Christianity in Japan
Encyclopedia
Christianity
is a minority religion in Japan, with less than one percent claiming Christian
belief or affiliation. Nearly all known traditional denominations of Christianity, including Roman Catholicism, Protestantism
and Orthodox Christianity
are represented in Japan
today.
The root of the Japanese word for comes from the Japanese katakana transcription of the word , Portuguese word for Christ, and the Japanese word for .
. While there may be up to 3 million Japanese Christians, Christianity in Japan is spread among many denominational affiliations. 70% of Japanese churches have an average attendance of less than 30, though membership is double this figure.
(a Japanese creation). Rather than being a family or religious occasion, Christmas is a time to spend with friends and a significant other. Christmas Eve
is celebrated as a couple's holiday on which romantic gifts are exchanged. Valentine's Day in Japan is also celebrated, but the tradition is reversed – women give men a gift of chocolate, and on White Day
the favor is returned. Gifts are not exclusive to romantic relationships; in fact, it is somewhat customary for women to give their male co-workers chocolate. It is not as common for couples to go out on dates together; that element seems to be reflected in Christmas Eve instead.
ceremonies. Architecturally resembling churches, wedding chapel
s have sprung up across Japan, with employees dressed as priests officiating.
Black gospel music
has had an enthusiastic reception in Japan. Stylistic elements from this genre are employed in many J-pop
songs.
Catholicism in Japan exists in communion with the worldwide Roman Catholic Church under the authority of the Pope
in Rome. Presently there are about 509,000 Catholics in 16 dioceses in Japan. The patron saints of Japan are Francis Xavier
and Peter Baptist.
Arriving in Japan in the middle of the 16th century, Catholicism was the first known organized denomination to establish a presence in Japan, and the only major source of Christianization in Japan until the fall of the shogunate and the Meiji restoration
. Christianity was proclaimed initially by the Society of Jesus
, joined later on by the less cautious Franciscan order
. In 1570 there were 20 Catholic missionaries in Japan, the most famous of whom was Francis Xavier
, who arrived in 1549. Nagasaki
became the center of Japanese Catholicism, and maintained close cultural and religious ties to its Portuguese
origins. These ties were severed once Christianity was outlawed; at this point, Catholicism went underground, its rites preserved by the Kakure Kirishitan
, or "hidden Christians", who continued practicing their faith in secret. Some Japanese Catholics were killed for their faith, thus becoming martyrs
. Many of these martyrs have been canonized by the Church, and their feast is still kept by Catholics as a universal memorial on February 6 each year.
In 1981, Pope John Paul II
paid a visit to Japan, during which he met with Japanese people, the clergy, and Catholic lay people, held Holy Mass in the Korakuen Stadium
(Tokyo), and visited the Peace Memorial Park in Hiroshima
, the Hill of Martyrs in Nagasaki, town of the Immaculate founded by St. Maximilian Kolbe
in Nagasaki, and other places.
, M.D.
, LL.D. (March 13, 1815 – June 11, 1911) was the first Protestant missionary
to Japan. In 1859, Hepburn went to Japan
as a medical missionary with the American Presbyterian Mission
. He opened a clinic in the Kanagawa Prefecture
, near present-day Tokyo
. He later founded the Hepburn School, which developed into Meiji Gakuin University
, and wrote a Japanese–English dictionary. In the dictionary's third edition, published in 1886, Hepburn adopted a new system for romanization
of the Japanese language (Rōmajikai). This system is widely known as Hepburn romanization
because Hepburn's dictionary popularized it. Hepburn also contributed to the Protestant translation of the Bible
into Japanese. Hepburn returned to the United States in 1892. On March 14, 1905, Hepburn's 90th birthday, he was awarded the decoration of the Order of the Rising Sun
, third class. Hepburn was the second foreigner to receive this honor.
Presbyterian minister Divie Bethune McCartee
was the first ordained Protestant Christian mission
ary to visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospel tract
translated into Japanese
was the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865 McCartee moved back to Ningbo, China
, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan re-opened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during the Shōwa period
. The post-World War II
years have seen increasing activity by evangelicals, initially with American influence, and some growth occurred between 1945 and 1960. The Japanese Bible Society was established in 1937 with the help of National Bible Society of Scotland (NBSS, now called the Scottish Bible Society
), the American Bible Society
, the British and Foreign Bible Society
.
. Originally founded in 1891, the cathedral has been known as Nikolai-do in honor of its founder Nicholas Kasatkin, now venerated as St. Nicholas of Japan. The cathedral serves as the seat of the national primate
of Japan and continues to be the main center of Orthodox worship in Japan.
Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin), who was sent in 1861 by the Russian Orthodox Church
to Hakodate, Hokkaidō
as priest to a chapel of the Russian Consulate. St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of the New Testament
and some other religious books (Lent Triodion
, Pentecostarion
, Feast Services
, Book of Psalms, Irmologion
) into Japanese. Nicholas has since been glorified by the Patriarch of Moscow in 1970, and is now recognized as St. Nicholas, Equal-to-the-Apostles to Japan. His commemoration day is February 16. Andronic Nikolsky
, appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto
and later martyred as the archbishop of Perm
during the Russian Revolution, was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000.
was 218,091 active publishers, united in 3,177 congregations; 332,986 people attended annual celebration of Lord's Evening Meal in 2009. Before 1945 they were banned in Japan. Many Jehovah's Witnesses were jailed; one of them, Katsuo Miura, was in the Hiroshima
prison during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.
, existed in Japan before the arrival of Xavier.
Catholics in 1549. Francis Xavier
arrived in Japan with three Japanese Catholic converts intending to start a church in the Nagasaki
area. The local Japanese people
initially assumed that the foreigners were from India and that Christianity was a new "Indian faith". These mistaken impressions were due to already existing ties between the Portuguese and India; the Indian city of Goa
was a central base for the Portuguese East India Company
at the time, and a significant portion of the crew on board their ships were Indian Christians
. Later on, the Roman Catholic missionary activities were exclusively performed by Portuguese
-sponsored Jesuits and Spanish
-sponsored mendicant
orders, such as the Franciscans and Dominicans
. Francisco Xavier
(a Catholic Saint), Cosme de Torres (a Jesuit priest), and John Fernandez were the first who arrived in Kagoshima with hopes to bring Christianity and Catholicism to Japan. Xavier and the Jesuit order was held in good esteem and his efforts seemed to have been rewarded with a thriving community of converts. At baptism, these converts were given Portuguese "Christian names" and encouraged to adopt Western culture. This practice contributed to suspicions that the converts were in reality foreign agents working to subvert social order.In the source, this claim is made of all of Xavier's converts in general across Asia, including Japanese converts as well Under Oda Nobunaga
, the Jesuits enjoyed the favor of the shogunate, but the situation began to change once Toyotomi Hideyoshi
's suspicions were aroused against Christianity.
, Catholic Christianity was repressed and adherents were persecuted. During these times, many Christians were killed in Japan, some by crucifixion
; most famously, the twenty-six martyrs of Japan were tortured and crucified on crosses outside Nagasaki to discourage Christianity in 1597. Following a brief respite that occurred as Tokugawa Ieyasu
rose to power and pursued trade with the Portuguese powers, there were further persecutions and martyrdoms in 1613, 1630, and 1632. By this point, after the Shimabara Rebellion
, the remaining Christians had been forced to publicly renounce their faith. Many continued practicing Christianity in secret, in modern times becoming known as the . These secret believers would often conceal Christian iconography within closed shrines, lanterns or inconspicuous parts of buildings. For example, Himeji Castle
has a Christian cross on one of its 17th-century roof tiles, in place of a mon, indicating that one of its occupants was a secret Christian. Drawn from the oral histories of Japanese Catholic communities, Shusaku Endo
's acclaimed historical novel "Silence
" provides detailed fictionalised accounts of the persecution of Christian communities and the suppression of the Church.
, freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching. Since World War II the number of Japanese Christians has been slowly increasing.
and Hosokawa Gracia
. Among the original twenty-six martyrs of Japan, Paulo Miki
is the best known. Catholics venerate him as one of the patron saint
s of Japan.
Christianity in the Meiji-period
saw several major educators and Christian converts as follows: (1861–1930), a Protestant, a headmaster of a head of the First Higher School. He was also the founder of Nonchurch movement
, one of the earliest indigenous Japanese Christian movements. His autobiography , focusing on his conversion influenced young generations in those days. (1843–1890), a Protestant and the founder of Doshisha University
. (1862–1933), a Protestant and the founder of Tokyo Woman's Christian University
. (1864–1929), a Protestant and the founder of Joshi Eigaku Juku (today Tsuda College
).
In the 20th century, two major contributors to Protestant Christian theology
emerged in Japan: , who has been described as a leading contributor to global Christianity, and , who wrote . Social rights activist and author , who was nominated for both the Nobel Peace Prize and the Nobel Prize in Literature, has also become known outside Japan.
(3 December 1902–30 May 1976) was a Captain
in the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
and a bomber pilot in the Imperial Japanese Navy
before and during World War II
. After World War II ended, Fuchida became a Christian
and an evangelistic
preacher. In 1952, Fuchida toured the United States as a member of the Worldwide Christian Missionary Army of Sky Pilots. Fuchida spent the rest of his life telling others what God had done for him around the world. In February 1954, Reader's Digest
published Fuchida's story of the attack on Pearl Harbor. He also wrote and co-wrote books including, From Pearl Harbor to Golgotha (aka From Pearl Harbor to Calvary). His story is told in God's Samurai: Lead Pilot at Pearl Harbor (The Warriors).
was a Japanese
diplomat
who served as Vice Consul for the Japanese Empire in Lithuania
. In 1935 he converted to Orthodox Christianity
while serving in China as a diplomat. During World War II
, he helped several thousand Jews leave the country by issuing transit visas to Jewish refugees so that they could travel to Japan. Most of the Jews who escaped were refugees from German-occupied Poland
or residents of Lithuania. Sugihara wrote travel visas that facilitated the escape of more than 6,000 Jewish refugees to Japanese territory, risking his career and his family's life. In 1985, Israel
honored him as Righteous Among the Nations
for his actions.
The 20th century also saw two Christian novelists of renown: was a Protestant writer known for her works, one of the most influential being . was a Catholic novelist renowned for his works focusing on Christianity in Japan, including .
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
is a minority religion in Japan, with less than one percent claiming Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
belief or affiliation. Nearly all known traditional denominations of Christianity, including Roman Catholicism, Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
and Orthodox Christianity
Orthodox Christianity
The term Orthodox Christianity may refer to:* the Eastern Orthodox Church and its various geographical subdivisions...
are represented in Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
today.
The root of the Japanese word for comes from the Japanese katakana transcription of the word , Portuguese word for Christ, and the Japanese word for .
Christian culture
Japan remains one of the most secular nations in the world according to the World Values SurveyWorld Values Survey
The World Values Survey is a global research project that explores people’s values and beliefs, how they change over time and what social and political impact they have. It is carried out by a worldwide network of social scientists who, since 1981, have conducted representative national surveys in...
. While there may be up to 3 million Japanese Christians, Christianity in Japan is spread among many denominational affiliations. 70% of Japanese churches have an average attendance of less than 30, though membership is double this figure.
Christian holidays
Christmas in Japan is celebrated as a commercial and secular festival, but is not an official holiday. It is a time for Christmas lights and Santa Claus, parties, gift exchanges, and eating things like Christmas cakeChristmas cake
Christmas cake is a type of fruitcake served at Christmas time in the UK, Ireland, Japan, Philippines and many Commonwealth countries.A Christmas cake may be light or dark, crumbly-moist to sticky-wet, spongy to heavy, leavened or unleavened, shaped round, square or oblong as whole cakes, fairy...
(a Japanese creation). Rather than being a family or religious occasion, Christmas is a time to spend with friends and a significant other. Christmas Eve
Christmas Eve
Christmas Eve refers to the evening or entire day preceding Christmas Day, a widely celebrated festival commemorating the birth of Jesus of Nazareth that takes place on December 25...
is celebrated as a couple's holiday on which romantic gifts are exchanged. Valentine's Day in Japan is also celebrated, but the tradition is reversed – women give men a gift of chocolate, and on White Day
White Day
is a day that is marked in Japan and South Korea on March 14, one month after Valentine's Day.-In Japan:In Japan, Valentine's Day is observed by females who present chocolate gifts , usually to a male, as an expression of love, courtesy or social obligation...
the favor is returned. Gifts are not exclusive to romantic relationships; in fact, it is somewhat customary for women to give their male co-workers chocolate. It is not as common for couples to go out on dates together; that element seems to be reflected in Christmas Eve instead.
Christian expression
Christian weddings have become prominent as an alternative (or addition to) traditional ShintoShinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
ceremonies. Architecturally resembling churches, wedding chapel
Wedding chapel
A wedding chapel is a place, other than a legal court, and usually also, other than a church, where couples can get legally married. A church may also be used as a wedding chapel, but churches are usually called that by the marrying couple when the ceremony only involves those contracting matrimony...
s have sprung up across Japan, with employees dressed as priests officiating.
Black gospel music
Urban contemporary gospel
Traditional black gospel is music that is written to express either personal or a communal belief regarding Christian life, as well as to give a Christian alternative to mainstream secular music...
has had an enthusiastic reception in Japan. Stylistic elements from this genre are employed in many J-pop
J-pop
, an abbreviation for Japanese pop, is a musical genre that entered the musical mainstream of Japan in the 1990s. Modern J-pop has its roots in 1960s music, such as The Beatles, and replaced kayōkyoku in the Japanese music scene...
songs.
Roman Catholic Church in Japan
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
in Rome. Presently there are about 509,000 Catholics in 16 dioceses in Japan. The patron saints of Japan are Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta was a pioneering Roman Catholic missionary born in the Kingdom of Navarre and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He was a student of Saint Ignatius of Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits, dedicated at Montmartre in 1534...
and Peter Baptist.
Arriving in Japan in the middle of the 16th century, Catholicism was the first known organized denomination to establish a presence in Japan, and the only major source of Christianization in Japan until the fall of the shogunate and the Meiji restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
. Christianity was proclaimed initially by the Society of Jesus
Society of Jesus
The Society of Jesus is a Catholic male religious order that follows the teachings of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits, and are also known colloquially as "God's Army" and as "The Company," these being references to founder Ignatius of Loyola's military background and a...
, joined later on by the less cautious Franciscan order
Franciscan
Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. Besides Roman Catholic communities, there are also Old Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, ecumenical and Non-denominational Franciscan communities....
. In 1570 there were 20 Catholic missionaries in Japan, the most famous of whom was Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta was a pioneering Roman Catholic missionary born in the Kingdom of Navarre and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He was a student of Saint Ignatius of Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits, dedicated at Montmartre in 1534...
, who arrived in 1549. Nagasaki
Nagasaki
is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the second half of the 16th century on the site of a small fishing village, formerly part of Nishisonogi District...
became the center of Japanese Catholicism, and maintained close cultural and religious ties to its Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
origins. These ties were severed once Christianity was outlawed; at this point, Catholicism went underground, its rites preserved by the Kakure Kirishitan
Kakure Kirishitan
is a modern term for a member of the Japanese Catholic Church that went underground after the Shimabara Rebellion in the 1630s.-History:Kakure Kirishitans are called the "hidden" Christians because they continued to practice Christianity in secret. They worshipped in secret rooms in private homes...
, or "hidden Christians", who continued practicing their faith in secret. Some Japanese Catholics were killed for their faith, thus becoming martyrs
Christian martyrs
A Christian martyr is one who is killed for following Christianity, through stoning, crucifixion, burning at the stake or other forms of torture and capital punishment. The word "martyr" comes from the Greek word μάρτυς, mártys, which means "witness."...
. Many of these martyrs have been canonized by the Church, and their feast is still kept by Catholics as a universal memorial on February 6 each year.
In 1981, Pope John Paul II
Pope John Paul II
Blessed Pope John Paul II , born Karol Józef Wojtyła , reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City from 16 October 1978 until his death on 2 April 2005, at of age. His was the second-longest documented pontificate, which lasted ; only Pope Pius IX ...
paid a visit to Japan, during which he met with Japanese people, the clergy, and Catholic lay people, held Holy Mass in the Korakuen Stadium
Korakuen Stadium
was a stadium in Tokyo, Japan. Completed in 1937, it was primarily used for baseball and was home to the Yomiuri Giants until 1988 when they moved next door, to the Tokyo Dome, which sits on the site of the Velodrome. The ballpark had a capacity of 50,000 people. In 1942 Korakuen Stadium played...
(Tokyo), and visited the Peace Memorial Park in Hiroshima
Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park
is a memorial park in the center of Hiroshima, Japan. It is dedicated to the legacy of Hiroshima as the first city in the world to suffer a nuclear attack, and to the memories of the bomb's direct and indirect victims ....
, the Hill of Martyrs in Nagasaki, town of the Immaculate founded by St. Maximilian Kolbe
Maximilian Kolbe
Saint Maximilian Maria Kolbe OFM Conv was a Polish Conventual Franciscan friar, who volunteered to die in place of a stranger in the Nazi German concentration camp of Auschwitz, located in German-occupied Poland during World War II.He was canonized on 10 October 1982 by Pope John Paul II, and...
in Nagasaki, and other places.
Protestants in Japan
There are at present about 500,000 Protestant Christians in Japan. Dr. James Curtis HepburnJames Curtis Hepburn
James Curtis Hepburn, M.D., LL.D. was a physician who became a Christian missionary. He is known for the Hepburn romanization system for transliteration of the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet, which he popularized in his Japanese–English dictionary.- Biography :Hepburn was born in...
, M.D.
Doctor of Medicine
Doctor of Medicine is a doctoral degree for physicians. The degree is granted by medical schools...
, LL.D. (March 13, 1815 – June 11, 1911) was the first Protestant missionary
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
to Japan. In 1859, Hepburn went to Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
as a medical missionary with the American Presbyterian Mission
American Presbyterian Mission
American Presbyterian Mission was an American Presbyterian missionary society, operated by the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, that was involved in sending workers to countries such as China during the late Qing Dynasty and to India in nineteenth century...
. He opened a clinic in the Kanagawa Prefecture
Kanagawa Prefecture
is a prefecture located in the southern Kantō region of Japan. The capital is Yokohama. Kanagawa is part of the Greater Tokyo Area.-History:The prefecture has some archaeological sites going back to the Jōmon period...
, near present-day Tokyo
Tokyo
, ; officially , is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. Tokyo is the capital of Japan, the center of the Greater Tokyo Area, and the largest metropolitan area of Japan. It is the seat of the Japanese government and the Imperial Palace, and the home of the Japanese Imperial Family...
. He later founded the Hepburn School, which developed into Meiji Gakuin University
Meiji Gakuin University
is one of the Christian universities in Tokyo and Yokohama which was established in 1863. The Reverend Dr. James Curtis Hepburn was one of the founders and the first president...
, and wrote a Japanese–English dictionary. In the dictionary's third edition, published in 1886, Hepburn adopted a new system for romanization
Romanization
In linguistics, romanization or latinization is the representation of a written word or spoken speech with the Roman script, or a system for doing so, where the original word or language uses a different writing system . Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written...
of the Japanese language (Rōmajikai). This system is widely known as Hepburn romanization
Hepburn romanization
The is named after James Curtis Hepburn, who used it to transcribe the sounds of the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet in the third edition of his Japanese–English dictionary, published in 1887. The system was originally proposed by the in 1885...
because Hepburn's dictionary popularized it. Hepburn also contributed to the Protestant translation of the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
into Japanese. Hepburn returned to the United States in 1892. On March 14, 1905, Hepburn's 90th birthday, he was awarded the decoration of the Order of the Rising Sun
Order of the Rising Sun
The is a Japanese order, established in 1875 by Emperor Meiji of Japan. The Order was the first national decoration awarded by the Japanese Government, created on April 10, 1875 by decree of the Council of State. The badge features rays of sunlight from the rising sun...
, third class. Hepburn was the second foreigner to receive this honor.
Presbyterian minister Divie Bethune McCartee
Divie Bethune McCartee
Divie Bethune McCartee was an American Protestant Christian medical missionary, educator and U.S. diplomat in China and Japan, first appointed by the American Presbyterian Mission in 1843....
was the first ordained Protestant Christian mission
Mission (Christian)
Christian missionary activities often involve sending individuals and groups , to foreign countries and to places in their own homeland. This has frequently involved not only evangelization , but also humanitarian work, especially among the poor and disadvantaged...
ary to visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospel tract
Tract (literature)
A tract is a literary work, and in current usage, usually religious in nature. The notion of what constitutes a tract has changed over time. By the early part of the 21st century, these meant small pamphlets used for religious and political purposes, though far more often the former. They are...
translated into Japanese
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
was the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865 McCartee moved back to Ningbo, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan re-opened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during the Shōwa period
Showa period
The , or Shōwa era, is the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of the Shōwa Emperor, Hirohito, from December 25, 1926 through January 7, 1989.The Shōwa period was longer than the reign of any previous Japanese emperor...
. The post-World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
years have seen increasing activity by evangelicals, initially with American influence, and some growth occurred between 1945 and 1960. The Japanese Bible Society was established in 1937 with the help of National Bible Society of Scotland (NBSS, now called the Scottish Bible Society
Scottish Bible Society
Scottish Bible Society, founded in 1809 as the Edinburgh Bible Society, amalgamated in 1861 with the Glasgow Bible Society to form the National Bible Society of Scotland, is a Scottish Christian charity that exists to make the Bible available throughout the world.The Scottish Bible Society arose...
), the American Bible Society
American Bible Society
The American Bible Society is an interconfessional, non-denominational, nonprofit organization, founded in 1816 in New York City, which publishes, distributes and translates the Bible and provides study aids and other tools to help people engage with the Bible.It is probably best known for its...
, the British and Foreign Bible Society
British and Foreign Bible Society
The British and Foreign Bible Society, often known in England and Wales as simply as Bible Society, is a non-denominational Christian Bible society with charity status whose purpose is to make the Bible available throughout the world....
.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Japan
It is estimated that the Japanese Orthodox Church has some 30,000 adherents today. The current primate of Japan is Daniel Nushiro, Metropolitan of all Japan and Archbishop of Tokyo, who was elevated to the primacy in 2000. The primate's seat is the Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Chiyoda, TokyoTokyo
, ; officially , is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. Tokyo is the capital of Japan, the center of the Greater Tokyo Area, and the largest metropolitan area of Japan. It is the seat of the Japanese government and the Imperial Palace, and the home of the Japanese Imperial Family...
. Originally founded in 1891, the cathedral has been known as Nikolai-do in honor of its founder Nicholas Kasatkin, now venerated as St. Nicholas of Japan. The cathedral serves as the seat of the national primate
Primate (religion)
Primate is a title or rank bestowed on some bishops in certain Christian churches. Depending on the particular tradition, it can denote either jurisdictional authority or ceremonial precedence ....
of Japan and continues to be the main center of Orthodox worship in Japan.
Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin), who was sent in 1861 by the Russian Orthodox Church
Russian Orthodox Church
The Russian Orthodox Church or, alternatively, the Moscow Patriarchate The ROC is often said to be the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world; including all the autocephalous churches under its umbrella, its adherents number over 150 million worldwide—about half of the 300 million...
to Hakodate, Hokkaidō
Hokkaido
, formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japan's second largest island; it is also the largest and northernmost of Japan's 47 prefectural-level subdivisions. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaido from Honshu, although the two islands are connected by the underwater railway Seikan Tunnel...
as priest to a chapel of the Russian Consulate. St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of the New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
and some other religious books (Lent Triodion
Triodion
The Triodion , also called the Lenten Triodion , is the liturgical book used by the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine rite during Great Lent, the three preparatory weeks leading up to it, and during Holy Week.Many canons in the Triodion contain only three odes or...
, Pentecostarion
Pentecostarion
The Pentecostarion is the liturgical book used by the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite during the Paschal Season which extends from Pascha to the Sunday following All Saints Sunday The Pentecostarion (Greek: Πεντηκοστάριον, Pentekostárion; Slavonic:...
, Feast Services
Liturgy
Liturgy is either the customary public worship done by a specific religious group, according to its particular traditions or a more precise term that distinguishes between those religious groups who believe their ritual requires the "people" to do the "work" of responding to the priest, and those...
, Book of Psalms, Irmologion
Irmologion
Irmologion is a liturgical book of the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, and it contains texts for liturgical singing in Church. Specifically, it contains irmoi for the various canons which are chanted at Matins and other services...
) into Japanese. Nicholas has since been glorified by the Patriarch of Moscow in 1970, and is now recognized as St. Nicholas, Equal-to-the-Apostles to Japan. His commemoration day is February 16. Andronic Nikolsky
Andronic Nikolsky
Andronik , also spelled Andronic, was a bishop in the Russian Orthodox Church and a saint, glorified as Hieromartyr Andronik, Archbishop Of Perm in 2000.- Early life :...
, appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto
Kyoto
is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. It has a population close to 1.5 million. Formerly the imperial capital of Japan, it is now the capital of Kyoto Prefecture, as well as a major part of the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto metropolitan area.-History:...
and later martyred as the archbishop of Perm
Perm
Perm is a city and the administrative center of Perm Krai, Russia, located on the banks of the Kama River, in the European part of Russia near the Ural Mountains. From 1940 to 1957 it was named Molotov ....
during the Russian Revolution, was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000.
Jehovah's Witnesses in Japan
In 2008 the number of Jehovah's WitnessesJehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The religion reports worldwide membership of over 7 million adherents involved in evangelism, convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual...
was 218,091 active publishers, united in 3,177 congregations; 332,986 people attended annual celebration of Lord's Evening Meal in 2009. Before 1945 they were banned in Japan. Many Jehovah's Witnesses were jailed; one of them, Katsuo Miura, was in the Hiroshima
Hiroshima
is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture, and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu, the largest island of Japan. It became best known as the first city in history to be destroyed by a nuclear weapon when the United States Army Air Forces dropped an atomic bomb on it at 8:15 A.M...
prison during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.
Nestorianism
Ken Joseph argues that Christianity, in the form of NestorianismNestorianism
Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428–431. The doctrine, which was informed by Nestorius's studies under Theodore of Mopsuestia at the School of Antioch, emphasizes the disunion between the human and divine natures of Jesus...
, existed in Japan before the arrival of Xavier.
Missions to Japan
The first known appearance of organized Christianity in Japan was the arrival of the PortuguesePortuguese people
The Portuguese are a nation and ethnic group native to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian peninsula of south-west Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion....
Catholics in 1549. Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta was a pioneering Roman Catholic missionary born in the Kingdom of Navarre and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He was a student of Saint Ignatius of Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits, dedicated at Montmartre in 1534...
arrived in Japan with three Japanese Catholic converts intending to start a church in the Nagasaki
Nagasaki
is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the second half of the 16th century on the site of a small fishing village, formerly part of Nishisonogi District...
area. The local Japanese people
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
initially assumed that the foreigners were from India and that Christianity was a new "Indian faith". These mistaken impressions were due to already existing ties between the Portuguese and India; the Indian city of Goa
Goa
Goa , a former Portuguese colony, is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its...
was a central base for the Portuguese East India Company
Portuguese East India Company
- Background :Portuguese trade with India had been a crown monopoly since the Portuguese captain Vasco da Gama opened the sea route to India in 1497-99. The monopoly had been managed by the Casa da Índia, the royal trading house founded around 1500. The Casa was responsible for the yearly India...
at the time, and a significant portion of the crew on board their ships were Indian Christians
Christianity in India
Christianity is India's third-largest religion, with approximately 24 million followers, constituting 2.3% of India's population. The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings and 14th century Portuguese missionaries created an illusion to convert Indians that Christianity was introduced to...
. Later on, the Roman Catholic missionary activities were exclusively performed by Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
-sponsored Jesuits and Spanish
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
-sponsored mendicant
Mendicant
The term mendicant refers to begging or relying on charitable donations, and is most widely used for religious followers or ascetics who rely exclusively on charity to survive....
orders, such as the Franciscans and Dominicans
Dominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
. Francisco Xavier
Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta was a pioneering Roman Catholic missionary born in the Kingdom of Navarre and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He was a student of Saint Ignatius of Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits, dedicated at Montmartre in 1534...
(a Catholic Saint), Cosme de Torres (a Jesuit priest), and John Fernandez were the first who arrived in Kagoshima with hopes to bring Christianity and Catholicism to Japan. Xavier and the Jesuit order was held in good esteem and his efforts seemed to have been rewarded with a thriving community of converts. At baptism, these converts were given Portuguese "Christian names" and encouraged to adopt Western culture. This practice contributed to suspicions that the converts were in reality foreign agents working to subvert social order.In the source, this claim is made of all of Xavier's converts in general across Asia, including Japanese converts as well Under Oda Nobunaga
Oda Nobunaga
was the initiator of the unification of Japan under the shogunate in the late 16th century, which ruled Japan until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was also a major daimyo during the Sengoku period of Japanese history. His opus was continued, completed and finalized by his successors Toyotomi...
, the Jesuits enjoyed the favor of the shogunate, but the situation began to change once Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
was a daimyo warrior, general and politician of the Sengoku period. He unified the political factions of Japan. He succeeded his former liege lord, Oda Nobunaga, and brought an end to the Sengoku period. The period of his rule is often called the Momoyama period, named after Hideyoshi's castle...
's suspicions were aroused against Christianity.
Persecution under the Shogunate
Under Hideyoshi and then under the succeeding Tokugawa shogunateTokugawa shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the and the , was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which is now called Tokyo, after the name was...
, Catholic Christianity was repressed and adherents were persecuted. During these times, many Christians were killed in Japan, some by crucifixion
Crucifixion
Crucifixion is an ancient method of painful execution in which the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead...
; most famously, the twenty-six martyrs of Japan were tortured and crucified on crosses outside Nagasaki to discourage Christianity in 1597. Following a brief respite that occurred as Tokugawa Ieyasu
Tokugawa Ieyasu
was the founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan , which ruled from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Ieyasu seized power in 1600, received appointment as shogun in 1603, abdicated from office in 1605, but...
rose to power and pursued trade with the Portuguese powers, there were further persecutions and martyrdoms in 1613, 1630, and 1632. By this point, after the Shimabara Rebellion
Shimabara Rebellion
The was an uprising largely involving Japanese peasants, most of them Catholic Christians, in 1637–1638 during the Edo period.It was one of only a handful of instances of serious unrest during the relatively peaceful period of the Tokugawa shogunate's rule...
, the remaining Christians had been forced to publicly renounce their faith. Many continued practicing Christianity in secret, in modern times becoming known as the . These secret believers would often conceal Christian iconography within closed shrines, lanterns or inconspicuous parts of buildings. For example, Himeji Castle
Himeji Castle
When the han feudal system was abolished in 1871, Himeji Castle was put up for auction. The castle was purchased by a Himeji resident for 23 Japanese yen...
has a Christian cross on one of its 17th-century roof tiles, in place of a mon, indicating that one of its occupants was a secret Christian. Drawn from the oral histories of Japanese Catholic communities, Shusaku Endo
Shusaku Endo
Shūsaku Endō was a 20th-century Japanese author who wrote from the unusual perspective of being both Japanese and Catholic...
's acclaimed historical novel "Silence
Silence (novel)
is a 1966 novel of historical fiction by Japanese author Shusaku Endo. It is the story of a Jesuit missionary sent to seventeenth century Japan, who endured persecution in the time of Kakure Kirishitan that followed the defeat of the Shimabara Rebellion...
" provides detailed fictionalised accounts of the persecution of Christian communities and the suppression of the Church.
The opening of Japan
After Japan was opened to greater foreign interaction in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism was still banned. After the Meiji RestorationMeiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
, freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching. Since World War II the number of Japanese Christians has been slowly increasing.
Notable Japanese Christians
During the first Catholic missions from the 17th century, several high ranked people converted including Dom Justo TakayamaDom Justo Takayama
Dom Justo Takayama was a kirishitan daimyo and a Japanese Samurai who followed Christianity in the Sengoku period of Japan...
and Hosokawa Gracia
Hosokawa Gracia
', usually referred to as ', was a Christian convert, a daughter of Akechi Mitsuhide and the wife of Hosokawa Tadaoki....
. Among the original twenty-six martyrs of Japan, Paulo Miki
Paulo Miki
Paulo Miki was a Roman Catholic Japanese Jesuit seminarian, martyr and saint, one of the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan.-Biography:...
is the best known. Catholics venerate him as one of the patron saint
Patron saint
A patron saint is a saint who is regarded as the intercessor and advocate in heaven of a nation, place, craft, activity, class, clan, family, or person...
s of Japan.
Christianity in the Meiji-period
Meiji period
The , also known as the Meiji era, is a Japanese era which extended from September 1868 through July 1912. This period represents the first half of the Empire of Japan.- Meiji Restoration and the emperor :...
saw several major educators and Christian converts as follows: (1861–1930), a Protestant, a headmaster of a head of the First Higher School. He was also the founder of Nonchurch movement
Nonchurch Movement
The Nonchurch movement is an indigenous Japanese Christian movement which was founded by Uchimura Kanzo in 1901. The complete works of Uchimura consist of some 50 volumes: 17 primarily biblical studies, 25 volumes of theological works and 8 volumes of diaries and correspondence. Many of his...
, one of the earliest indigenous Japanese Christian movements. His autobiography , focusing on his conversion influenced young generations in those days. (1843–1890), a Protestant and the founder of Doshisha University
Doshisha University
, or is a prestigious private university in Kyoto, Japan. The university has approximately 27,000 students on three campuses, in faculties of theology, letters, law, commerce, economics, policy, and engineering...
. (1862–1933), a Protestant and the founder of Tokyo Woman's Christian University
Tokyo Woman's Christian University
, often abbreviated to or TWCU, is a university in Tokyo Japan.-Founding:TWCU was established by Nitobe Inazō , a Japanese agricultural economist and educator, who was appointed as the first president in 1918. The first classes were held in Tsunohazu...
. (1864–1929), a Protestant and the founder of Joshi Eigaku Juku (today Tsuda College
Tsuda College
is a private women's college in Kodaira, Tokyo. The college was founded in 1900 by Tsuda Umeko as Joshi Eigaku Juku. The name was later changed to Tsuda Eigaku Juku and then Tsuda Juku Senmon Gakko and finally Tsuda Juku Daigaku in 1948....
).
In the 20th century, two major contributors to Protestant Christian theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
emerged in Japan: , who has been described as a leading contributor to global Christianity, and , who wrote . Social rights activist and author , who was nominated for both the Nobel Peace Prize and the Nobel Prize in Literature, has also become known outside Japan.
(3 December 1902–30 May 1976) was a Captain
Naval ranks of the Japanese Empire during World War II
The following graphs present the rank insignia of the Japanese navy during World War II. These designs had been used from 1931-1945, but were discontinued after World War II, when the Imperial Japanese Navy had been dissolved....
in the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service was the air arm of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II, the organization was responsible for the operation of naval aircraft and the conduct of aerial warfare in the Pacific War.It was controlled by the Navy Staff of the Imperial Japanese Navy and...
and a bomber pilot in the Imperial Japanese Navy
Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1869 until 1947, when it was dissolved following Japan's constitutional renunciation of the use of force as a means of settling international disputes...
before and during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. After World War II ended, Fuchida became a Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
and an evangelistic
Evangelism
Evangelism refers to the practice of relaying information about a particular set of beliefs to others who do not hold those beliefs. The term is often used in reference to Christianity....
preacher. In 1952, Fuchida toured the United States as a member of the Worldwide Christian Missionary Army of Sky Pilots. Fuchida spent the rest of his life telling others what God had done for him around the world. In February 1954, Reader's Digest
Reader's Digest
Reader's Digest is a general interest family magazine, published ten times annually. Formerly based in Chappaqua, New York, its headquarters is now in New York City. It was founded in 1922, by DeWitt Wallace and Lila Bell Wallace...
published Fuchida's story of the attack on Pearl Harbor. He also wrote and co-wrote books including, From Pearl Harbor to Golgotha (aka From Pearl Harbor to Calvary). His story is told in God's Samurai: Lead Pilot at Pearl Harbor (The Warriors).
was a Japanese
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
diplomat
Diplomat
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to conduct diplomacy with another state or international organization. The main functions of diplomats revolve around the representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state, as well as the promotion of information and...
who served as Vice Consul for the Japanese Empire in Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
. In 1935 he converted to Orthodox Christianity
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
while serving in China as a diplomat. During World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, he helped several thousand Jews leave the country by issuing transit visas to Jewish refugees so that they could travel to Japan. Most of the Jews who escaped were refugees from German-occupied Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
or residents of Lithuania. Sugihara wrote travel visas that facilitated the escape of more than 6,000 Jewish refugees to Japanese territory, risking his career and his family's life. In 1985, Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
honored him as Righteous Among the Nations
Righteous Among the Nations
Righteous among the Nations of the world's nations"), also translated as Righteous Gentiles is an honorific used by the State of Israel to describe non-Jews who risked their lives during the Holocaust to save Jews from extermination by the Nazis....
for his actions.
The 20th century also saw two Christian novelists of renown: was a Protestant writer known for her works, one of the most influential being . was a Catholic novelist renowned for his works focusing on Christianity in Japan, including .
Christian Prime Ministers
While Christians account only for 1% of the population, there have been seven Christian Prime Ministers in Japan.Roman Catholic
- Hara TakashiHara Takashiwas a Japanese politician and the 19th Prime Minister of Japan from 29 September 1918 to 4 November 1921. He was also called Hara Kei informally. He was the first commoner appointed to the office of prime minister of Japan...
– leader of the 19th government and the 10th Prime Minister. - Shigeru YoshidaShigeru Yoshida, KCVO was a Japanese diplomat and politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1946 to 1947 and from 1948 to 1954.-Early life:...
– leader of the 45th, 48th, 49th, 50th, and 51st governments and the 32nd Prime Minister. - Taro AsoTaro Asowas the 92nd Prime Minister of Japan serving from September 2008 to September 2009, and was defeated in the August 2009 election.He has served in the House of Representatives since 1979. He was Minister for Foreign Affairs from 2005 to 2007, and was Secretary-General of the LDP briefly in 2007 and...
– leader of the 92nd government and the 59th Prime Minister.
Protestant
- Viscount Takahashi KorekiyoTakahashi KorekiyoViscount was a Japanese politician and the 20th Prime Minister of Japan from 13 November 1921 to 12 June 1922. He was known as an expert on finance during his political career.-Early life :...
– leader of the 20th government and the 11th Prime Minister. - Tetsu KatayamaTetsu Katayamawas a Japanese politician and the 46th Prime Minister from May 24, 1947 to March 10, 1948.- Early life :He was born in Tanabe, Wakayama Prefecture, and attended Tokyo Imperial University. Raised in the Christian faith, he was strongly influenced by the Christian Socialism of Abe Isō...
– leader of the 46th government and the 33rd Prime Minister. - Ichirō HatoyamaIchiro Hatoyamawas a Japanese politician and the 52nd, 53rd and 54th Prime Minister of Japan, serving terms from December 10, 1954 through March 19, 1955, from then to November 22, 1955, and from then through December 23, 1956.-Personal life:...
– leader the 52nd, 53rd, and 54th governments and the 35th Prime Minister. - Masayoshi ŌhiraMasayoshi Ohirawas a Japanese politician and the 68th and 69th Prime Minister of Japan from December 7, 1978 to June 12, 1980. He is the most recent Japanese prime minister to die in office.He was born in present day Kan'onji, Kagawa and attended Hitotsubashi University....
– leader of the 68th and 69th governments and the 43rd Prime Minister.
External links
- History of the Japanese Catholic Church by the Daughters of St. Paul convent; Tokyo, Japan
- Christianity is popular in Japan today, Orthodox Portal
- Japanese Living Bible
- Japanese Bible Society
- Christian Churches in Japan
- 2008 Beatification of Japanese Martyrs.