Diablada
Encyclopedia
The Diablada or Danza de los Diablos (Dance of the Devils), is a dance characterized by the mask and devil suit wore by the performers. Traditional of Oruro
in the Bolivian Altiplano
and in the Peruvian Puno
department
, the dance is a mixture of religious theatrical presentations brought from Spain
and Andean religious ceremonies such as the Llama llama
dance in honour of the Uru
god Tiw
(protector of mines, lakes, and rivers), and the Aymaran miner's ritual to Anchanchu
(a demon spirit of caves and other isolated places in Perú
).
The origins and sense of patrimonial identity of this dance is a matter of dispute between authorities and historians of Bolivia
, Peru
, and Chile
. While Peru and Chile claim that the dance is proper of tripartite regional identity, Bolivia claims that the dance should solely be considered Bolivian. There is a style of dance proper of Ecuador
named Diablada pillareña
which are not more references, and squads of Diablada were founded in other countries such as Argentina
, United States
and Austria
by residents of Bolivia
.
such as Argentina
and Ecuador
as well. Bolivian cultural organizations and government label this as an "unlawful cultural heritage appropriation" and consider that the declaration of the Carnaval de Oruro
as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
gives Bolivia and the city of Oruro support on this claim. Bolivian scholars such as the professor of ethnomusicology and cultural heritage, Diego Echevers Tórrez, express that the Diablada is not the mere representation of the devils in a defined space, but constitutes the cultural heritage of the city of Oruro with specific actors and environment.
(Peru
) identify the roots of this dance with the Aymaran traditions of the Lupakas. Based on the written accounts of 16th century historian and writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
, the Lupaka natives of Juli in the year 1576 presented their version of the Autos Sacramentales taught to them by Spanish Jesuit priests. The director of the cultural group Yuyachkani of Peru, Miguel Rubio Zapata, during an interview in 2007 with the Punean mask maker, Edwin Loza Huarachi, proposes linking the Diablada Puneña
with the myth of the Anchanchu
, a pre-Hispanic Aymara deity. Also, researchers Peter McFarren, Sixto Choque, and Teresa Gisbert state that the Diablada has roots to the Aymaran narrative of the Myth of the Supaya.
delegated their ex-ambassador in Bolivia, Ivés de la Goublaye de Menorval, the task to be the moderator of the project and handed a form to the Bolivian authorities to be filled in coordination with historians and folklorists, such as Ramiro Condarco Morales, Mario Montaño Aragón, Fernando Cajías, Alberto Guerra Gutiérrez, Javier Romero, Elías Delgado, Carlos Condarco Santillán, Marcelo Lara, Zenobio Calizaya, Zulma Yugar, Walter Zambrana and Ascanio Nava.
The document elaborated by this group is based in the theory that the modern Diablada has roots in the ancient rituals performed 2000 years ago by the Uru civilization
. The study makes reference to a deity named Tiw
who was the protector of the Urus in mines, lakes and rivers and, in the case of Oruro (or Uru-uru), the owner of caves and rocky shelters. The Urus worship this deity with the dance of the devils being the Tiw himself the main character, later this name was hispanicized as Tío (uncle), and as product of the syncretism
, the Tiw represented the figure of the devil
regretting and becoming devotee of the Virgin of Socavón.
During the times of the Tahuantinsuyu, the four administrative entities known as suyus had their own representative dances during the Ito festival, a festivity once celebrated throughout the entire empire but, according to the historian José Mansilla Vázquez, who based on manuscripts of Fray Martín de Murúa
, says that these festivities were outlawed during the Viceroyalty of Peru
with the exception of Oruro
which, for being considered an important miner city in the 16th century, counted with some privileges and the Spanish authorities looked to the other way allowing this festivity persist in this city, adapting itself later into the Spanish traditions between the Carnestolendas and the Corpus Christi
becoming into the Carnaval of Oruro over the centuries.
The ancient authors, Fray Martín de Murúa and Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala
make reference in their works to the different dances of the area, including the dance of the Llama llama
, name given by the Aymaras to refer to the Urus
dressed as dancing demons, as it was recorded by Ludovico Bertonio
. This dance was performed during the Ito festivities by the representatives of the region known as Urucolla, a sub-region of the south-eastern suyu of Collasuyu located in the lake system of the Department of Oruro between the basins of the lakes Poopó and Coipasa, where the Uru civilization had the city of Oruro as their main social centre, becoming together with Nazca
and Wari
one of the most ancient cities in the Andean world
.
The supporters of this theory consider that the Uru mythology is reflected in the symbolism of the Diablada. The legend behind the importance of the city of Oruro as an ancient sacred place for the Urus tells the story of the chthonic
deity Wari, which in the Uru language
means soul . He, after hearing that the Urus were worshiping Pachacamaj
, represented by Inti
, unleashed his revenge by sending plagues of ant
s, lizard
s, toad
s and snake
s, animals considered sacred in the Uru mythology. But they were protected by the Ñusta who adopted the figure of a condor
, defeating the creatures petrifying them and becoming sacred hills in the four cardinal points of the city of Oruro; these animals are also often represented in the traditional masks of the Diablada.
, La danza de los diablos (The dance of the devils), in which the theory of a relationship between this dance and a Catalonia
n dance named Ball de diables
, was suggested; more specifically with the elements used in the localities of Penedès
and Tarragona
. Julia Elena Fortún, unlike other historians in the Peruvian side, disagrees with the idea of considering the Diablada as a product of the introduction of the autos sacramentales
in the Andes, because among the ones studied by her, the thematic of the devil and his temptations was not contemplated.
in the year 1576 to the Aymaran kingdom of the Lupaca
s.
Historian Mercedes Serna observes that as soon as the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
was achieved, there was a sudden increase in the amount of Autos Sacramentales
presented in the Spanish colonies. Jose Miguel Oviedo records that by the year 1560 contests were held for religious theatrical presentations. This representation was documented in the 17th century book Comentarios Reales of Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
where it reads:
Garcilaso de la Vega further mentions that the Jesuit priests taught the Auto Sacramental comedy by writing it in Aymara, and the natives of Juli later presented their version of the religious dance to the priests and, later, presented a dialogue to the rest of the Spanish population in such a way that it “changed the opinion that up to that point had regarded the natives as being dumb, rude, or incapable.”
This same information is used by other authors, such as the Peruvian scholar Nicomedes Santa Cruz
and the Bolivian anthropologist Freddy Arancibia Andrade, to suggest that the Spanish influence was spread to Oruro from the southern Bolivian region of Potosí
. Andrade considers that the Diablada recovers the steps of rebellion and combat of the ritual of Tinku
mixed with the biblic vision introduced by the Spanish conquerors in the miner region of Aullagas starting in the year 1538.
Another piece of information collected by Andrade is that in 1780 the army of Tomás Katari
wore demon suits to attack the towns of Macha, Pocoata, Colquechaca, Aullagas and San Pedro de Buena Vista, giving more strength to the syncretism and represents the appearance of the tinku-devil. After the silver era in Bolivia, the miners went to Uncía to work for the tin company of Simón Iturri Patiño
and during the Bolivian federal war, the miners migrated to Oruro where in 1904 they were allowed to dance for the Virgin of Socavón.
representing the struggle between the good and the evil where the figure of the archangel Saint Michael
and his angels battled the forces of evil represented by Lucifer
and his demons. This act was performed in the wedding banquet of the Barcelona count, Ramón Berenguer IV
with the princess Petronila
, daughter of the king of Aragón
and Catalonia
in the year 1150.
In a study presented in 2005 by the Catalonian scholar Jordi Rius i Mercade, member of the Ball de Sant Miquel i Diables de la Riera (board of the Ball de diables in Spain) and editor in chief of the specialized magazine El Dragabales during the Symposium of the Catalonian Discovery of America, states that the traditional dances and short plays performed during the celebration of Corpus Christi
in Spain
were adopted by the Christian church
to teach their doctrines to the native Americans; their festivities were readapted to the new calendar and their deities were redefined acquiring demoniac forms representing the evil fighting against the divine power. According to Rius i Mercade, the Ball de diables was the most suitable for this purpose. In this study, he identifies three Latin American dances that contain similar elements to the Catalonian Ball de diables; the Diablada of Oruro, Baile de Diablos de Cobán in Guatemala
and Danza de los diablicos de Túcume in Peru
.
The Diablada of Oruro represents the tale of the struggle between the archangel Saint Michael and Lucifer, the she-devil China Supay and devils accompanying them. Ruis i Mercade suggests that this was a tale presented by the parish priest Ladislao Montealegre of the city of Oruro in 1818 inspired in the Catalonian Ball de diables.
in the region, from the 15th century till the first half of the 19th century, the ancient Andean beliefs were blended with the new Christian traditions. The traditions adopted new iconography and the celebrations adopted a new meaning during the Latin American wars of independence.
With the advent of the Inca state religion the inhabitants of the Island of the Sun
were replaced by ministers in worship of the sun (Inti
) and the city of Copacabana
located in the Bolivian side of the Lake Titicaca
had been repopulated by forty-two different nations of mitimaes and became one of the most important landmarks for the constant pilgrimage to the sanctuary; with the migration, two social classes were created in this area, the newcomers became Anansaya (upper) and the indigenous people Urinsaya (lower).
The selection of the Virgin of the Candlemas
as the patroness of Copacabana was a sign of the power structures established by the Incas in the area. In the year 1582 a frost threatened to destroy the crops, and the inhabitants decided to build an altar to a Christian figure, but there was a dispute because the Anansayas insisted to use the Virgin of the Candlemas since Francisco Tito Yupanqui
had already sculpted her image while the Urinsayas wanted it use the image of Saint Bartholomew instead. But the Anansayas wishes were imposed in the enthronement of the Virgin of Copacabana and the foundation of a brotherhood.
and to the west to Puno
. In Oruro there is a Sanctuary in honour of the Virgin of Socavón (or Sanctuary of the Virgin of the Mineshaft) who was originally the Virgin of Candlemas traditionally honoured on 2 February, like in Puno, but later the date was moved to Carnival
; this transition is product of the Bolivian War of Independence.
There is a legend that says that on the Saturday of Carnival in 1789 a bandit known as Nina-Nina or Chiru-Chiru was mortally wounded in a street fight and before dying he was confronted by the Virgin of the Candlemas. Some versions state that he used to worship a life-size image of the Virgin painted in a wall of a deserted house, some say that the painting miraculously appeared on the wall of the bandit's own house after his death. And the legend is concluded with the tale of the troupe of devils dancing in honour of the Virgin in the next year's Carnival. The present sanctuary in Oruro was completed in 1891.
However according to the Ph D in religious studies and Executive Director of the Wisconsin Humanities Council at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Max Harris, this legend is related to a historical reality. During the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II
, which started in Cusco
and spread along the Andean highlands, Oruro experienced a brief but bloody revolution as well. Pushed by the fear of being target of the indigenous revolution, the majority Creole on the night of Saturday, 10 February 1781, attacked the minority ruling class of the peninsular-born Spaniards . With the arrival of the Indigenous army the Creoles made an alliance.
On 15 February, a messenger arrived in Oruro with orders from Túpac Amaru II
. He instructed his army to respect churches and clergy, to do no harm to Creoles, and to prosecute none but chapetones. And assured the victory by entering in La Paz
"by Carnival (por Carnestolendas)", the Indigenous occupation of Oruro started to retreat leaving several thousands of deaths. But during March and April they launched more attacks to the city this time against the Creoles and the remaining Spaniards who unified forces to repel them.
Harris observes that the Carnival of the year of 1781, fell on 24 February, placing Oruro's occupation exactly halfway between Candlemas and Carnival, making the situation in Oruro in Harris' words, "carnivalesque". Religious processions duelled with secular parades. Europeans and Creoles disguised as Indigenous, cases like a Spaniard resorting to cross-dressing tin a vain attempt to save his life and thousands of armed men in the streets of the colonial city. By 19 February people in the city regardless of the conflict continued celebrating and, throughout Carnival, the city markets were full of robbers selling the looted gold and silver back to its owners or to cholos and mestizos. By 1784 it was customary to rejoice, dance, play, and form comparsas (companies of masqueraders) for the Carnival in Oruro.
Harris considers that with this background is that the legend of the Virgin of the Mineshaft in 1789 appeared favouring the rebellion as they worshiped the Virgin of Candlemas while the chapetones used to worship the Virgin of the Rosary
. Under the beliefs of the revolutionaries, the Virgin of the Socavón tolerated the indigenous deities or devils and, according to Harris, if the legend is correct, by 1790, Oruro's miners had moved Candlemas to Carnival and added indigenous gods, masked as Christian devils, to the festivities.
In 1818, Oruro's parish priest, Ladislao Montealegre, wrote the play Narrative of the seven deadly sins, where according to Harris and Fortún, borrowed elements of the Catalonian Ball de diables
like the female devil, Diablesa in the Catalonian dance and China supay in the Diablada and where the Devil leads the Seven Deadly Sins into battle against the opposing Virtues and an angel. Harris suggests that Montealegre may have wanted to represent the threat of rebellion and the historical context with this play.
A generation later, in 1825 after Bolivia achieved its independence, the Diablada and the Carnival adopted a new meaning for Oruro's residents. Two of the Diablada dance squads and the street from where the parade starts are named after Sebastian Pagador, one of the Creole heroes of the uprising. And the main square which is in the route of the Carnival to the Virgin of the Mineshaft temple is named Plaza 10 de febrero (10 February square) remembering the date of the uprising.
s, which were a group of musicians playing the Siku
. Nowadays, the Diablada in the Altiplano is accompanied by band and orchestra. The uniformity of the suits brought choreographic innovation, with the layout of steps, movements, and figure designs that are not only ready to be staged in open areas such as roads, streets, and public squares; but also in places such as theaters and arena
s. At the start of the krewe
are Lucifer and Satan with several China Supay, or devil women. They are followed by the personified seven deadly sins
of pride, greed, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, and sloth. Afterwards, a troop of devils come out. They are all led by Saint Michael, with a blouse, short skirt, sword, and shield.
During the dance, angel
s and demon
s are constantly moving around while forming somewhat complex figures such as crosses and circles. This confrontation between the two sides is eclipsed when Saint Michael appears, battles, and defeats the Devil. Both characters are dressed in heavy costumes that are highly ornate and finely wrought. The weight of the costume is more of a challenge than an obstacle for the different dance groups. The dancers often attempt to make unique and complex choreographies. The result is a colourful dance, creating a show very much appreciated by the public.
The choreography have three versions, each conformed by seven moves.
Introduction Devil's walk: The devils in the left column start the movement while the ones in the right one follow them. Lucifer and Satan are named the "Kings", they are placed behind followed by the Angel and the China Supay and the band to the right side behind the second column of devils. The Kings break the formation followed by the devils, and the Condor and Bear who stay in the middle. Then the Angel and the China Supay go forward passing the middle ones by the side.
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The Diablada of Oruro goes back to the pre-Columbian
period of the Urus
who used to practice this dance in honour of the god Wari (also known as Huaricato or Huari). With the arrival of the Spanish conquerors and the evangelicalism
, this divinity gradually personified the devil. The iconography depicted in the current suits, such as the snake, frog and ants, respond to the Uru mythology with the belief that if Wari wouldn't protect them they'd be destroyed by those creatures. Wari after petrifying the creatures retired to the depths of the mountains.
The Bolivian anthropologist, Milton Eyzaguirre, based on a 16th century chronicle of Bartolomé de Álvarez commented that in the Andean region of Bolivia
, a cult in honour of the dead, named cupay, was practised. Over the centuries the cupay derived in supay, the figure of the devil in the modern Diablada. In pre-Columbian times the dead season started in November with the crop season, the conquerors made efforts to coincide the Andean calendar with their festivities, such as the carnival.
The Diablada as is danced today in was originally the accompaniment of a theatrical play. In Bolivia there are two versions of this play preserved by Julia Elena Fortún
. The oldest of these pieces belongs to the 16th century when in the parties of the city of Potosí
in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, this play tells the story of Lucifer
who, riding a horse, delivers a letter to be read to the public telling that Proserpina
, the goddess of hell, was the most beautiful. A gentleman, representing the church, faces the demon defending Virgin Mary as the most beautiful. In the play after this dialogue a tournament started with fireworks and artillery shots followed by a squad of light cavalry of demons wearing black clothes and torches leading a chariot with snakes carrying Proserpina.
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This tradition continued in the city of Oruro over the centuries, in 1789 with the tale of the Chiru Chiru the festivity had another transformation with the introduction of the tale of the Seven deadly sins
written by the parish priest Ladislao Montealegre, and with the Bolivian War of Independence the parade was moved to Carnival. By the 19th century the tradition had profound roots with the mining and the devotion to the Virgin of Socavón and, as it was recorded in the newspapers of that time, the dancers made offerings to the feet of the Virgin after the parade. At the beginning it was considered a working class custom but by the ends of the 19th century and beginnings of the 20th century the tradition was popularized reaching all groups of the Oruro society.
The first institutionalized dance squad is the Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro founded in 25 November 1904 by Pedro Pablo Corrales, followed by a Tradicional Folklórica Diablada de Oruro (1943), Diablada Círculo de Artes y Letras (1943) and the Fraternidad Artística y Cultural ´La Diablada´ (1944). The squad founded by Pedro Pablo Corrales travelled to Peru in 1918 teaching to the squad Los Vaporinos the dance. In 1956 this dance entered Chile
brought by the squad Diablada Ferroviaria of Oruro which was invited to participate in the Tirana festivities
of that year. The Chilean citizen, Gregorio Ordenes, was inspired by this visit to form the first Chilean Diablada squad Primera Diablada Servidores Virgen del Carmen in Iquique
.
In the year 2001, the Carnival of Oruro
was declared one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
where the Diablada along with 19 other dances were registered as part of the festivity. And in the year 2004 the squad Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro in its 100th anniversary received the Cóndor de Los Andes award, the highest distinction given by the Bolivian government.
in present-day Peru
. Nevertheless, the dance holds Native American roots from the cult of Anchanchu
, a pre-Hispanic Aymara deity, and the narrative of the Myth of the Supaya. The dance's association with the cult of the Virgin of Candelaria stems from a popular legend that tells that in 1675, in the mine of Laikakota (located near Puno), a Spaniard by the name of José Salcedo changed his decision to destroy the miner's houses because he saw a fire coming out of the mine as a result of the Virgin Mary fighting the Devil inside the mine.
According to historian Enrique Cuentas Ormachea, until 1965 the Diablada Puneña was very different from the Diablada of Oruro when the group Los Vaporinos (formed by workers from the Peruvian Corp that worked in Lake Titicaca
) began to dance in the Fiesta de la Candelaria
with costumes and bands from Bolivia. Despite this, due to budget restrictions, the groups from Puno couldn't afford hiring Bolivian bands and started using their traditional groupings of Sicu-Morenos, such as the orchestra Sikuris del Barrio Mañazo (whom integrated this dance in 1922). Nowadays, the dance still maintains its differences from the Diablada of Oruro and integrates new characters such as Superman
, Redskins
, the Mexican
, and others taken from films.
Since its beginnings, the performance had a variety of changes. Originally the masks were made from plaster
and the hair from baize
(a coarse woollen cloth). Overtime, the mask models were influenced by Tibet
an masks as well as elements from Native American cultures such as Sechin
, Chavin
, Nazca
, and Mochica. These masks were traditionally made by each dancer or bought from a Bolivian mask-maker named Antonio Vizacarra, but in 1956 the brothers Alberto and Ramón Velásquez established a workshop in Puno where masks were created and sold for the event. Also, the Diablada was at first small and reserved for important religious dates in the Catholic Church. As the dance further developed, the devil dancers began to accompany groups of Sikuri
s, which are an assemblage of musicians that play the Siku
(the traditional Andean panpipe). Among the first Sikuris that surged at this point were those of the Barrio Mañazo (1892) and Juventud Obrera (1909). Nevertheless, anthropologist José María Arguedas
suggests that eventually the role of the Sikuris was minimized to the point that they began to accompany the devil dancers under the new name of Sicu-Morenos. The Sicu-Morenos play with sicus, bombos, snare drums, cymbals, and triangles; and they dance Huayno
s while accompanied by characters such as Caporales, minor devils, Chinas Diablas, the old man, the big-lipped negro, the Apache, the lion, the bat, the condor, the bear, the gorilla, and the giraffe (among others). These characters, along with the central performance of the devil dancers and the archangel Saint Michael, make the Diablada Puneña one of the dances in the Fiesta de la Candelaria.
, a festival of the northern region of that country. The town of La Tirana
is located at 84 kilometres from the city of Iquique
with a population of less than 400 inhabitants but during the week of the festivities, which are held in the week of 12 to 16 July, it receives nearly 120,000 visitors. A documentary broadcast by Iquique TV (A Chilean television station) asserts that the dance has its roots in miners of Oruro.
The sanctuary of the Virgin of Carmen
was built in the region in the year 1540 and since then the festival is made in her honour in that locality with different dances.
There are two kinds of squad organization:
The first Diablada squad in Chile was founded in the city of Iquique by Gregorio Ordenes in 1956 under the name of Primera Diablada Servidores Virgen del Carmen after the visit of the Bolivian squad Diablada Ferroviaria to the festival of that year.
Oruro Department
Oruro is a department in Bolivia, with an area of 53,588 km². Its capital is the city of Oruro. At the time of census 2001 it had a population of 391,870.- Provinces of Oruro :...
in the Bolivian Altiplano
Altiplano
The Altiplano , in west-central South America, where the Andes are at their widest, is the most extensive area of high plateau on Earth outside of Tibet...
and in the Peruvian Puno
Puno
Puno is a city in southeastern Peru, located on the shore of Lake Titicaca. It is the capital city of the Puno Region and the Puno Province with a population of approximately 100,000. The city was established in 1668 by viceroy Pedro Antonio Fernández de Castro as capital of the province of...
department
Regions of Peru
The regions of Peru are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Peru. Since its 1821 independence, Peru had been divided into departments but faced the problem of an increasing centralization of political and economic power in its capital, Lima...
, the dance is a mixture of religious theatrical presentations brought from Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and Andean religious ceremonies such as the Llama llama
Llama llama
The Llama llama, also spelled Llamallama or Lama lama, was probably a dance with the characteristics of a farce or a disguise game with acrobatic elements...
dance in honour of the Uru
Uros
The Uros are a pre-Incan people who live on forty-two self-fashioned floating islands in Lake Titicaca Puno, Peru and Bolivia. They form three main groups: Uru-Chipayas, Uru-Muratos and the Uru-Iruitos...
god Tiw
Tiw
Tiw, in Uru mythology is a protector of mines, lakes, and rivers. It is closely related to the Aymara deity of Anchanchu, a terrible demon which haunts caves, rivers, and other isolated places....
(protector of mines, lakes, and rivers), and the Aymaran miner's ritual to Anchanchu
Anchanchu
In Aymara mythology, Anchanchu is a terrible demon which haunts caves, rivers, and other isolated places. This deity is closely related to the Uru god Tiw....
(a demon spirit of caves and other isolated places in Perú
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
).
The origins and sense of patrimonial identity of this dance is a matter of dispute between authorities and historians of Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
, Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
, and Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
. While Peru and Chile claim that the dance is proper of tripartite regional identity, Bolivia claims that the dance should solely be considered Bolivian. There is a style of dance proper of Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border...
named Diablada pillareña
Diablada pillareña
The Diablada pillareña is a form of Diablada danced since 1768 in the South American nation of Ecuador....
which are not more references, and squads of Diablada were founded in other countries such as Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
, United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
by residents of Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
.
Etymology
The name was consolidated in Oruro from 1789 to 1944, where masked groups which participated in parades dressed in devil costumes came to be known as Diabladas. In 1904, the first group with the label Diablada originated, the "Great Traditional Authentic Diablada Oruro," with a defined music, dress, choreography, and plot. This period culminated with the founding of new groups of Diabladas in 1944, consolidating the denomination.History
The origin of the Diablada is a matter of dispute between the countries of Bolivia and Peru. Three main locations exist for the possible origin of the dance. These places are:- Oruro, Bolivia: Its earliest record found in pre-Hispanic times, the dance of "Llama llamaLlama llamaThe Llama llama, also spelled Llamallama or Lama lama, was probably a dance with the characteristics of a farce or a disguise game with acrobatic elements...
"in worship of the UruUrosThe Uros are a pre-Incan people who live on forty-two self-fashioned floating islands in Lake Titicaca Puno, Peru and Bolivia. They form three main groups: Uru-Chipayas, Uru-Muratos and the Uru-Iruitos...
god TiwTiwTiw, in Uru mythology is a protector of mines, lakes, and rivers. It is closely related to the Aymara deity of Anchanchu, a terrible demon which haunts caves, rivers, and other isolated places....
, dance subsequent ironically devoted Aymara language of the UrusUrusAberdeen is a town on the south shore of Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong. Administratively, it is part of the Southern District. Aberdeen Harbour is a harbour between Aberdeen and Ap Lei Chau. The name 'Aberdeen' usually covers the areas of Aberdeen, Wong Chuk Hang and Ap Lei Chau, but it is more...
dance dressed as devils, as recorded by Ludovico BertonioLudovico BertonioLudovico Bertonio was an Italian Jesuit missionary to South America.-Life:He entered the Society of Jesus in 1575. Sent to Peru six years later, he worked principally among the Aymara of southern Peru and of Bolivia.-Work:He wrote on the Aymara language...
. Ethnohistorical development process of disguise and the dance of Diablada fall into three periods, according to the document sent of Carnaval de OruroCarnaval de OruroThe Carnival of Oruro is a more than 2000 year old religious celebration that, through creativity, continuity, and ritual, came to constitute a model of "Masterpieces of Oral Heritage and Intangible Heritage of Humanity...
to Organization of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UnescoUNESCOThe United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
)proclamed as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of HumanityMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of HumanityThe Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity was made by the Director-General of UNESCO starting in 2001 to raise awareness on intangible cultural heritage and encourage local communities to protect them and the local people who sustain these forms of cultural...
: Periods of 1606 to 1789, 1789 to 1944 y 1944 to 1960.
- Juli, Peru: The Diablada would have been introduced in 1576 to the native Lupakas people of JuliJuliIn the German, Dutch, Scandinavian, South Slavic , and Indonesian languages, the name for "July" , but also:* The name of a female...
, located near Lake TiticacaLake TiticacaLake Titicaca is a lake located on the border of Peru and Bolivia. It sits 3,811 m above sea level, making it the highest commercially navigable lake in the world...
in the Altiplano of present-day PunoPuno RegionPuno is a region in southeastern Peru. It is bordered by Bolivia on the east, the Madre de Dios Region on the north, the Cusco and Arequipa regions on the west, the Moquegua Region on the southwest, and the Tacna Region on the south...
, Peru; and from there it allegedly spread to other parts of the Spanish domain in the Americas.
Native American roots
The debate about the patrimonial identity of the Diablada concerns its roots as well. Chilean and Peruvian organizations suggest that since this dance is inspired in the Andean civilizations previous to the formation of the current national borders, it should belong equally to the three nations and other Andean statesAndean states
The Andean States are a group of nations in South America that are defined by sharing a common geography or culture such as the Quechua language and Andean cuisine which was primarily spread during the times of the Inca Empire, but also before and after it.Politically speaking, Argentina and Chile...
such as Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
and Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border...
as well. Bolivian cultural organizations and government label this as an "unlawful cultural heritage appropriation" and consider that the declaration of the Carnaval de Oruro
Carnaval de Oruro
The Carnival of Oruro is a more than 2000 year old religious celebration that, through creativity, continuity, and ritual, came to constitute a model of "Masterpieces of Oral Heritage and Intangible Heritage of Humanity...
as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
The Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity was made by the Director-General of UNESCO starting in 2001 to raise awareness on intangible cultural heritage and encourage local communities to protect them and the local people who sustain these forms of cultural...
gives Bolivia and the city of Oruro support on this claim. Bolivian scholars such as the professor of ethnomusicology and cultural heritage, Diego Echevers Tórrez, express that the Diablada is not the mere representation of the devils in a defined space, but constitutes the cultural heritage of the city of Oruro with specific actors and environment.
Aymaran roots theory
The scholars who defend the theory of JuliJuli District
Juli District is one of seven districts of the province Chucuito in Puno Region, Peru.- External links :*...
(Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
) identify the roots of this dance with the Aymaran traditions of the Lupakas. Based on the written accounts of 16th century historian and writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Garcilaso de la Vega , born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, was a historian and writer from the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. The son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman, he is recognized primarily for his contributions to Inca history, culture, and society...
, the Lupaka natives of Juli in the year 1576 presented their version of the Autos Sacramentales taught to them by Spanish Jesuit priests. The director of the cultural group Yuyachkani of Peru, Miguel Rubio Zapata, during an interview in 2007 with the Punean mask maker, Edwin Loza Huarachi, proposes linking the Diablada Puneña
Diablada puneña
Diablada puneña, is the variation of the dance known as diablada as it is performed in the region of Puno, Peru. The origin of this dance is a matter of dispute between Bolivia and Peru, because both nations celebrate the Diablada with similar music, songs, and clothing.The Diablada puneña is part...
with the myth of the Anchanchu
Anchanchu
In Aymara mythology, Anchanchu is a terrible demon which haunts caves, rivers, and other isolated places. This deity is closely related to the Uru god Tiw....
, a pre-Hispanic Aymara deity. Also, researchers Peter McFarren, Sixto Choque, and Teresa Gisbert state that the Diablada has roots to the Aymaran narrative of the Myth of the Supaya.
Uru roots theory
After the declaration of the Carnaval de Oruro as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 18 May 2001, the UNESCOUNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
delegated their ex-ambassador in Bolivia, Ivés de la Goublaye de Menorval, the task to be the moderator of the project and handed a form to the Bolivian authorities to be filled in coordination with historians and folklorists, such as Ramiro Condarco Morales, Mario Montaño Aragón, Fernando Cajías, Alberto Guerra Gutiérrez, Javier Romero, Elías Delgado, Carlos Condarco Santillán, Marcelo Lara, Zenobio Calizaya, Zulma Yugar, Walter Zambrana and Ascanio Nava.
The document elaborated by this group is based in the theory that the modern Diablada has roots in the ancient rituals performed 2000 years ago by the Uru civilization
Uros
The Uros are a pre-Incan people who live on forty-two self-fashioned floating islands in Lake Titicaca Puno, Peru and Bolivia. They form three main groups: Uru-Chipayas, Uru-Muratos and the Uru-Iruitos...
. The study makes reference to a deity named Tiw
Tiw
Tiw, in Uru mythology is a protector of mines, lakes, and rivers. It is closely related to the Aymara deity of Anchanchu, a terrible demon which haunts caves, rivers, and other isolated places....
who was the protector of the Urus in mines, lakes and rivers and, in the case of Oruro (or Uru-uru), the owner of caves and rocky shelters. The Urus worship this deity with the dance of the devils being the Tiw himself the main character, later this name was hispanicized as Tío (uncle), and as product of the syncretism
Syncretism
Syncretism is the combining of different beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. The term means "combining", but see below for the origin of the word...
, the Tiw represented the figure of the devil
Devil
The Devil is believed in many religions and cultures to be a powerful, supernatural entity that is the personification of evil and the enemy of God and humankind. The nature of the role varies greatly...
regretting and becoming devotee of the Virgin of Socavón.
During the times of the Tahuantinsuyu, the four administrative entities known as suyus had their own representative dances during the Ito festival, a festivity once celebrated throughout the entire empire but, according to the historian José Mansilla Vázquez, who based on manuscripts of Fray Martín de Murúa
Fray Martín de Murúa
Fray Martín de Murúa, was a Basque Mercedarian friar and chronicler. He is best known for his work Historia general del Piru , which is considered the earliest illustrated history of Peru....
, says that these festivities were outlawed during the Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
Created in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima...
with the exception of Oruro
Oruro, Bolivia
Oruro is a city in Bolivia with a population of 235,393 , located about equidistant between La Paz and Sucre at approximately 3710 meters above sea level. It is the capital of the department of Oruro....
which, for being considered an important miner city in the 16th century, counted with some privileges and the Spanish authorities looked to the other way allowing this festivity persist in this city, adapting itself later into the Spanish traditions between the Carnestolendas and the Corpus Christi
Corpus Christi (feast)
Corpus Christi is a Latin Rite solemnity, now designated the solemnity of The Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ . It is also celebrated in some Anglican, Lutheran and Old Catholic Churches. Like Trinity Sunday and the Solemnity of Christ the King, it does not commemorate a particular event in...
becoming into the Carnaval of Oruro over the centuries.
The ancient authors, Fray Martín de Murúa and Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala , also known as Guamán Poma or Huamán Poma, was an indigenous Peruvian who became disillusioned with the treatment of the native peoples of the Andes by the Spanish after conquest...
make reference in their works to the different dances of the area, including the dance of the Llama llama
Llama llama
The Llama llama, also spelled Llamallama or Lama lama, was probably a dance with the characteristics of a farce or a disguise game with acrobatic elements...
, name given by the Aymaras to refer to the Urus
Uros
The Uros are a pre-Incan people who live on forty-two self-fashioned floating islands in Lake Titicaca Puno, Peru and Bolivia. They form three main groups: Uru-Chipayas, Uru-Muratos and the Uru-Iruitos...
dressed as dancing demons, as it was recorded by Ludovico Bertonio
Ludovico Bertonio
Ludovico Bertonio was an Italian Jesuit missionary to South America.-Life:He entered the Society of Jesus in 1575. Sent to Peru six years later, he worked principally among the Aymara of southern Peru and of Bolivia.-Work:He wrote on the Aymara language...
. This dance was performed during the Ito festivities by the representatives of the region known as Urucolla, a sub-region of the south-eastern suyu of Collasuyu located in the lake system of the Department of Oruro between the basins of the lakes Poopó and Coipasa, where the Uru civilization had the city of Oruro as their main social centre, becoming together with Nazca
Nazca
Nazca is a system of valleys on the southern coast of Peru, and the name of the region's largest existing town in the Nazca Province. It is also the name applied to the Nazca culture that flourished in the area between 300 BC and AD 800...
and Wari
Wari ruins
The Wari Ruins are located near Quinua, in the Huanta Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru at an altitude 2770 m above sea-level. These ruins are all that is left of Wari, the capital city of the Wari ....
one of the most ancient cities in the Andean world
Andes
The Andes is the world's longest continental mountain range. It is a continual range of highlands along the western coast of South America. This range is about long, about to wide , and of an average height of about .Along its length, the Andes is split into several ranges, which are separated...
.
The supporters of this theory consider that the Uru mythology is reflected in the symbolism of the Diablada. The legend behind the importance of the city of Oruro as an ancient sacred place for the Urus tells the story of the chthonic
Chthonic
Chthonic designates, or pertains to, deities or spirits of the underworld, especially in relation to Greek religion. The Greek word khthon is one of several for "earth"; it typically refers to the interior of the soil, rather than the living surface of the land or the land as territory...
deity Wari, which in the Uru language
Uru language
The Uru language, also known as Iru-Itu , Morato, or Muratu, is the language of the Uros, an Amerindian people. In the year 2000 it had 2 remaining native speakers out of an ethnic group of 100 to 150 people in the La Paz Department, Ingavi Province, near Lake Titicaca in Bolivia, the rest having...
means soul . He, after hearing that the Urus were worshiping Pachacamaj
Pacha Kamaq
Pacha Kamaq was the deity worshipped in the city of Pachacamac by the Ichma....
, represented by Inti
Inti
According to the Inca mythology, Inti is the sun god, as well a patron deity of the Inca Empire. His exact origin is not known. The most common story says he is the son of Viracocha, the god of civilization.- Worship :...
, unleashed his revenge by sending plagues of ant
Ant
Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than...
s, lizard
Lizard
Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with nearly 3800 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica as well as most oceanic island chains...
s, toad
Toad
A toad is any of a number of species of amphibians in the order Anura characterized by dry, leathery skin , short legs, and snoat-like parotoid glands...
s and snake
Snake
Snakes are elongate, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales...
s, animals considered sacred in the Uru mythology. But they were protected by the Ñusta who adopted the figure of a condor
Condor
Condor is the name for two species of New World vultures, each in a monotypic genus. They are the largest flying land birds in the Western Hemisphere.They are:* The Andean Condor which inhabits the Andean mountains....
, defeating the creatures petrifying them and becoming sacred hills in the four cardinal points of the city of Oruro; these animals are also often represented in the traditional masks of the Diablada.
Spanish influence
One of the most referenced studies about the Diablada is the 1961 book of Julia Elena FortúnJulia Elena Fortún
Julia Elena Fortún Melgarejo, was born in the city of Sucre, Bolivia but lived in La Paz since her youth. She's a historian, anthropologist and enthomusicologist, pioneer in this last field in her country....
, La danza de los diablos (The dance of the devils), in which the theory of a relationship between this dance and a Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
n dance named Ball de diables
Ball de diables
The Ball de diables is one of the most deeply-routed traditions initially in Catalonia, and subsequently in the Valencian Community, where it's called Correfocs , and the Balearic Islands...
, was suggested; more specifically with the elements used in the localities of Penedès
Penedès
Penedès is a natural and historical region of the autonomous community of Catalonia, Spain. It is located in the south of the Principality of Catalonia between the pre-coastal mountain range and the Mediterranean sea...
and Tarragona
Tarragona
Tarragona is a city located in the south of Catalonia on the north-east of Spain, by the Mediterranean. It is the capital of the Spanish province of the same name and the capital of the Catalan comarca Tarragonès. In the medieval and modern times it was the capital of the Vegueria of Tarragona...
. Julia Elena Fortún, unlike other historians in the Peruvian side, disagrees with the idea of considering the Diablada as a product of the introduction of the autos sacramentales
Autos sacramentales
Autos sacramentales are a form of dramatic literature which is peculiar to Spain, though in some respects similar in character to the old Morality plays of England.The auto sacramental may be defined as a dramatic representation of the mystery of the Eucharist...
in the Andes, because among the ones studied by her, the thematic of the devil and his temptations was not contemplated.
Autos sacramentales Theory
In 2003, the newspaper Correo and José Morales Serruto, coordinator of cultural activities of the Asociación Nativa Puno (Native Association Puno), suggested that the dance of the Diablada was originated in the Peruvian city of Juli during a representation of the autos sacramentalesAutos sacramentales
Autos sacramentales are a form of dramatic literature which is peculiar to Spain, though in some respects similar in character to the old Morality plays of England.The auto sacramental may be defined as a dramatic representation of the mystery of the Eucharist...
in the year 1576 to the Aymaran kingdom of the Lupaca
Lupaca
Lupaca, Lupaka, or Lupaqa responds to a cultural group Aymara-speaking shores of Lake Titicaca that emerged after the decline of Tihuanaco maintaining its identity after the imposition of the Inca State or Tawantinsuyu, even with the Spanish domination...
s.
Historian Mercedes Serna observes that as soon as the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. This historic process of military conquest was made by Spanish conquistadores and their native allies....
was achieved, there was a sudden increase in the amount of Autos Sacramentales
Autos sacramentales
Autos sacramentales are a form of dramatic literature which is peculiar to Spain, though in some respects similar in character to the old Morality plays of England.The auto sacramental may be defined as a dramatic representation of the mystery of the Eucharist...
presented in the Spanish colonies. Jose Miguel Oviedo records that by the year 1560 contests were held for religious theatrical presentations. This representation was documented in the 17th century book Comentarios Reales of Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Garcilaso de la Vega , born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, was a historian and writer from the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. The son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman, he is recognized primarily for his contributions to Inca history, culture, and society...
where it reads:
Garcilaso de la Vega further mentions that the Jesuit priests taught the Auto Sacramental comedy by writing it in Aymara, and the natives of Juli later presented their version of the religious dance to the priests and, later, presented a dialogue to the rest of the Spanish population in such a way that it “changed the opinion that up to that point had regarded the natives as being dumb, rude, or incapable.”
This same information is used by other authors, such as the Peruvian scholar Nicomedes Santa Cruz
Nicomedes Santa Cruz
Nicomedes Santa Cruz was an Afro-Peruvian musician who helped raise public awareness of Afro-Peruvian culture....
and the Bolivian anthropologist Freddy Arancibia Andrade, to suggest that the Spanish influence was spread to Oruro from the southern Bolivian region of Potosí
Potosí Department
Potosí Department is a department in southwestern Bolivia. It comprises 118,218 km² with 709,013 inhabitants . The capital is the city of Potosí....
. Andrade considers that the Diablada recovers the steps of rebellion and combat of the ritual of Tinku
Tinku
Tinku, an Andean tradition, began as a form of ritualistic combat. It is native to the northern region of Potosí in Bolivia. In the language of Quechua, the word “tinku” means encounter. In the language of Aymara it means “physical attack.” During this ritual, men and women from different...
mixed with the biblic vision introduced by the Spanish conquerors in the miner region of Aullagas starting in the year 1538.
Another piece of information collected by Andrade is that in 1780 the army of Tomás Katari
Tomás Katari
Tomás Katari or Catari was an Aymara chief who, in claiming indigenous rights, led a popular uprising in Upper Peru in the 18th century....
wore demon suits to attack the towns of Macha, Pocoata, Colquechaca, Aullagas and San Pedro de Buena Vista, giving more strength to the syncretism and represents the appearance of the tinku-devil. After the silver era in Bolivia, the miners went to Uncía to work for the tin company of Simón Iturri Patiño
Simón Iturri Patiño
Don Simón Iturri Patiño was a Bolivian industrialist who was among the world's wealthiest men at the time of his death. With a fortune built from ownership of a majority of the tin industry in Bolivia, Patiño was nicknamed "The Andean Rockefeller"...
and during the Bolivian federal war, the miners migrated to Oruro where in 1904 they were allowed to dance for the Virgin of Socavón.
Ball de diables theory
The Ball de diables has origins in a 12th century entremésEntremés
Entremés, is a short, comic theatrical performance of one act, usually played during the interlude of a performance of a long dramatic work, in the 16th and 17th centuries in Spain. Later it became the sainete....
representing the struggle between the good and the evil where the figure of the archangel Saint Michael
Michael (archangel)
Michael , Micha'el or Mîkhā'ēl; , Mikhaḗl; or Míchaël; , Mīkhā'īl) is an archangel in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic teachings. Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Lutherans refer to him as Saint Michael the Archangel and also simply as Saint Michael...
and his angels battled the forces of evil represented by Lucifer
Lucifer
Traditionally, Lucifer is a name that in English generally refers to the devil or Satan before being cast from Heaven, although this is not the original meaning of the term. In Latin, from which the English word is derived, Lucifer means "light-bearer"...
and his demons. This act was performed in the wedding banquet of the Barcelona count, Ramón Berenguer IV
Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona
Ramon Berenguer IV , sometimes called the Holy, was the Count of Barcelona who effected the union between the Kingdom of Aragon and the Principality of Catalonia into the Crown of Aragon....
with the princess Petronila
Petronila of Aragon
Petronilla of Aragon , whose name is also spelled Petronila or Petronella , was Queen regnant of Aragon from 1137 until 1164. She was the daughter and successor of Ramiro II by Agnes of Aquitaine...
, daughter of the king of Aragón
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
and Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
in the year 1150.
In a study presented in 2005 by the Catalonian scholar Jordi Rius i Mercade, member of the Ball de Sant Miquel i Diables de la Riera (board of the Ball de diables in Spain) and editor in chief of the specialized magazine El Dragabales during the Symposium of the Catalonian Discovery of America, states that the traditional dances and short plays performed during the celebration of Corpus Christi
Corpus Christi (feast)
Corpus Christi is a Latin Rite solemnity, now designated the solemnity of The Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ . It is also celebrated in some Anglican, Lutheran and Old Catholic Churches. Like Trinity Sunday and the Solemnity of Christ the King, it does not commemorate a particular event in...
in Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
were adopted by the Christian church
Christian Church
The Christian Church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ. The Greek term ἐκκλησία that in its appearances in the New Testament is usually translated as "church" basically means "assembly"...
to teach their doctrines to the native Americans; their festivities were readapted to the new calendar and their deities were redefined acquiring demoniac forms representing the evil fighting against the divine power. According to Rius i Mercade, the Ball de diables was the most suitable for this purpose. In this study, he identifies three Latin American dances that contain similar elements to the Catalonian Ball de diables; the Diablada of Oruro, Baile de Diablos de Cobán in Guatemala
Guatemala
Guatemala is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast...
and Danza de los diablicos de Túcume in Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
.
The Diablada of Oruro represents the tale of the struggle between the archangel Saint Michael and Lucifer, the she-devil China Supay and devils accompanying them. Ruis i Mercade suggests that this was a tale presented by the parish priest Ladislao Montealegre of the city of Oruro in 1818 inspired in the Catalonian Ball de diables.
Colonial history
During the colonial timesSpanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
in the region, from the 15th century till the first half of the 19th century, the ancient Andean beliefs were blended with the new Christian traditions. The traditions adopted new iconography and the celebrations adopted a new meaning during the Latin American wars of independence.
From the worship of the Sun to the Virgin of Candlemas
Isla del Sol
Isla del Sol is an island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca. It is part of the modern Plurinational State of Bolivia. Geographically, the terrain is harsh; it is a rocky, hilly island. There are no motor vehicles or paved roads on the island...
were replaced by ministers in worship of the sun (Inti
Inti
According to the Inca mythology, Inti is the sun god, as well a patron deity of the Inca Empire. His exact origin is not known. The most common story says he is the son of Viracocha, the god of civilization.- Worship :...
) and the city of Copacabana
Copacabana, Bolivia
Copacabana is the main Bolivian town on the shore of Lake Titicaca, from where boats leave for Isla del Sol, the sacred Inca island. The town has a large 16th-century shrine, the Basilica of Our Lady of Copacabana. Our Lady of Copacabana is the patron saint of Bolivia. The town is a destination for...
located in the Bolivian side of the Lake Titicaca
Lake Titicaca
Lake Titicaca is a lake located on the border of Peru and Bolivia. It sits 3,811 m above sea level, making it the highest commercially navigable lake in the world...
had been repopulated by forty-two different nations of mitimaes and became one of the most important landmarks for the constant pilgrimage to the sanctuary; with the migration, two social classes were created in this area, the newcomers became Anansaya (upper) and the indigenous people Urinsaya (lower).
The selection of the Virgin of the Candlemas
Virgin of Candelaria
The cult of the Virgin of Candelaria or Our Lady of Candelaria , popularly called La Morenita, celebrates an apparition of the Virgin Mary on the island of Tenerife, one of the Canary Islands . The center of worship is located in the city of Candelaria in Tenerife. She is depicted as a Black Madonna...
as the patroness of Copacabana was a sign of the power structures established by the Incas in the area. In the year 1582 a frost threatened to destroy the crops, and the inhabitants decided to build an altar to a Christian figure, but there was a dispute because the Anansayas insisted to use the Virgin of the Candlemas since Francisco Tito Yupanqui
Francisco Tito Yupanqui
Francisco Tito Yupanqui born 1550, died 1616 was a 16th century Roman Catholic sculptor, Marian devotee who sculptured a famous statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Bolivia, known as Our Lady of Candles , one of the most celebrated Marian images located at Lake Titicaca in Bolivia.Born of Tola and...
had already sculpted her image while the Urinsayas wanted it use the image of Saint Bartholomew instead. But the Anansayas wishes were imposed in the enthronement of the Virgin of Copacabana and the foundation of a brotherhood.
Independence and the transition to the Carnival
The cult of the Virgin of the Candlemas, was then spread throughout the Andes reaching, OruroOruro, Bolivia
Oruro is a city in Bolivia with a population of 235,393 , located about equidistant between La Paz and Sucre at approximately 3710 meters above sea level. It is the capital of the department of Oruro....
and to the west to Puno
Puno
Puno is a city in southeastern Peru, located on the shore of Lake Titicaca. It is the capital city of the Puno Region and the Puno Province with a population of approximately 100,000. The city was established in 1668 by viceroy Pedro Antonio Fernández de Castro as capital of the province of...
. In Oruro there is a Sanctuary in honour of the Virgin of Socavón (or Sanctuary of the Virgin of the Mineshaft) who was originally the Virgin of Candlemas traditionally honoured on 2 February, like in Puno, but later the date was moved to Carnival
Carnival
Carnaval is a festive season which occurs immediately before Lent; the main events are usually during February. Carnaval typically involves a public celebration or parade combining some elements of a circus, mask and public street party...
; this transition is product of the Bolivian War of Independence.
There is a legend that says that on the Saturday of Carnival in 1789 a bandit known as Nina-Nina or Chiru-Chiru was mortally wounded in a street fight and before dying he was confronted by the Virgin of the Candlemas. Some versions state that he used to worship a life-size image of the Virgin painted in a wall of a deserted house, some say that the painting miraculously appeared on the wall of the bandit's own house after his death. And the legend is concluded with the tale of the troupe of devils dancing in honour of the Virgin in the next year's Carnival. The present sanctuary in Oruro was completed in 1891.
However according to the Ph D in religious studies and Executive Director of the Wisconsin Humanities Council at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Max Harris, this legend is related to a historical reality. During the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II
Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II
The Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II was an uprising of native and mestizo peasants against the Bourbon reforms in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru...
, which started in Cusco
Cusco
Cusco , often spelled Cuzco , is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cuzco Province. In 2007, the city had a population of 358,935 which was triple the figure of 20 years ago...
and spread along the Andean highlands, Oruro experienced a brief but bloody revolution as well. Pushed by the fear of being target of the indigenous revolution, the majority Creole on the night of Saturday, 10 February 1781, attacked the minority ruling class of the peninsular-born Spaniards . With the arrival of the Indigenous army the Creoles made an alliance.
On 15 February, a messenger arrived in Oruro with orders from Túpac Amaru II
Túpac Amaru II
Túpac Amaru II was a leader of an indigenous uprising in 1780 against the Spanish in Peru...
. He instructed his army to respect churches and clergy, to do no harm to Creoles, and to prosecute none but chapetones. And assured the victory by entering in La Paz
La Paz
Nuestra Señora de La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia, as well as the departmental capital of the La Paz Department, and the second largest city in the country after Santa Cruz de la Sierra...
"by Carnival (por Carnestolendas)", the Indigenous occupation of Oruro started to retreat leaving several thousands of deaths. But during March and April they launched more attacks to the city this time against the Creoles and the remaining Spaniards who unified forces to repel them.
Harris observes that the Carnival of the year of 1781, fell on 24 February, placing Oruro's occupation exactly halfway between Candlemas and Carnival, making the situation in Oruro in Harris' words, "carnivalesque". Religious processions duelled with secular parades. Europeans and Creoles disguised as Indigenous, cases like a Spaniard resorting to cross-dressing tin a vain attempt to save his life and thousands of armed men in the streets of the colonial city. By 19 February people in the city regardless of the conflict continued celebrating and, throughout Carnival, the city markets were full of robbers selling the looted gold and silver back to its owners or to cholos and mestizos. By 1784 it was customary to rejoice, dance, play, and form comparsas (companies of masqueraders) for the Carnival in Oruro.
Harris considers that with this background is that the legend of the Virgin of the Mineshaft in 1789 appeared favouring the rebellion as they worshiped the Virgin of Candlemas while the chapetones used to worship the Virgin of the Rosary
Our Lady of the Rosary
Our Lady of the Rosary is a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary in relation to the rosary....
. Under the beliefs of the revolutionaries, the Virgin of the Socavón tolerated the indigenous deities or devils and, according to Harris, if the legend is correct, by 1790, Oruro's miners had moved Candlemas to Carnival and added indigenous gods, masked as Christian devils, to the festivities.
In 1818, Oruro's parish priest, Ladislao Montealegre, wrote the play Narrative of the seven deadly sins, where according to Harris and Fortún, borrowed elements of the Catalonian Ball de diables
Ball de diables
The Ball de diables is one of the most deeply-routed traditions initially in Catalonia, and subsequently in the Valencian Community, where it's called Correfocs , and the Balearic Islands...
like the female devil, Diablesa in the Catalonian dance and China supay in the Diablada and where the Devil leads the Seven Deadly Sins into battle against the opposing Virtues and an angel. Harris suggests that Montealegre may have wanted to represent the threat of rebellion and the historical context with this play.
A generation later, in 1825 after Bolivia achieved its independence, the Diablada and the Carnival adopted a new meaning for Oruro's residents. Two of the Diablada dance squads and the street from where the parade starts are named after Sebastian Pagador, one of the Creole heroes of the uprising. And the main square which is in the route of the Carnival to the Virgin of the Mineshaft temple is named Plaza 10 de febrero (10 February square) remembering the date of the uprising.
Choreography
In its original form, the dance was performed to accompany a band of SikuriSikuri
Sikuri is a musical style from Peru and Bolivia, the kind of huayño, consisting of siku players and drum accompaniment. There are usually around twenty siku players. As each siku cannot play all the notes of a scale, the siku players use an interlocking technique to play the entire melody...
s, which were a group of musicians playing the Siku
Siku (panpipe)
The Siku , is a traditional Andean panpipe. This instrument is the main instrument used in a musical genre known as the Sikuri. It is traditionally found all across the Andes but is more typically associated with music from the Kollasuyo, or Aymara speaking regions around Lake Titicaca...
. Nowadays, the Diablada in the Altiplano is accompanied by band and orchestra. The uniformity of the suits brought choreographic innovation, with the layout of steps, movements, and figure designs that are not only ready to be staged in open areas such as roads, streets, and public squares; but also in places such as theaters and arena
Arena
An arena is an enclosed area, often circular or oval-shaped, designed to showcase theater, musical performances, or sporting events. It is composed of a large open space surrounded on most or all sides by tiered seating for spectators. The key feature of an arena is that the event space is the...
s. At the start of the krewe
Krewe
A krewe is an organization that puts on a parade and or a ball for the Carnival season. The term is best known for its association with New Orleans Mardi Gras, but is also used in other Carnival celebrations around the Gulf of Mexico, such as the Gasparilla Pirate Festival in Tampa, Florida, and...
are Lucifer and Satan with several China Supay, or devil women. They are followed by the personified seven deadly sins
Seven deadly sins
The 7 Deadly Sins, also known as the Capital Vices or Cardinal Sins, is a classification of objectionable vices that have been used since early Christian times to educate and instruct followers concerning fallen humanity's tendency to sin...
of pride, greed, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, and sloth. Afterwards, a troop of devils come out. They are all led by Saint Michael, with a blouse, short skirt, sword, and shield.
During the dance, angel
Angel
Angels are mythical beings often depicted as messengers of God in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles along with the Quran. The English word angel is derived from the Greek ἄγγελος, a translation of in the Hebrew Bible ; a similar term, ملائكة , is used in the Qur'an...
s and demon
Demon
call - 1347 531 7769 for more infoIn Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered an "unclean spirit" which may cause demonic possession, to be addressed with an act of exorcism...
s are constantly moving around while forming somewhat complex figures such as crosses and circles. This confrontation between the two sides is eclipsed when Saint Michael appears, battles, and defeats the Devil. Both characters are dressed in heavy costumes that are highly ornate and finely wrought. The weight of the costume is more of a challenge than an obstacle for the different dance groups. The dancers often attempt to make unique and complex choreographies. The result is a colourful dance, creating a show very much appreciated by the public.
The choreography have three versions, each conformed by seven moves.
First version
- Greetings: The dance starts with formations and greetings to the Virgin. The characters are displayed in two columns with the evil characters (SatanSatanSatan , "the opposer", is the title of various entities, both human and divine, who challenge the faith of humans in the Hebrew Bible...
, LuciferLuciferTraditionally, Lucifer is a name that in English generally refers to the devil or Satan before being cast from Heaven, although this is not the original meaning of the term. In Latin, from which the English word is derived, Lucifer means "light-bearer"...
and China Supay) to one side, the Archangel Saint MichaelMichael (archangel)Michael , Micha'el or Mîkhā'ēl; , Mikhaḗl; or Míchaël; , Mīkhā'īl) is an archangel in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic teachings. Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Lutherans refer to him as Saint Michael the Archangel and also simply as Saint Michael...
to the other and the CondorCondorCondor is the name for two species of New World vultures, each in a monotypic genus. They are the largest flying land birds in the Western Hemisphere.They are:* The Andean Condor which inhabits the Andean mountains....
in the middle. In formation they greet the rest of the devils to both sides. - Movings: The devils start their greetings in groups of four jumping bouncing on one or other foot.
- Crossings of devil's step: S-shape crossings in couples and individuals.
- Curl: One column starts a spiral advancing to the centre then the other. Satan and Lucifer stand in the shoulders of several devils to tell their tale.
- Star: Represents the rebellion of the rest of the devils against the angel. The figure represented is an inverted PentagramPentagramA pentagram is the shape of a five-pointed star drawn with five straight strokes...
as the Sigil of BaphometSigil of BaphometThe Sigil of Baphomet is the official insignium of the Church of Satan. It is also a symbol that is used by several other organizations, usually those associated with Satanism and the Left-Hand Path....
or the Signature of the Devil. Once the devils are knelled the angel enters marching. - Star banish: Once the angel says "Oh evil spirits, get out of these places" the star is dissolved, the angel pronounces a speech and the devils representing the seven deadly sinsSeven deadly sinsThe 7 Deadly Sins, also known as the Capital Vices or Cardinal Sins, is a classification of objectionable vices that have been used since early Christian times to educate and instruct followers concerning fallen humanity's tendency to sin...
confessConfessionThis article is for the religious practice of confessing one's sins.Confession is the acknowledgment of sin or wrongs...
towards the angel whoo says "Against arrogance" and the devil yells "Humility!" and regretful and with the head low retires to his row, once the sins are defeated the devils are under the command of the angel and the triumph or joy dance is interpreted. - Squads: Formations with jump-step in rows of four, three, two, and one in front of the angel.
Second version
- Movings: In each column there are two leaders named guides or back-guides. The Archangel Saint Michael directs the moves with a whistle, to its signal the devils come from outside to the place of the angel while the China Supay, Satan and Lucifer switch places with him. To the second signal the devils do the same move but jumping. In the centre there is a complementary character such as the bear or condor.
- Curl: The spiral is formed and the guides or back-guides hold Satan in their shoulders who pronounces his speech. Then the band plays a slow march and the angel enters with martial step and with a cross and a mirror dazzles the devils and they return to their original places.
- Street: There is a representation of the struggle between Lucifer and the angel who wins, then Satan comes to defend his friend and is defeated too. Finally the she-devil China Spuay representing sin and flesh comes and is defeated as well. Then the angel returns to his original position.
- Squads: The China Supay and the angel on one side and Lucifer and Satan to the other dancing make switches and the devils greet them in groups of four and two.
- Star: The shape is formed and with the signal of the whistle the devils kneel, the band plays a slow march and the angel enters to the centre and the star is dissolved calling to the seven deadly sins who defeated go back to their places. Then the guides switch places.
- Chain: The dancers do a double chain and dancing holding by their arms first with the right arm then with the left one and going back to their places.
- End: The devils go to the centre in groups of four, three two and one finishing the show.
Third version
The third version is the one performed by the squad Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro.Introduction Devil's walk: The devils in the left column start the movement while the ones in the right one follow them. Lucifer and Satan are named the "Kings", they are placed behind followed by the Angel and the China Supay and the band to the right side behind the second column of devils. The Kings break the formation followed by the devils, and the Condor and Bear who stay in the middle. Then the Angel and the China Supay go forward passing the middle ones by the side.
- The greet: The Kings in the front corners, the Angel and the China Supay in the back corners, and the Bear in the middle. Each perform a greeting movement.
- Curl: The devils go to the back then the left column go forward and Lucifer who is in the front meets them in the middle while the circle closes around him, he is picked up for his dialogue with Satan or to be cheered.
- Star: The devils form the star then kneel and stand up again.
- By four: The squad advances in groups of four, then breaking the formation retiring themselves to each column.
- By three: The same movement but this time in groups of three.
- By two: Same movement as the two previous ones in couples.
- By one: The devils go to the back by the side followed by the Kings, the angel and the China Supay then advance in zig zag drawing a snake, then leaving the scenario led by the Kings.
Music
The music associated with the dance has two parts: the first which is known as the March and the second one named the Devil's Mecapaqueña, some squads play only one melody or start the Mecapaqueña in the fourth movement "by four". Since the second half of the 20th century "the dialogue" is omitted focusing only in the dance.Oruro
Pre-Columbian
The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during...
period of the Urus
Uros
The Uros are a pre-Incan people who live on forty-two self-fashioned floating islands in Lake Titicaca Puno, Peru and Bolivia. They form three main groups: Uru-Chipayas, Uru-Muratos and the Uru-Iruitos...
who used to practice this dance in honour of the god Wari (also known as Huaricato or Huari). With the arrival of the Spanish conquerors and the evangelicalism
Evangelicalism
Evangelicalism is a Protestant Christian movement which began in Great Britain in the 1730s and gained popularity in the United States during the series of Great Awakenings of the 18th and 19th century.Its key commitments are:...
, this divinity gradually personified the devil. The iconography depicted in the current suits, such as the snake, frog and ants, respond to the Uru mythology with the belief that if Wari wouldn't protect them they'd be destroyed by those creatures. Wari after petrifying the creatures retired to the depths of the mountains.
The Bolivian anthropologist, Milton Eyzaguirre, based on a 16th century chronicle of Bartolomé de Álvarez commented that in the Andean region of Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
, a cult in honour of the dead, named cupay, was practised. Over the centuries the cupay derived in supay, the figure of the devil in the modern Diablada. In pre-Columbian times the dead season started in November with the crop season, the conquerors made efforts to coincide the Andean calendar with their festivities, such as the carnival.
The Diablada as is danced today in was originally the accompaniment of a theatrical play. In Bolivia there are two versions of this play preserved by Julia Elena Fortún
Julia Elena Fortún
Julia Elena Fortún Melgarejo, was born in the city of Sucre, Bolivia but lived in La Paz since her youth. She's a historian, anthropologist and enthomusicologist, pioneer in this last field in her country....
. The oldest of these pieces belongs to the 16th century when in the parties of the city of Potosí
Potosí
Potosí is a city and the capital of the department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world by elevation at a nominal . and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint, now the National Mint of Bolivia...
in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, this play tells the story of Lucifer
Lucifer
Traditionally, Lucifer is a name that in English generally refers to the devil or Satan before being cast from Heaven, although this is not the original meaning of the term. In Latin, from which the English word is derived, Lucifer means "light-bearer"...
who, riding a horse, delivers a letter to be read to the public telling that Proserpina
Proserpina
Proserpina or Proserpine is an ancient Roman goddess whose story is the basis of a myth of Springtime. Her Greek goddess' equivalent is Persephone. The probable origin of her name comes from the Latin, "proserpere" or "to emerge," in respect to the growing of grain...
, the goddess of hell, was the most beautiful. A gentleman, representing the church, faces the demon defending Virgin Mary as the most beautiful. In the play after this dialogue a tournament started with fireworks and artillery shots followed by a squad of light cavalry of demons wearing black clothes and torches leading a chariot with snakes carrying Proserpina.
Seven deadly sins
The 7 Deadly Sins, also known as the Capital Vices or Cardinal Sins, is a classification of objectionable vices that have been used since early Christian times to educate and instruct followers concerning fallen humanity's tendency to sin...
written by the parish priest Ladislao Montealegre, and with the Bolivian War of Independence the parade was moved to Carnival. By the 19th century the tradition had profound roots with the mining and the devotion to the Virgin of Socavón and, as it was recorded in the newspapers of that time, the dancers made offerings to the feet of the Virgin after the parade. At the beginning it was considered a working class custom but by the ends of the 19th century and beginnings of the 20th century the tradition was popularized reaching all groups of the Oruro society.
The first institutionalized dance squad is the Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro founded in 25 November 1904 by Pedro Pablo Corrales, followed by a Tradicional Folklórica Diablada de Oruro (1943), Diablada Círculo de Artes y Letras (1943) and the Fraternidad Artística y Cultural ´La Diablada´ (1944). The squad founded by Pedro Pablo Corrales travelled to Peru in 1918 teaching to the squad Los Vaporinos the dance. In 1956 this dance entered Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
brought by the squad Diablada Ferroviaria of Oruro which was invited to participate in the Tirana festivities
Fiesta de La Tirana
Fiesta de la Tirana is an annual festival held in the locality of La Tirana in Tarapacá Region of northern Chile. The celebration takes place on July 16 in honor of Virgen del Carmen...
of that year. The Chilean citizen, Gregorio Ordenes, was inspired by this visit to form the first Chilean Diablada squad Primera Diablada Servidores Virgen del Carmen in Iquique
Iquique
Iquique is a port city and commune in northern Chile, capital of both the Iquique Province and Tarapacá Region. It lies on the Pacific coast, west of the Atacama Desert and the Pampa del Tamarugal. It had a population of 216,419 as of the 2002 census...
.
In the year 2001, the Carnival of Oruro
Carnaval de Oruro
The Carnival of Oruro is a more than 2000 year old religious celebration that, through creativity, continuity, and ritual, came to constitute a model of "Masterpieces of Oral Heritage and Intangible Heritage of Humanity...
was declared one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
The Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity was made by the Director-General of UNESCO starting in 2001 to raise awareness on intangible cultural heritage and encourage local communities to protect them and the local people who sustain these forms of cultural...
where the Diablada along with 19 other dances were registered as part of the festivity. And in the year 2004 the squad Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro in its 100th anniversary received the Cóndor de Los Andes award, the highest distinction given by the Bolivian government.
Puno
The Diablada Puneña is inspired in the Lupakas people when they presented their version of the Autos Sacramentales taught by the Spanish Jesuit priests in 1576 in the city of JuliJuli
In the German, Dutch, Scandinavian, South Slavic , and Indonesian languages, the name for "July" , but also:* The name of a female...
in present-day Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
. Nevertheless, the dance holds Native American roots from the cult of Anchanchu
Anchanchu
In Aymara mythology, Anchanchu is a terrible demon which haunts caves, rivers, and other isolated places. This deity is closely related to the Uru god Tiw....
, a pre-Hispanic Aymara deity, and the narrative of the Myth of the Supaya. The dance's association with the cult of the Virgin of Candelaria stems from a popular legend that tells that in 1675, in the mine of Laikakota (located near Puno), a Spaniard by the name of José Salcedo changed his decision to destroy the miner's houses because he saw a fire coming out of the mine as a result of the Virgin Mary fighting the Devil inside the mine.
According to historian Enrique Cuentas Ormachea, until 1965 the Diablada Puneña was very different from the Diablada of Oruro when the group Los Vaporinos (formed by workers from the Peruvian Corp that worked in Lake Titicaca
Lake Titicaca
Lake Titicaca is a lake located on the border of Peru and Bolivia. It sits 3,811 m above sea level, making it the highest commercially navigable lake in the world...
) began to dance in the Fiesta de la Candelaria
Fiesta de la Candelaria (Puno)
The Fiesta de la Candelaria is a festival in honor of the Virgin of Candelaria, patron saint of the city of Puno in Peru, held in the first fortnight of February each year. It is one of the largest festivals of culture, music and dancing in Peru...
with costumes and bands from Bolivia. Despite this, due to budget restrictions, the groups from Puno couldn't afford hiring Bolivian bands and started using their traditional groupings of Sicu-Morenos, such as the orchestra Sikuris del Barrio Mañazo (whom integrated this dance in 1922). Nowadays, the dance still maintains its differences from the Diablada of Oruro and integrates new characters such as Superman
Superman
Superman is a fictional comic book superhero appearing in publications by DC Comics, widely considered to be an American cultural icon. Created by American writer Jerry Siegel and Canadian-born American artist Joe Shuster in 1932 while both were living in Cleveland, Ohio, and sold to Detective...
, Redskins
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
, the Mexican
Mexican people
Mexican people refers to all persons from Mexico, a multiethnic country in North America, and/or who identify with the Mexican cultural and/or national identity....
, and others taken from films.
Since its beginnings, the performance had a variety of changes. Originally the masks were made from plaster
Plaster
Plaster is a building material used for coating walls and ceilings. Plaster starts as a dry powder similar to mortar or cement and like those materials it is mixed with water to form a paste which liberates heat and then hardens. Unlike mortar and cement, plaster remains quite soft after setting,...
and the hair from baize
Baize
Baize is a coarse woollen cloth, sometimes called felt in American English based on a similarity in appearance.-Usage:...
(a coarse woollen cloth). Overtime, the mask models were influenced by Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
an masks as well as elements from Native American cultures such as Sechin
Séchin
Séchin is a commune in the Doubs department in the Franche-Comté region in eastern France.-History:The village was burned in 1944 in reprisal for an attack on a German convoy. It was rebuilt in the early 1950s.-Population:-External links:*...
, Chavin
Chavin
Chavin may refer to:* Chavín culture, an early culture of the Andean region, pre-dating the Moche culture in Peru* Chavín de Huantar, an archaeological site built by the Chavín culture* Chavin, Indre, a commune of the Indre département in France...
, Nazca
Nazca
Nazca is a system of valleys on the southern coast of Peru, and the name of the region's largest existing town in the Nazca Province. It is also the name applied to the Nazca culture that flourished in the area between 300 BC and AD 800...
, and Mochica. These masks were traditionally made by each dancer or bought from a Bolivian mask-maker named Antonio Vizacarra, but in 1956 the brothers Alberto and Ramón Velásquez established a workshop in Puno where masks were created and sold for the event. Also, the Diablada was at first small and reserved for important religious dates in the Catholic Church. As the dance further developed, the devil dancers began to accompany groups of Sikuri
Sikuri
Sikuri is a musical style from Peru and Bolivia, the kind of huayño, consisting of siku players and drum accompaniment. There are usually around twenty siku players. As each siku cannot play all the notes of a scale, the siku players use an interlocking technique to play the entire melody...
s, which are an assemblage of musicians that play the Siku
Siku (panpipe)
The Siku , is a traditional Andean panpipe. This instrument is the main instrument used in a musical genre known as the Sikuri. It is traditionally found all across the Andes but is more typically associated with music from the Kollasuyo, or Aymara speaking regions around Lake Titicaca...
(the traditional Andean panpipe). Among the first Sikuris that surged at this point were those of the Barrio Mañazo (1892) and Juventud Obrera (1909). Nevertheless, anthropologist José María Arguedas
José María Arguedas
José María Arguedas Altamirano was a Peruvian novelist, poet, and anthropologist who wrote mainly in Spanish, although some of his poetry is in Quechua...
suggests that eventually the role of the Sikuris was minimized to the point that they began to accompany the devil dancers under the new name of Sicu-Morenos. The Sicu-Morenos play with sicus, bombos, snare drums, cymbals, and triangles; and they dance Huayno
Huayno
Huayno is a genre of popular Andean Music and dance from Andean countries. It is especially common in Peru. It originated in Serrania, Peru as a combination of traditional rural folk music and popular urban dance music...
s while accompanied by characters such as Caporales, minor devils, Chinas Diablas, the old man, the big-lipped negro, the Apache, the lion, the bat, the condor, the bear, the gorilla, and the giraffe (among others). These characters, along with the central performance of the devil dancers and the archangel Saint Michael, make the Diablada Puneña one of the dances in the Fiesta de la Candelaria.
La Tirana
The Diablada in Chile form part of the Tirana festivities, or Fiesta de La TiranaFiesta de La Tirana
Fiesta de la Tirana is an annual festival held in the locality of La Tirana in Tarapacá Region of northern Chile. The celebration takes place on July 16 in honor of Virgen del Carmen...
, a festival of the northern region of that country. The town of La Tirana
La Tirana
La Tirana is a Chilean town in the commune of Pozo Almonte in El Tamarugal Province, Tarapacá Region. The town lies in an oasis in the middle of the Pampa del Tamarugal, about 72 km inland from the port of Iquique....
is located at 84 kilometres from the city of Iquique
Iquique
Iquique is a port city and commune in northern Chile, capital of both the Iquique Province and Tarapacá Region. It lies on the Pacific coast, west of the Atacama Desert and the Pampa del Tamarugal. It had a population of 216,419 as of the 2002 census...
with a population of less than 400 inhabitants but during the week of the festivities, which are held in the week of 12 to 16 July, it receives nearly 120,000 visitors. A documentary broadcast by Iquique TV (A Chilean television station) asserts that the dance has its roots in miners of Oruro.
The sanctuary of the Virgin of Carmen
Our Lady of Mount Carmel
Our Lady of Mount Carmel is the title given to the Blessed Virgin Mary in her role as patroness of the Carmelite Order. The first Carmelites were Christian hermits living on Mount Carmel in the Holy Land during the late 12th and early to mid 13th centuries...
was built in the region in the year 1540 and since then the festival is made in her honour in that locality with different dances.
There are two kinds of squad organization:
- Ancient type: with a structure not too differenced, traditional type authority, paternalistic, religiously guarantee, The power is in one person who is representative of a familiar clan.
- Modern type: has a differenced internal structure, with defined statutes and rules. Tend to be named dance society. There are managers and a director, they are responsible of the social life of the group. There is the figure of the Caporal as well, who has the authority with respect to the religious activities.
The first Diablada squad in Chile was founded in the city of Iquique by Gregorio Ordenes in 1956 under the name of Primera Diablada Servidores Virgen del Carmen after the visit of the Bolivian squad Diablada Ferroviaria to the festival of that year.
See also
- Carnaval de OruroCarnaval de OruroThe Carnival of Oruro is a more than 2000 year old religious celebration that, through creativity, continuity, and ritual, came to constitute a model of "Masterpieces of Oral Heritage and Intangible Heritage of Humanity...
- Diablada of Oruro
- Diablada PuneñaDiablada puneñaDiablada puneña, is the variation of the dance known as diablada as it is performed in the region of Puno, Peru. The origin of this dance is a matter of dispute between Bolivia and Peru, because both nations celebrate the Diablada with similar music, songs, and clothing.The Diablada puneña is part...
- Fiesta de la CandelariaFiesta de la Candelaria (Puno)The Fiesta de la Candelaria is a festival in honor of the Virgin of Candelaria, patron saint of the city of Puno in Peru, held in the first fortnight of February each year. It is one of the largest festivals of culture, music and dancing in Peru...
- Fiesta de La TiranaFiesta de La TiranaFiesta de la Tirana is an annual festival held in the locality of La Tirana in Tarapacá Region of northern Chile. The celebration takes place on July 16 in honor of Virgen del Carmen...