Apostles of Linnaeus
Encyclopedia
The Apostles of Linnaeus were a group of students who carried out botanical and zoological expeditions throughout the world that were either devised or approved by botanist Carl Linnaeus. The expeditions took place during the latter half of the 18th century and the students were designated 'apostles' by Linnaeus.
Many apostles began their journey from Sweden. Some would act as priests or doctors aboard a Swedish East India Company
ship. The expeditions were often dangerous. Seven apostles never came home. The first apostle, Christopher Tärnström, died of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island
in 1746. Tärnström's widow was angry with Linnaeus for making her children fatherless. After this incident, Linnaeus sent only unmarried men.
Linnaeus remained involved in most expeditions. He often left notes for the apostles and outlined what they should look for during their journeys, and the apostles sent letters and botanical samples to Linnaeus. Upon their return, it was usual to give Linnaeus a selection of anything collected. However, Daniel Rolander
elected not to transfer his collection and was criticised by Linnaeus.
Many newly discovered plants, animals and insects were named and catalogued by Linnaeus and apostles. As a result, the apostles' expeditions helped spread the Linnaean taxonomy
, a system for classifying organisms. Additionally, one of Linnaeus' admirers, the English Botanist Joseph Banks
, was inspired to begin the tradition for all British research ships to have a naturalist aboard. Thus apostles had a direct influence on future expeditions such as Charles Darwin
's expedition aboard HMS Beagle
.
, Småland
, Sweden on 23 May 1707. Linnaeus enrolled at Uppsala University
to study botany and medicine in 1728. Following his studies, he went to Holland to study medicine. While in Holland, he published Systema Naturae
that describes a new system for classifying plants.
Linnaeus returned to Sweden in May 1741 and was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University. Nine years later he became the university's rector, starting a period where natural sciences were held in the greatest esteem.
Perhaps the most important contribution Linnaeus made during his time in Uppsala was as a teacher. His lectures were normally full and often held in the Botanical Garden. He taught students to think for themselves and not trust anybody. The Saturday botanical excursions during summer were more popular than his lectures. Linnaeus and students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala. Additionally, he let some of the best students live with him at his house.
Among Linnaeus' notable students, the most promising and committed ones made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with the help of their professor. These seventeen adventurers were referred to as Linnaeus apostles. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a place on an expedition or a scholarship. Most apostles were given instructions of what to find during their journeys. The apostles collected, organised and classified new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus' classification system. Most gave their collections to Linnaeus when their journey finished.
ship Calmar to China. He took a list, written by Linnaeus, of things to collect which included plants, animals and insects. However, Calmar stopped sailing beyond Côn Sơn Island
because it had forced to find a winter berth. On 4 December 1746, Tärnström died of a tropical fever without a botanical or zoological specimen sent to Sweden. His widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless. Following the death of Tärnström, Linnaeus allowed only unmarried men to become his apostles.
Pehr Kalm
(1715–79) was born in Finland and became a student of Linnaeus in December 1740. He proposed to Linnaeus that he travel to North America on a botanical expedition. Linnaeus concurred and in November 1747 Kalm begun his journey to North America sponsored by the universities in Uppsala and Åbo
. After a long stay in England, on the way he reached Philadelphia in autumn 1748. Once there, he stayed in North America for two and a half years, visiting the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York and southern Canada. He then returned to Sweden. Kalm is one of the few apostles who actually lived up to Linnaeus' hopes; bringing with him a large collection of pressed plants and seeds. His travel experience was later published in a three-volume book, En resa til Norra America.
(1722–52) heard Linnaeus talking about the botanically unexplored Eastern Mediterranean
and he was inspired to travel there. Hasselquist was poor and to make the expedition possible, he relied on sponsorships from Linnaeus and Olof Celsius
. On 7 August 1749, Hasselquist sailed from Stockholm
to Izmir (a city in Turkey
) where he spent the winter. Subsequently, he sailed to Egypt where stayed for ten months before returning. On the way he passed: Syria
; Cyprus
; Rhodes
; and Chios
. He returned to Izmir with a rich collection of botanical and zoological findings and also minerals. On 9 February 1752, he died before returning to Sweden. During his expedition he accumulated a large debt and Linnaeus was informed that Hasselquist's collections and manuscripts would not be sent home until the debt was paid. Swedish Queen Louisa Ulrika
paid the debt and Linnaeus received Hasselquist's findings. In 1757, Linnaeus published Iter Palaestinium based on Hasselquist's collections and manuscripts.
Pehr Osbeck
(1723–1805) sailed from Göteborg to China in 1750 on ship Prins Carl. His primary task was to collect a tea plant for Linnaeus. He spent four months in Guangzhou where he collected many plants, but not the tea plant. He returned to Sweden in June 1752 with his collection and several other objects which he gave to Linnaeus.
(1729–1756) was recommended by Linnaeus when the Spanish ambassador in Stockholm asked for help exploring Spanish flora. Löfling travelled to Madrid
in 1751 where he stayed for approximately two years. He explored the flora and fauna and regularly sent plants to Linnaeus. In 1754 the Spanish organised an expedition to South America and Löfling was invited to join them. They first stopped in the Canary Islands
, staying for a short time before continuing to Venezuela. In Venezuela, Löfling collected plants with the help of his two assistants. Löfling stayed in South America until his death on 22 February 1756 in Guyana.
(1725–93) followed Linnaeus' acquaintance, Carl Gustav Dahlberg, to Suriname in 1755. Although he became ill on the way, he had almost recovered by the time he arrived. In Suriname he tried to explore the rainforests but disliked the climate. He developed an alcohol addiction and his health begun to decline. He stayed for seven months and then returned with a collection containing plants and insects. He did not, however, give anything from his collection to Linnaeus. This is reported to have made Linnaeus "furious". Linnaeus, determined to acquire parts of Rolander's collection, broke into Rolander's home and reportedly stole a Sauvagesia
plant. This incident ended the relationship between the two men and Linnaeus was heard to speak ill of Rolander on several occasions.
to go to Spitsbergen, an island in the Arctic Ocean. In 1758, Martin joined a whaling expedition to the island but was only able to get ashore a few hours. He managed to bring back mosses and lichen
. Despite how few samples he was able to bring back, Martin's expedition gained Linnaeus' praise.
on the same expedition. His journey was short. He died later in the year of his departure while still in Java. However, before his death he succeeded in sending some samples back to Linnaeus from China.
, to the Middle East. He consulted Linnaeus and was given permission to go. Although it was a Danish expedition, King Frederick V stated that the findings would not be placed in Copenhagen
until several international botanists, including Linnaeus, had studied them. Forsskål and the expedition sailed in the winter 1761. Their first stop was Alexandria
, Egypt. Forsskål made many findings at Suez
and was one of the first to describe the flora and fauna of the Red Sea
. The expedition reached Yemen in April 1763 where Forsskål found a Commiphora
which Linnaeus was particularity interested in. However, Forsskål died of malaria on 11 July 1763 before he could deliver Commiphora to Linnaeus. Forsskål worked on Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabca and Descriptiones Animalis during the expedition. His works were published posthumously by another expedition member; Carsten Niebuhr
.
(1739–78) studied medicine at Uppsala University and carried out his dissertation with Linnaeus as his supervisor. In 1773 Rothman travelled to North Africa that was commissioned by the Swedish Academy of Sciences. He visited Libya
and Tunisia
but was unable to go as far inland as he wished due to local unrest. He returned to Sweden in 1776 with very few findings.
(1732–74) arrived in Uppsala University in 1751 and became an apostle. He followed Linnaeus on his expedition to the island province Gotland
and later became a tutor to Linnaeus' son, Carl. In 1760, Linnaeus encouraged Falck to follow apostle Forsskål on the Danish expedition to Egypt but Flack did not gain approval from the Danes. In 1768, the Russian Academy of Sciences
created several expeditions to explore eastern Russia. Thanks to Linnaeus, Falck was given responsibility for one of the expeditions and headed out the same year. The expedition explored many places in Russia, including Volgograd
and the steppes. Falck explored and described native customs as well as both flora and fauna. During the journey Falck became addicted to opium and caused him to suffer depression throughout the expedition. In 1774 the expedition reached Kazan
where Falck committed suicide. Following his death, his collections and journals were sent to Saint Petersburg
to be later completed and published as Beyträga zur topografischen Kenntniss des Russichen Reichs in 1785-86 by Samuel Georg Gmelin.
Daniel Solander
(1733–82) was living in Linnaeus house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage and telling Solander that he would become his predecessor. Based on Linnaeus recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760 where he spread the Linnaean taxonomy
. Two years later Linnaeus got Solander a position as professor in botany in Saint Petersburg. Linnaeus was surprised and disappointed when Solander answered that he had decided to stay in England. This damaged their relationship and thereafter Linnaeus was heard to refer to "the ungrateful Solander." In 1768 Solander was employed by the English botanist Joseph Banks
to follow James Cook
on his first journey to the Pacific Ocean aboard the Endeavour
. The Endeavour sailed to Australia, Asia, Africa and several other places where Solander and Banks made many natural sciences discoveries. About a year after the expedition, in 1772, Solander and Banks made another botanical journey to Iceland. He never sent anything from his collection home to Linnaeus but continued to organise his samples according to Linnaeus' system.
Even before he became an apostle, Anders Sparrman
(1748–1820) had made a two year long journey to China as a surgeon on a Swedish East India Company ship. In 1771, he sailed to South Africa as one of Linnaeus' apostles where he tutored and explored the flora and fauna. The next year he was asked to join Cook's second expedition on Resolution. On the journey, he visited and studied plants in various locations including Oceania and South America. He returned to South Africa two years later having made many botanical findings. He stayed there for another eight months before returning to Uppsala in 1776. In 1787, he travelled to Senegal
on an expedition to find land for colonisation. He published his travel diary Resa till Goda Hopps-Udden, södra Polkretsen och omkring Jordklotet, samt till Hottentott- och Caffer-Landen Åren 1772-1776 in three volumes, 1783-1818.
Just like Linnaeus, Carl Peter Thunberg
(1743–1828) arrived in Uppsala at the age of 18. Having completed his dissertation in 1770, he travelled to Paris. On the way back to Sweden he met Linnaeus' friend Johan Burman in Amsterdam. With Burman's influence, Thunberg became a surgeon in the Dutch East India Company
. He joined an expedition heading to Japan, which at that time was only open for Dutch ships. The expedition stopped in South Africa in 1772 where it remained for three years. During this time Thunberg found 300 new plant species and sent many of his findings to Linnaeus. In 1775, the expedition continued to Java and then to Japan. All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the Dejima
island, outside Nagasaki
, so it was difficult for Thunberg to study the mainland flora. However, he got many translators to bring him some mainland specimens to add to those plants he found in the gardens of Dejima. The only time Thunberg could explore the Japanese landscape was when he visited the Shogun
in Edo
. After 15 months, he returned to Sweden, passing Sri Lanka
on the way. From his findings in Japan, Thunberg published Flora Japonica. From his findings in South Africa, he published Flora Capensis.
(1750–1837) joined an English expedition to Sierra Leone
in 1792 after studing and lecturing in Uppsala. He returned in 1796 having found many new samples, which he described in some of his botanical writings. He also published Linnaeus' autobiography.
Many apostles began their journey from Sweden. Some would act as priests or doctors aboard a Swedish East India Company
Swedish East India Company
The Swedish East India Company was founded in Gothenburg, Sweden, in 1731 for the purpose of conducting trade with the Far East...
ship. The expeditions were often dangerous. Seven apostles never came home. The first apostle, Christopher Tärnström, died of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island
Con Son Island
Côn Sơn Island is the largest island of the Côn Đảo archipelago, off the coast of southern Vietnam. The island is also known after its Malay name as Pulo Condore , while its French variant Poulo Condor was well-known during the times of French Indochina.-Early modern era:In 1702, the British...
in 1746. Tärnström's widow was angry with Linnaeus for making her children fatherless. After this incident, Linnaeus sent only unmarried men.
Linnaeus remained involved in most expeditions. He often left notes for the apostles and outlined what they should look for during their journeys, and the apostles sent letters and botanical samples to Linnaeus. Upon their return, it was usual to give Linnaeus a selection of anything collected. However, Daniel Rolander
Daniel Rolander
Daniel Rolander was a Swedish biologist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.Rolander was born in Hälleberga, Småland, Sweden and studied at Uppsala University where he came under the influence of Linnaeus. In 1755, Rolander went to Surinam to study and collect plants, which he sent back to Sweden...
elected not to transfer his collection and was criticised by Linnaeus.
Many newly discovered plants, animals and insects were named and catalogued by Linnaeus and apostles. As a result, the apostles' expeditions helped spread the Linnaean taxonomy
Linnaean taxonomy
Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts:# the particular form of biological classification set up by Carl Linnaeus, as set forth in his Systema Naturæ and subsequent works...
, a system for classifying organisms. Additionally, one of Linnaeus' admirers, the English Botanist Joseph Banks
Joseph Banks
Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was an English naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. He took part in Captain James Cook's first great voyage . Banks is credited with the introduction to the Western world of eucalyptus, acacia, mimosa and the genus named after him,...
, was inspired to begin the tradition for all British research ships to have a naturalist aboard. Thus apostles had a direct influence on future expeditions such as Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
's expedition aboard HMS Beagle
Second voyage of HMS Beagle
The second voyage of HMS Beagle, from 27 December 1831 to 2 October 1836, was the second survey expedition of HMS Beagle, under captain Robert FitzRoy who had taken over command of the ship on its first voyage after her previous captain committed suicide...
.
Origins
Carl Linnaeus was born in RåshultRåshult
Råshult is a village just north of Älmhult in Kronoberg County, Småland, Sweden. Råshult is the village where the Swedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus was born in 1707....
, Småland
Småland
' is a historical province in southern Sweden.Småland borders Blekinge, Scania or Skåne, Halland, Västergötland, Östergötland and the island Öland in the Baltic Sea. The name Småland literally means Small Lands. . The latinized form Smolandia has been used in other languages...
, Sweden on 23 May 1707. Linnaeus enrolled at Uppsala University
Uppsala University
Uppsala University is a research university in Uppsala, Sweden, and is the oldest university in Scandinavia, founded in 1477. It consistently ranks among the best universities in Northern Europe in international rankings and is generally considered one of the most prestigious institutions of...
to study botany and medicine in 1728. Following his studies, he went to Holland to study medicine. While in Holland, he published Systema Naturae
Systema Naturae
The book was one of the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carolus Linnaeus. The first edition was published in 1735...
that describes a new system for classifying plants.
Linnaeus returned to Sweden in May 1741 and was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University. Nine years later he became the university's rector, starting a period where natural sciences were held in the greatest esteem.
Perhaps the most important contribution Linnaeus made during his time in Uppsala was as a teacher. His lectures were normally full and often held in the Botanical Garden. He taught students to think for themselves and not trust anybody. The Saturday botanical excursions during summer were more popular than his lectures. Linnaeus and students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala. Additionally, he let some of the best students live with him at his house.
Among Linnaeus' notable students, the most promising and committed ones made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with the help of their professor. These seventeen adventurers were referred to as Linnaeus apostles. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a place on an expedition or a scholarship. Most apostles were given instructions of what to find during their journeys. The apostles collected, organised and classified new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus' classification system. Most gave their collections to Linnaeus when their journey finished.
Christopher Tärnström, China (1746)
Christopher Tärnström (1703–46) was the first apostle. Linnaeus permitted Tärnström to conduct a botanical expedition in China. In early 1746, Tärnström received free passage on the Swedish East India CompanySwedish East India Company
The Swedish East India Company was founded in Gothenburg, Sweden, in 1731 for the purpose of conducting trade with the Far East...
ship Calmar to China. He took a list, written by Linnaeus, of things to collect which included plants, animals and insects. However, Calmar stopped sailing beyond Côn Sơn Island
Con Son Island
Côn Sơn Island is the largest island of the Côn Đảo archipelago, off the coast of southern Vietnam. The island is also known after its Malay name as Pulo Condore , while its French variant Poulo Condor was well-known during the times of French Indochina.-Early modern era:In 1702, the British...
because it had forced to find a winter berth. On 4 December 1746, Tärnström died of a tropical fever without a botanical or zoological specimen sent to Sweden. His widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless. Following the death of Tärnström, Linnaeus allowed only unmarried men to become his apostles.
Pehr Kalm, North America (1747–51)
Pehr Kalm
Pehr Kalm was a Swedish-Finnish explorer, botanist, naturalist, and agricultural economist. He was one of most important apostles of Carl Linnaeus...
(1715–79) was born in Finland and became a student of Linnaeus in December 1740. He proposed to Linnaeus that he travel to North America on a botanical expedition. Linnaeus concurred and in November 1747 Kalm begun his journey to North America sponsored by the universities in Uppsala and Åbo
Abo
Abo may refer to:* ABO blood group system, a human blood type and blood group system** ABO , enzyme encoded by the ABO gene that determines the ABO blood group of an individual* Abo of Tiflis , an Arab East Orthodox Catholic saint...
. After a long stay in England, on the way he reached Philadelphia in autumn 1748. Once there, he stayed in North America for two and a half years, visiting the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York and southern Canada. He then returned to Sweden. Kalm is one of the few apostles who actually lived up to Linnaeus' hopes; bringing with him a large collection of pressed plants and seeds. His travel experience was later published in a three-volume book, En resa til Norra America.
Fredric Hasselquist, Izmir, Egypt etc. (1749–52)
Fredric HasselquistFredric Hasselquist
Fredric Hasselquist was a Swedish traveller and naturalist.Hasselquist was born at Törnevalla, which is two kilometers east of Linghem, Östergötland...
(1722–52) heard Linnaeus talking about the botanically unexplored Eastern Mediterranean
Eastern Mediterranean
The Eastern Mediterranean is a term that denotes the countries geographically to the east of the Mediterranean Sea. This region is also known as Greater Syria or the Levant....
and he was inspired to travel there. Hasselquist was poor and to make the expedition possible, he relied on sponsorships from Linnaeus and Olof Celsius
Olof Celsius
Olof Celsius was a Swedish botanist, philologist and clergyman, He was a professor at Uppsala University, Sweden. Celsius was a mentor of the botanist and scientist Carolus Linnaeus...
. On 7 August 1749, Hasselquist sailed from Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
to Izmir (a city in Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
) where he spent the winter. Subsequently, he sailed to Egypt where stayed for ten months before returning. On the way he passed: Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
; Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
; Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
; and Chios
Chios
Chios is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated in the Aegean Sea, seven kilometres off the Asia Minor coast. The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait. The island is noted for its strong merchant shipping community, its unique mastic gum and its medieval villages...
. He returned to Izmir with a rich collection of botanical and zoological findings and also minerals. On 9 February 1752, he died before returning to Sweden. During his expedition he accumulated a large debt and Linnaeus was informed that Hasselquist's collections and manuscripts would not be sent home until the debt was paid. Swedish Queen Louisa Ulrika
Louisa Ulrika of Prussia
Louisa Ulrika of Prussia was Queen of Sweden between 1751 and 1771 as the spouse of King Adolf Frederick of Sweden, and queen mother during the reign of King Gustav III of Sweden.-Background:...
paid the debt and Linnaeus received Hasselquist's findings. In 1757, Linnaeus published Iter Palaestinium based on Hasselquist's collections and manuscripts.
Olof Torén, Surat and Guangzhou (1750)
Olof Torén (1718–53) travelled to Surat and India as a priest with the Swedish East India Company in 1750. He continued to Guangzhou and China before returning to Sweden. During his journey, he corresponded with Linnaeus; these letters were published posthumously as an appendix in the travelogue of another apostle, Pehr Osbeck. He fell ill during his journey and died shortly after his return in 1753. He returned with a large collections specimens.Pehr Osbeck, China (1750–52)
Pehr Osbeck
Pehr Osbeck was a Swedish explorer, naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.-Naturalist in Canton:He was born in the parish of Hålanda in Västergötland and studied at Uppsala with Carolus Linnaeus...
(1723–1805) sailed from Göteborg to China in 1750 on ship Prins Carl. His primary task was to collect a tea plant for Linnaeus. He spent four months in Guangzhou where he collected many plants, but not the tea plant. He returned to Sweden in June 1752 with his collection and several other objects which he gave to Linnaeus.
Pehr Löfling, Spain and South America (1751–56)
Pehr LöflingPehr Löfling
Pehr Löfling was a Swedish botanist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.-Biography:Löfling was born in Tolvfors Bruk, Gävle , Sweden. He studied at the University of Uppsala where he attended courses taught by Carolus Linnaeus...
(1729–1756) was recommended by Linnaeus when the Spanish ambassador in Stockholm asked for help exploring Spanish flora. Löfling travelled to Madrid
Madrid
Madrid is the capital and largest city of Spain. The population of the city is roughly 3.3 million and the entire population of the Madrid metropolitan area is calculated to be 6.271 million. It is the third largest city in the European Union, after London and Berlin, and its metropolitan...
in 1751 where he stayed for approximately two years. He explored the flora and fauna and regularly sent plants to Linnaeus. In 1754 the Spanish organised an expedition to South America and Löfling was invited to join them. They first stopped in the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
, staying for a short time before continuing to Venezuela. In Venezuela, Löfling collected plants with the help of his two assistants. Löfling stayed in South America until his death on 22 February 1756 in Guyana.
Daniel Rolander, Suriname (1755)
Daniel RolanderDaniel Rolander
Daniel Rolander was a Swedish biologist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.Rolander was born in Hälleberga, Småland, Sweden and studied at Uppsala University where he came under the influence of Linnaeus. In 1755, Rolander went to Surinam to study and collect plants, which he sent back to Sweden...
(1725–93) followed Linnaeus' acquaintance, Carl Gustav Dahlberg, to Suriname in 1755. Although he became ill on the way, he had almost recovered by the time he arrived. In Suriname he tried to explore the rainforests but disliked the climate. He developed an alcohol addiction and his health begun to decline. He stayed for seven months and then returned with a collection containing plants and insects. He did not, however, give anything from his collection to Linnaeus. This is reported to have made Linnaeus "furious". Linnaeus, determined to acquire parts of Rolander's collection, broke into Rolander's home and reportedly stole a Sauvagesia
Sauvagesia
Sauvagesia is a genus of plant in family Ochnaceae.Species include:* Sauvagesia brevipetala, Gilli* Sauvagesia erecta...
plant. This incident ended the relationship between the two men and Linnaeus was heard to speak ill of Rolander on several occasions.
Anton Rolandsson Martin, Spitsbergen (1758)
Anton Rolandsson Martin (1729–85) was born in what is now Estonia and later came to Sweden to be taught by Linnaeus. Linnaeus helped Martin get a small grant from Sweden's Royal Academy of SciencesRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences or Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. The Academy is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization which acts to promote the sciences, primarily the natural sciences and mathematics.The Academy was founded on 2...
to go to Spitsbergen, an island in the Arctic Ocean. In 1758, Martin joined a whaling expedition to the island but was only able to get ashore a few hours. He managed to bring back mosses and lichen
Lichen
Lichens are composite organisms consisting of a symbiotic organism composed of a fungus with a photosynthetic partner , usually either a green alga or cyanobacterium...
. Despite how few samples he was able to bring back, Martin's expedition gained Linnaeus' praise.
Carl Fredrik Adler, East Indies, China and Java (c. 1761)
Carl Fredrik Adler (1720–61) sailed to the East Indies in 1761 on a Swedish East India Company ship. He also visited China and JavaJava
Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of 135 million , it is the world's most populous island, and one of the most densely populated regions in the world. It is home to 60% of Indonesia's population. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is in west Java...
on the same expedition. His journey was short. He died later in the year of his departure while still in Java. However, before his death he succeeded in sending some samples back to Linnaeus from China.
Pehr Forsskål, Egypt and Yemen (1761–63)
Pehr Forsskål (1732–63) was born in Finland and became a student of Linnaeus when he was 18 years old. Forsskål was asked if he wanted to join a Danish expedition, commissioned by the Danish King Frederick VFrederick V of Denmark
Frederick V was king of Denmark and Norway from 1746, son of Christian VI of Denmark and Sophia Magdalen of Brandenburg-Kulmbach.-Early life:...
, to the Middle East. He consulted Linnaeus and was given permission to go. Although it was a Danish expedition, King Frederick V stated that the findings would not be placed in Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...
until several international botanists, including Linnaeus, had studied them. Forsskål and the expedition sailed in the winter 1761. Their first stop was Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, Egypt. Forsskål made many findings at Suez
Suez
Suez is a seaport city in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez , near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same boundaries as Suez governorate. It has three harbors, Adabya, Ain Sokhna and Port Tawfiq, and extensive port facilities...
and was one of the first to describe the flora and fauna of the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
. The expedition reached Yemen in April 1763 where Forsskål found a Commiphora
Commiphora
Commiphora is a genus of flowering plants in the family Burseraceae. It includes about 185 species of trees and shrubs, often armed or thorny, native to Africa, Arabia, and the Indian subcontinent.-Uses:...
which Linnaeus was particularity interested in. However, Forsskål died of malaria on 11 July 1763 before he could deliver Commiphora to Linnaeus. Forsskål worked on Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabca and Descriptiones Animalis during the expedition. His works were published posthumously by another expedition member; Carsten Niebuhr
Carsten Niebuhr
Carsten Niebuhr or Karsten Niebuhr , a German mathematician, cartographer, and explorer in the service of Denmark, is renowned for his travels on the Arabian peninsula.-Biography:...
.
Göran Rothman, Tunisia and Libya (1773–76)
Göran RothmanGöran Rothman
Göran Rothman , was a Swedish naturalist, physician and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.-Biography:...
(1739–78) studied medicine at Uppsala University and carried out his dissertation with Linnaeus as his supervisor. In 1773 Rothman travelled to North Africa that was commissioned by the Swedish Academy of Sciences. He visited Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
and Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
but was unable to go as far inland as he wished due to local unrest. He returned to Sweden in 1776 with very few findings.
Johan Peter Falck, Russia (1768–74)
Johan Peter FalckJohan Peter Falck
Johann Peter Falck was a Swedish botanist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.Falck was born in Kockstorp, Västergötland. He studied at the University of Uppsala under Carolus Linnaeus....
(1732–74) arrived in Uppsala University in 1751 and became an apostle. He followed Linnaeus on his expedition to the island province Gotland
Gotland
Gotland is a county, province, municipality and diocese of Sweden; it is Sweden's largest island and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. At 3,140 square kilometers in area, the region makes up less than one percent of Sweden's total land area...
and later became a tutor to Linnaeus' son, Carl. In 1760, Linnaeus encouraged Falck to follow apostle Forsskål on the Danish expedition to Egypt but Flack did not gain approval from the Danes. In 1768, the Russian Academy of Sciences
Russian Academy of Sciences
The Russian Academy of Sciences consists of the national academy of Russia and a network of scientific research institutes from across the Russian Federation as well as auxiliary scientific and social units like libraries, publishers and hospitals....
created several expeditions to explore eastern Russia. Thanks to Linnaeus, Falck was given responsibility for one of the expeditions and headed out the same year. The expedition explored many places in Russia, including Volgograd
Volgograd
Volgograd , formerly called Tsaritsyn and Stalingrad is an important industrial city and the administrative center of Volgograd Oblast, Russia. It is long, north to south, situated on the western bank of the Volga River...
and the steppes. Falck explored and described native customs as well as both flora and fauna. During the journey Falck became addicted to opium and caused him to suffer depression throughout the expedition. In 1774 the expedition reached Kazan
Kazan
Kazan is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. With a population of 1,143,546 , it is the eighth most populous city in Russia. Kazan lies at the confluence of the Volga and Kazanka Rivers in European Russia. In April 2009, the Russian Patent Office granted Kazan the...
where Falck committed suicide. Following his death, his collections and journals were sent to Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
to be later completed and published as Beyträga zur topografischen Kenntniss des Russichen Reichs in 1785-86 by Samuel Georg Gmelin.
Daniel Solander, Australia etc. (1768–71) and Iceland (1772)
Daniel Solander
Daniel Carlsson Solander or Daniel Charles Solander was a Swedish naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Solander was the first university educated scientist to set foot on Australian soil.-Biography:...
(1733–82) was living in Linnaeus house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage and telling Solander that he would become his predecessor. Based on Linnaeus recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760 where he spread the Linnaean taxonomy
Linnaean taxonomy
Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts:# the particular form of biological classification set up by Carl Linnaeus, as set forth in his Systema Naturæ and subsequent works...
. Two years later Linnaeus got Solander a position as professor in botany in Saint Petersburg. Linnaeus was surprised and disappointed when Solander answered that he had decided to stay in England. This damaged their relationship and thereafter Linnaeus was heard to refer to "the ungrateful Solander." In 1768 Solander was employed by the English botanist Joseph Banks
Joseph Banks
Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was an English naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. He took part in Captain James Cook's first great voyage . Banks is credited with the introduction to the Western world of eucalyptus, acacia, mimosa and the genus named after him,...
to follow James Cook
James Cook
Captain James Cook, FRS, RN was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy...
on his first journey to the Pacific Ocean aboard the Endeavour
HM Bark Endeavour
HMS Endeavour, also known as HM Bark Endeavour, was a British Royal Navy research vessel commanded by Lieutenant James Cook on his first voyage of discovery, to Australia and New Zealand from 1769 to 1771....
. The Endeavour sailed to Australia, Asia, Africa and several other places where Solander and Banks made many natural sciences discoveries. About a year after the expedition, in 1772, Solander and Banks made another botanical journey to Iceland. He never sent anything from his collection home to Linnaeus but continued to organise his samples according to Linnaeus' system.
Anders Sparrman, China (1765–67), South Africa (1771–72 and 1775) Oceania etc. (1772–75) Senegal (1787)
Anders Sparrman
Anders Erikson Sparrman was a Swedish naturalist, abolitionist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus....
(1748–1820) had made a two year long journey to China as a surgeon on a Swedish East India Company ship. In 1771, he sailed to South Africa as one of Linnaeus' apostles where he tutored and explored the flora and fauna. The next year he was asked to join Cook's second expedition on Resolution. On the journey, he visited and studied plants in various locations including Oceania and South America. He returned to South Africa two years later having made many botanical findings. He stayed there for another eight months before returning to Uppsala in 1776. In 1787, he travelled to Senegal
Senegal
Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
on an expedition to find land for colonisation. He published his travel diary Resa till Goda Hopps-Udden, södra Polkretsen och omkring Jordklotet, samt till Hottentott- och Caffer-Landen Åren 1772-1776 in three volumes, 1783-1818.
Carl Peter Thunberg, South Africa, Japan etc. (1770–79)
Carl Peter Thunberg
Carl Peter Thunberg aka Carl Pehr Thunberg aka Carl Per Thunberg was a Swedish naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus. He has been called "the father of South African botany" and the "Japanese Linnaeus"....
(1743–1828) arrived in Uppsala at the age of 18. Having completed his dissertation in 1770, he travelled to Paris. On the way back to Sweden he met Linnaeus' friend Johan Burman in Amsterdam. With Burman's influence, Thunberg became a surgeon in the Dutch East India Company
Dutch East India Company
The Dutch East India Company was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia...
. He joined an expedition heading to Japan, which at that time was only open for Dutch ships. The expedition stopped in South Africa in 1772 where it remained for three years. During this time Thunberg found 300 new plant species and sent many of his findings to Linnaeus. In 1775, the expedition continued to Java and then to Japan. All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the Dejima
Dejima
was a small fan-shaped artificial island built in the bay of Nagasaki in 1634. This island, which was formed by digging a canal through a small peninsula, remained as the single place of direct trade and exchange between Japan and the outside world during the Edo period. Dejima was built to...
island, outside Nagasaki
Nagasaki
is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the second half of the 16th century on the site of a small fishing village, formerly part of Nishisonogi District...
, so it was difficult for Thunberg to study the mainland flora. However, he got many translators to bring him some mainland specimens to add to those plants he found in the gardens of Dejima. The only time Thunberg could explore the Japanese landscape was when he visited the Shogun
Shogun
A was one of the hereditary military dictators of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents , were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor...
in Edo
Edo
, also romanized as Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of the Japanese capital Tokyo, and was the seat of power for the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868...
. After 15 months, he returned to Sweden, passing Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
on the way. From his findings in Japan, Thunberg published Flora Japonica. From his findings in South Africa, he published Flora Capensis.
Andreas Berlin, Guinea (1773)
Andreas Berlin (1746–73) studied in Uppsala University with Linnaeus as his student before travelling to London to find a botanical expedition he could join. In 1773 he travelled to Guinea with the English naturalist Henry Smeathman. The purpose of the expedition was to explore the central parts of Africa but prior to reaching the mainland, Berlin died of a stomach illness while on the island Isles de Los. Before his death, Berlin managed to send a few plants to Linnaeus.Adam Afzelius, Sierra Leone (1792–96)
Adam AfzeliusAdam Afzelius
Adam Afzelius was a Swedish botanist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Afzelius was born at Larv in Västergötland in 1750. He was appointed teacher of oriental languages at Uppsala University in 1777, and in 1785 demonstrator of botany...
(1750–1837) joined an English expedition to Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone , officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of and has an estimated population between 5.4 and 6.4...
in 1792 after studing and lecturing in Uppsala. He returned in 1796 having found many new samples, which he described in some of his botanical writings. He also published Linnaeus' autobiography.