his thought and fancy ranks him among the great poets of the nineteenth century".
In 1927, some eight years after Poland had regained independence, the Polish government arranged for Słowacki's remains to be transferred from Paris to Wawel Cathedral
Wawel Cathedral
The Wawel Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral Basilica of Sts. Stanisław and Vaclav, is a church located on Wawel Hill in Kraków–Poland's national sanctuary. It has a 1,000-year history and was the traditional coronation site of Polish monarchs. It is the Cathedral of the Archdiocese of Kraków...
, in Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
. He was interred in the Crypt of the National Bards, beside Mickiewicz. Słowacki's interment at Wawel Cathedral was controversial, as many of his works were considered heretic
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
al by Polish Catholic-Church officials. It took almost two decades and the backing of Józef Piłsudski, for whom Słowacki was a favorite poet, to obtain the Church's agreement to interring Słowacki at Wawel Cathedral. At the 1927 ceremony, Piłsudski commanded:
Several streets and schools in modern Poland bear the name of Juliusz Słowacki. Three parks are dedicated to him: in Bielsko-Biała
Bielsko-Biała
-Economy and Industry:Nowadays Bielsko-Biała is one of the best-developed parts of Poland. It was ranked 2nd best city for business in that country by Forbes. About 5% of people are unemployed . Bielsko-Biała is famous for its textile, machine-building, and especially automotive industry...
, in Łódź and in Wrocław. There are several monuments of Juliusz Słowacki, including ones in Warsaw
Warsaw
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
(2001) and Wrocław (1984). Among the most notable landmarks bearing his name is the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
.
In 2004, a Juliusz Slowacki Museum in Kremenets, Ukraine, was opened in his family's former manor house. In 2009 the Polish Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
(parliament) declared that year, the two-hundredth anniversary of Słowacki's birth, to be the Year of Juliusz Słowacki.
Drama
- BalladynaBalladyna (drama)"Balladyna is a tragedy written by Juliusz Słowacki in 1834 and published in 1839 in Paris. It is a notable work of Polish romanticism, focusing on the issues such as thirst for power and evolution of the criminal mind...
(1835, published 1839, performed 1862) - Fantazy (1841, published 1866, performed 1867)
- Horsztyński (1835, published 1866, performed 1871)
- KordianKordianKordian is a drama written in 1833, and published in 1834, by Juliusz Słowacki, one of the "Three Bards" of Polish literature. Kordian is one of the most notable works of Polish Romanticism and drama, , PWN Encyklopedia and is considered one of Słowacki's best works.-History:Słowacki began work on...
(1833, published 1834, performed 1899) - Ksiądz Marek (Father Marek, 1843, published same year, performed 1901)
- Książę niezłomny (Prince Unroken, 1843, published 1844, performed 1874)
- Lilla Weneda (1839, published 1840, performed 1863)
- Maria Stuart (1830, performed 1862)
- Mazepa (1839, published 1840, performed in Hungarian 1847, performed in Polish 1851)
- Sen srebny Salomei (The Silver Dream of Salomea, 1843, published 1844, performed 1900)
- Samuel Zborowski (1845, published 1903, performed 1911)
Poetry
- Longer works
- Anhelli (1838)
- Arab (1830)
- Lambro, powstańca grecki (Lambro, a Greek insurgent, 1833)
- Beniowski (1841–1846)
- Genezis z Ducha (Genesis from the Spirit, 1844)
- Godzina myśli (An Hour of Thought, 1832–1833)
- Hugo. Powieść krzyżacka (Hugo. Teutonic Order Novel, 1830)
- Król-Duch (The Spirit King, portions published 1847, published in full 1925)
- Ojciec zadżumionych (The Father of the Plague-stricken, 1838)
- Podróż do ziemi świętej ("Voyage to the Holy Land", 1866)
- W Szwajcarii (In Switzerland, 1835, published 1839)
- Wacław (1838)
See also
- GawędaGawędaA gawęda is a story; especially, one that belongs to a kind of Polish epic literary genre.-History:Gawęda is a genre of Polish folk literature....
- History of philosophy in Poland
- List of Poles