Pietru Caxaro
Encyclopedia
Peter Caxaro (c.1400-1485) was a Maltese
philosopher and poet
. He is so far Malta
’s first known philosopher, fragments of whose works are still extant. His philosophical views and positions qualify him as an honourable adherent of the mediaeval humanist movement. His contribution skilfully stands as a mature reflection of the social and cultural revival of his time.
Caxaro’s cultural preparation and his humanistic character, together with his philosophy, entirely reflect the peculiar force, functions and needs of a Mediterranean people whose golden age had still to come, but whose mental constitution and mode of expression were readily set. The discovery of the man and his philosophy is immeasurably relevant to further recognition of the wise tenure of an ancient civilization.
Unfortunately, no portrait of Caxaro has ever been located so far.
family in Malta
. Unfortunately, the date of his birth is still unknown, and it is very doubtful whether it had ever been recorded at all. We might suppose, however, that he was born around the beginning of the 15th century, perhaps around 1400.
His father’s name was Leo, and his mother’s Zuna. It might be possible that the family was of Jewish descent which had been forced to convert to the Catholic
faith. It is known that one of Caxaro’s brothers, Nicholas, was killed in 1473 following a brawl with people from Siggiewi
, Malta
, because of a girl he was secretely seeing.
. Later he went to Palermo
, Sicily
, to pursue them further. At the time, Palermo
was a flourishing city imbued with the spirit of Renaissance humanism
. There Caxaro completed his studies and became a notary in 1438. A couple of months after his graduation, he was appointed judge at the courts of Gozo
for the years 1440-41. In 1441 he also set as judge in the courts of Malta
, and the similarly in 1475. He was judge at the civil courts in 1460-61, 1470-71 and 1481-82, and judge at the ecclesiastical courts in 1473 and 1480-81.
Caxaro was also jurat at the Town Council of Mdina
in 1452-53, 1458-59, 1461-62, 1469-70, 1474-75 and 1482-83. He was a notary or secretary to the same council in 1460 and 1468.
He possessed considerable property at the northern side of Malta
, and was the owner of six slaves.
friars. These had a monastery at Rabat, Malta
, very close to Mdina
, Caxaro’s home-town and centre of operatioin. The Dominicans had originally arrived to Malta
around 1450, and quickly forged good friendships amongst the literary population and professional people, including academics. Towards the end of the 15th century, the Dominicans could boast of erudite friars amongst their fold, such as Peter Xara, Peter Zurki, Dominic Bartolo (who was also Pro-Inquisitor for some cases of the Inquisition
in Malta
) and Bartolomeus Pace.
Caxaro was certainly a good friend of some of these men, both for intellectual as well as personal reasons. The fact that he designated the Dominicans as his general inheritors, or residuary legatees, in his will is proof enough of this.
Despite the fact that Caxaro did all he could to win Franca over, and also obtained the official blessing of the bishop of Malta
, the marriage did not take place just the same. To the great consternation of Caxaro, Franca changed her mind after all.
Thereafter, Caxaro remained a bachelor to the end of his days.
Caxaro had three particular themes which he seemed to come to life about: the welfare and maintanance of his town-home Mdina
, the education of the common people, and the accountability of civil servants.
In 1480, Caxaro took an active and bold part in an issue which involved the bishop of Malta
, who was suspected of corruption. Caxaro was vehement against such corruption, and vigorous in his demand for an immediate remedy. In June 1480, as an act of retarliation, the bishop excommunicated him, an action which was considered immensely serious in those days. Nevertheless, Caxaro was unyielding in his opposition and demands. Consequently, the bishop interdicted him. However, Caxaro was nonetheless undaunted.
The issue lingered on until the first half of the following year, when the bishop had to accede to Caxaro’s and the Town Council’s demands. Accordingly, the excommunication and the interdict were removed. Caxaro’s determination and resolve in the matter were highly praised.
friars.
It is not known were he was initially buried. However, later, as he had it willed, his remains were laid to rest in one of the newly-built chapels of the church of St. Dominic at Rabat, Malta
. The chapel had been actually constructed at Caxaro’s expense, and dedicated to Our Lady of Divine Help.
A memorial was unveiled within the same chapel over Caxaro’s tomb on September 30, 1992.
Michael Fsadni and Godfrey Wettinger. The authors discovered it on September 22, 1966, at the back of the third page from the last in the first of Reverend Brandan Caxaro’s notarial registers (1533-1536), currently numbered R175, in the Notarial Archives, Valletta
. Caxaro’s work was actually transcribed by Rev. Brandan himself in its original Maltese version. The discovery was encountered with enthusiasm within scholarship circles since it had eventually given Maltese literature its greatest boost for a very long time. It had taken the authors about two years before they were able to present Caxaro’s Cantilena to the general public.
The authenticity of Caxaro’s work is undoubtable, and so is Brandan’s transcription. The discoverers themselves, both reliable historical researchers, carefully examined the document and found that it could not reveal any suspicious feature. It was next to impossible for the document to have been faked so well that no sign of its faking remained.
Up till 1968, modern scholarly references to Peter Caxaro had been few. The first known to have referred to him was the Dominican Paul Galea in his history of the Dominicans at Rabat, Malta
published in 1949. Further data was produced by Michael Fsadni O.P. in 1965, also attempting his hand at as similar history. Both friars based their information on a common source, namely, on the Descrittione delli Tre Conventi che l’Ordine dei Predicatori tiene nell’Isola di Malta, I, 1, by Francesco Maria Azzopardo O.P., written about 1676.
Mention of Caxaro had also been made in a work preceding Azzopardo’s by approximately three decades. This had been by Giovanni Francesco Abela
’s 1647 publication entitled (in short) Della Descrittione di Malta.
- indicated its author as a philosopher, poet and orator.
On examination, it is positively held that Caxaro’s original version was in the Maltese
tongue, and that Rev. Brandan transcribed it as faithfully as possible as he recalled it. The composition proves that Caxaro’s qualification as a philosopher, poet and orator is fully justified since its construction is professionally accomplished. He certainly was a man of learning.
Lately, a few proposals have been made which held that the said composition, in part or as a whole, does not have Peter Caxaro as its author. It has been said that the poem is none other than Rev. Brandan’s innocent transcription in Latin characters of a Megrebian or Andalusian
qasida. The proponent unscientifically based his suppositions, as he himself said, on an “extrasensorial impression”. Thus the author hastily concluded that the qualifications attributed to Caxaro by Rev. Brandan are spurious.
The truth, however, seems to be otherwise. Caxaro’s competence as a poetic writer, apart from his philosophic and oratorical skills, is highly estimable. He seems to qualify as a phonetic master, as well as one having control of classical rhetoric techniques. He has tact in expressing his veiled poetic thought in striking and tempting allusions. In other words, Caxaro is a forceful writer, possessing clarity of thought, and is confident in handling of style. The Cantilena is a piece of fine literature; the work of dextrous mastership. It shows a very particular formal attention, and an uncommon capability of stylistic invention in its structure.
It must be noticed, however, that Giovanni Francesco Abela
, in his Descrittione of 1647, did not include Caxaro in his list of some forty-six Houmini di Malta per varie guise d’eccellenza celebri, e famosi, of which not all are that illustrious. Abela could have mentioned Caxaro’s philosophic, poetic or oratorical skills, if anything. This may suggest that Caxaro’s aptitudes were somewhat concealed.
The known sources of Caxaro’s biographical data are few, namely four, the State Archives of Palermo, Sicily (Protocollo del Regno, mainly vol. 34), the National Library of Malta (Universitas, 11), the Archives of the Dominicans, Rabat (Ms. 321, Giuliana Antica, I), and Della Descrittione di Malta Isola nel Mare Siciliano con le sue Antichità, ed altre Notitie of Giovanni Francesco Abela
, printed by Paolo Bonecota, Malta, in 1647 (passim).
The first known date regarding Caxaro is April 1, 1438, when he set for the examination to be given the warrant of public notary of Malta
and Gozo
by the competent authorities in Palermo
, Sicily
. In those times, Malta and its dependencies formed part of the Kingdom of Aragon
. This means that Caxaro had spent some time in Palermo
, a city then imbued with humanism
.
Next, we are informed of a series of appointments in Malta
and Gozo
between 1440 and 1483, a span of forty-three years. Alternatively or concurrently, at one time or another Caxaro acted as judge in the civil courts of Gozo
and of Malta
, and in the ecclesiastical cours. He was further juror in Malta
at the Mdina
city-council, to which he sometimes acted as secretary.
Finally, the Dominicans at Rabat, Malta
preserve a substantial part of his will, drawn on August 12, 1485, shortly before his death. No wife or offspring are mentioned in the will.
Caxaro had willed that he be buried in the Dominican newly-built church at Rabat, Malta
as eventually happened. in a chapel built at his own expense, dedicated to the Gloriosissima Vergine del Soccorso.
It is further known with certainty that Peter Caxaro was a native of Malta
, born of Maltese parents, and lived at Mdina, Malta. His date of birth is still unknown. His immobile property was considerable, though not exuberant. It is known that he had in his service at least six slaves.
Apart from Caxaro’s public offices and death, which is satisfactorily documented, two other personal episodes are known. The first, occurring either in 1463 or 1478, concerns his proposed marriage to Francha di Biglera. From the court proceedings we know that Caxaro’s father had frequently visited Catalonia
(specifically Barcelona
and Valencia). This may have some bearing on Peter’s own formation.
The second instance concerns the murder of Caxaro’s brother, Cola, in 1473 at Siggiewi
, Malta
which may have given a not-so-good reputation to his family.
The most recent significant addition to the personal data and profile of Peter Caxaro was made by Frans Sammut in 2009. He suggested that Caxaro came from a Jewish family that had been converted to Christianity
. In support of his claim he proposed that Caxaro’s Cantilena was in fact a zajal, which in Arabic refers to a song which the Jews
of Spain
(and Sicily
) adopted and promoted.
That Brandan’s transcript of the Cantilena is faulty is evident from various internal traits. Furthermore, the reasons for which Brandan recalled the work, and even the manner in which he did so, is unto this day a baffling uncertainty. The cheerfulness felt by Brandan apparently seems to be doubly caused, namely by both the memory of the composition and the memory of his ancestor (with a necessary relationship of one to the other). Brandan’s opening sentence of the short prologue seems to suggest that he was gladdened more by the relationship than by any of the related parts. Wettinger and Fsadni had suggested that it was the consolation which Brandan saw in the content of the composition that prompted him to leave us a memory of it, writing it down in one of the registers of his acts. But this is a question which must still be open to discussion.
The first to seriously suspect certain imperfections in Brandan’s transcript was Joseph Brincat in 1986, suspicious of the verses which do not have any rhyme. He specifically refers here to the four lines of the refrain (vv. 7-10) and the first four lines of the second stanza (vv. 11-14). Brincat, guided by his erudition as by common sense, concludes that the quatrain which stands on its own between the two stanzas, of six verses and ten verses each respectively, is erroneously transcribed by Brandan. Brincat very aptly provides convincing internal evidence for the error. Brincat’s important conclusion was followed by other scholars, and to which we also subscribe here.
Apart from the Cantilena, other fragments concerning Caxaro’s contributions are extant, namely, a few judicial sentences passed by Caxaro at the ecclesiastical courts, and secretarial minutes taken at the Mdina
town-council meetings in which Caxaro took part. Both are naturally extra-philosophical in nature.
The sentences, however interesting they may be, only give us an inkling into the equilibrate soberness of Caxaro. Herein, we search in vain for any of Caxaro’s own original thinking, apart from the arid judicial and official terminology.
The same may be said of the municipal acts. Only here the information provided regards Caxaro’s context in matters which interested his town (Mdina
) particularly, and the Maltese Islands in general. Caxaro’s name is mentioned at least in some 267 sittings of the council between 1447 and 1485. At most of these, he had a minor say; at other times, his share is more substantial. Some acts are also written in Caxaro’s own hand.
The fact that a man’s philosophy is to be detected from nothing more than a fragment of his written thought, however substantial it may be, does not make novelty in the history of philosophy. Innumerable cases of the sort may be found to exist, including philosophers of a gigantic stature, such as the Miletians, or even Aristotle
himself.
The same is to be said regarding the poetic form of Caxaro’s extant philosophy. We have similar cases with philosophers of outstanding relevance, such as the Eleatics
, including Parmenides
himself, the father of philosophy. However, here, with Caxaro’s case, the question is slightly more complex. We do not have to do with a then out-going poetic custom in an age where prose took the precedence, as in the Greek naturalistic philosophers (of the 5th century BCE). We are in the context of (15th-century) Mediaeval philosophy, highly susceptible to classical literature, both Greek and Roman, but particularly to Plato
and Aristotle
. Here, more than anything else, the poetic form is a technique, an expressive and cognitive distinction.
Some scholars today, especially those brought up in a scholastic tradition, would like to qualify a philosophic work from its systematic nature. Such a definite distinctness would have philosophers like Aristotle
, Avicenna
, Albertus Magnus
, Aquinas, and the like, fitting like drawers. On the other hand, however, it would unwittingly exclude, if none other, Plato
himself, the archetype philosopher of all time, who, unlike the scientist Aristotle
, is an artist prior to being a philosopher. The Corpus Platonicum stands as evident testimony.
Thus Caxaro is part of a tradition which may characteristically and properly be called platonic. The accent here would fall less on unsysthemization, and more on narration, or better, on the myth-type philosophy in its technical connotation. From the formal, essential aspect, we are in the line of Plato
, St. Augustine
and the Mediaeval neo-Platonists, especially those with a humanistic formation in the early Renaissance
period. This was later continued by people like Descartes, Pascal
, Rousseau, Nietzsche, and the like. In general, it is a philosophical trend commencing with an ideal response, technically speaking, to Parmenides
’ concept of being, marked with an intense attention to the affective functions in man, to that knowledge acquired through a volitive prompting, and further manifested with an openness to flexibility. Though the will is duly valued, the intrinsic mental capabilities of man are held to be necessary, prior to the senses, in discovering the true object of knowledge, that being which is different and superior to mere sense data.
and Valencia, and Caxaro’s own connection with Palermo
.
, together with Aragon
, became familiar with humanism before Castille. The first contact of the Catalan scholars with the movement was at its first appearance at the Pontifical court of Avignon
, where Petrarca
sojourned, and at the Council of Constance
(1414-1418), Basle (1431) and Florence
(1438-1455), as at the Neapolitan court of Alphonse V of Aragon
, so-called El Magnanimo (d. 1458).
The Catalan movement was initiated by Juan Fernandez’ efforts in the 14th century. Fernandez travelled to the East and returned with many Greek manuscripts. He later established himself as a translator, compiler and commentator of classical texts, therefore giving rise to a literary culture concerned with human interests.
Fernandez was followed by other men of standing, such as Pedro de Saplana, a Dominican (14th century), Antonio Canals, Bernat Metge
(c.1340-1413), Carlos de Aragon (1421-1461), nephew of King Alphonse V, and Bachiller Alfonso de la Torre (15th century). These men of letters concentrated on the works of Aristotle
, Boethius, Petrarca
, Boccaccio, Marcianus Capella, Pedro Campostella, and the like. They were additionally highly instrumental in animating the cultural centres of Barcelona
and Valencia with the spirit of humanism.
It would not be surprising that Caxaro’s father, in the course of his constant voyaging between Catalonia
, Sicily
and Malta
, like so many other tradesmen of his time, came in contact with the then prevailing environment of Spain
’s Mediterranean city-harbours. Here, as elsewhere, humanism was not restricted to mere cultural circles, but had become the philosophy of the people. Caxaro, apart from his father, had other members of his family, together with many of his townfolk, taking part in this same commerce of goods and ideas.
, asserting his seat at Naples
, and set in giving additional splendour to the reign of Aragon
, was successful in changing the Neapolitan court in one of Renaissance
’ most brilliant great centres. Naples
and its favoured twin Palermo
were visited by the most eminent of humanists from all over the Italian peninsula
, Catalonia
, Castille and Aragon
.
From the first half of the 15th century onwards, Palermo
went through an enormous and impressive economic, demographic and urbanistic development, manifesting a substantial cultural facelift. Though the times were rather difficult due to the frequent incursions of the Turks, and the disastrous effect of epidemics and other diseases, the enthusiasts of the humanæ litteræ were great in number. Up to Caxaro’s visit to Palermo many native men familiar with the studia humanitatis made a name for themselves and for their town, scholars like Giovanni Aurispa
and Giovanni Marrasio.
As in the case of Catalonia
, the spirit of humanism was imported to Sicily
from Northern Italy
where large numbers of Palemitans went to study. Prior to 1445, when the Studio di Catania was established, it was Palermo
which attracted the largest number of law students. These were centres where the classical texts were circulated mainly in manuscript form. In those days, the large number of intellectuals and law students considered the juridical culture as instrumental in acquiring a worthy social standing. The professional state, especially the juridical, became an integral part of the refreshed milieu of the times at Palermo
. Moreover, while the use of the vulgar tongues became established as a practised norm, the so-called cultura del decoro of the humanists became, more than restricted to cultural circles, a quality of life. Slowly it became the diffused, general mentality of the educated Palermitans.
During his visit to Palermo
the young Caxaro himself must have been extremely impressed by the evident restoration and construction of Palermo
’s edifices, both within and without the walls, according to the tastes of the time. The whole city was caught in a rediscovered renovation, manifesting a strong concern for the quality of life. The prevailing humanism brought to the fore a movement of the spirit, each time aesthetic, philosophic, scientific and religious, sharpening the notion of beauty, and brightening the relationship to nature (and naturalism).
Caxaro’s sojourn at Palermo
in 1438 must have recalled to him King Alphonse’ stop in Malta, amidst great pomp and exultation, five years earlier. The Magnanimous, personifying the spirit of the time, entered Mdina
, Caxaro’s town-fortress, “con quelle magiori dimostrationi di giubilo, & applauso, che potevan originarsi da affetto sincero di devoti, e riverenti Vassalli verso il loro Signore”.
The heart of the Mediaeval humanists, as distinct from that of the 14th century Mediaeval masters, and from the exponents of the 16th century Renaissance
, was the retrieval and imitation of the beauty of ancient letters. This had nothing of any anti-Christian sentiment but definitely emphasized naturalism enormously. The imitation of the customs of pagan antiquity came later.
The beginning of humanism coincided with a number of other occurrences. In the first place, the Eastern Schism, a critical moment in the Catholic Church which weakened the papacy. Next, a marked ignorance of the clergy and a relaxation of discipline. Thirdly, the corruption of the customs of the high classes. And finally, the decadence of Scholasticism
.
The forerunners of humanism
imprinted their views with surprising power. The works of Brunetto Latini
(1230-1291), Dante Alighieri
(1265-1321), Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio
(1313-1375) became the daily bread of the humanists. All of these extensively admired classical antiquity, idealising its splendour and richness, and dreaming of an ideal society equivalent to that apparently gorgeous achievement.
Ironically (maybe), it was the melancholic and pessimistic cleric Petrarca
who exerted the greatest influence on the humanists, advocating, like Socrates
, the true wisdom in the knowledge of self, and true humility as the path to the secrets of life. His adherence to Plato
and his fierce attacks on Scholasticism
deeply impressed his posteriors. It was Petrarca, eventually, who supplied the humanist movement with its battle-cries: Rinascere! Rifiorire! Rivivere! Ritrovare! ― stressing the ri more than anything else.
The humanist rebirth was felt in the whole of Western Europe
, especially in the Italian peninsula
, France
, England
, the Netherlands
, Germany
and Spain
. Being the cultural climax of all that has been done in the Middle Ages
, the humanist wave of erudition superbly retrieved the Latin, Greek and Christian classical literature, with its proper techniques, methods, forms and tastes. It developed sciences, such as philology
, palaeography
, epigraphy
, archaeology
, numismatics
, textual criticism
and literary criticism
, geography
and history
. It also gave rise to the printing press
, the libraries, to new universities, paternities and literary associations, such as the renowned Academic Platonica of Marsilio Ficino
(1433-1499). In other words, a true renaissance with its proper philosophy which recognises the value and dignity of man and makes him, as Protagoras
would have it, the “measure of all things”, somehow taking human nature, its limits and delimits, together with its interests, as it main theme.
The literary value of Caxaro’s work, and its standing in the Maltese literary tradition, has likewise been embellished from the historical literary analyses’ point of view. The general lines of this discussion, however, had already been quite satisfactorily described by Wettinger and Fsadni in 1968.
More interesting comments had been advanced from the perspective of literary criticism
. However, much work has to be done in this field, especially by scholars with professional standing on mediaeval Arabic, Spanish and Sicilian idioms, dialects and poetic forms.
Due to the Cantilena’s uniqueness interesting results have been put forward by historical linguistics, emphasising the drastic changes in the Maltese language
over a span of four centuries.
What interests us here, however, is not the Cantilena’s literary value as much as its philosophical content. Before proceeding further, it would be opportune to give the transliteration of the Cantilena:
Paraphrased in English:
, one in possession of Arabic, familiar with the history of Malta
, and well informed on the author of the composition. It must be admitted that a foreigner, even if expert in this field of study, but unfamiliar to a Maltese way of thinking, will find the text difficult and obscure.
The main idea of the text, the so-called “physical interpretation”, is simple enough. An uncontrollable person had been responsible for the collapse of a building which the author considered to be his. In other words, he had misjudged the situation. The theme seems to follow a definite scheme, namely, an apparently simple one: an invocation (vv. 1-2), the narration of an unhappy love event and the lyric I’s situation thereby (vv. 3-6), its delusion (vv. 7-10, 11-14), and finally its attempt to try and reverse the misfortune (vv. 15-20). It is a scheme which in its content resembles the general classical Semitic
(specifically Arabic) qasida pattern.
A point of curiosity might be interesting here. As from the beginning of 1450, the Mdina
town-council had been discussing the precarious state of the town walls (the mirammerii) of Mdina
. In March of that same year, the Augustinian Matteo di Malta had been commissioned as the town-council’s ambassador to lead the talks with the viceroy on the question so as to provide funds for their urgent restoration. Little, if any, progress seems to have been made on the matter, until at the beginning of 1454 an internal tower of the castle at mdina collapsed. So as to take immediate action and prevent further immanent collapse of the walls, at the town-council sitting of January 11 Peter Caxaro, acting as secretary, spoke in favour of an urgent collecta (which was later effected), with the approval of the whole house. Furthermore, on May 24, Nicholas Caxaro, Peter’s brother, had been appointed by the council as supramarammerius to supervise the restoration of the walls. On that occasion, Peter Caxaro had highly praised the decision taken. Strictly by way of speculation, it seems interesting to associate the Cantilena’s mirammiti to Mdina
’s marammerii (being the same term). What is said in the Cantilena’s refrain might be identified to the disastrous collapse of part of Mdina
’s walls in 1454. The Cantilena might have been inspired from that serious occasion, which was the effect of a general negligence. Supposing that the Cantilena had been sung to some of those noblemen at the town-council who were collaborators of Caxaro (as is possible), such speculation might hold some water.
Apart from the immediate and superficial message, we obviously have a more profound and veiled communication. The overall drift of this so-called “metaphysical interpretation”, has been seen to be the ruin of the author’s project, either concerning his career or a love affair. The general melancholic tone of the composition did not pass unnoticed, though it had been recognised that the final note sounded the victory of hope over desperation; the building anew over the ruins of unfulfilled dreams or ambitions.
In 1977 Wettinger categorically denied that the murder of Caxaro’s brother had any relevance to the theme of the Cantilena. On the other hand, he proposed that it may have to do with Caxaro’s marriage proposal which apparently went up in smoke. The suggestion had been confirmed jointly by Wettinger and Fsadni in 1983.
Though presumably well calculated, it would seem that the comments put forward so far reveal little depth, hinging on to a restricted inspection of the matter. This may have somewhat betrayed Caxaro’s philosophic prowess. Some have audaciously stated that the composition has no dept of feeling at all. Others have indeed valued its content highly, wisely noting that the subject is entirely profane (as opposed to the sacred), and moreover sheds light on the concrete versus abstract thinking of the populace (a feature common amongst Mediterranean peoples unto this day); reality against illusion.
What mostly concerns us here is Caxaro’s idiosyncrasy in order to comprehend the entire complexity of his thought as it appears synthetically in the text. His cognitive peculiarities as well as his cultural shared-interests jointly constitute his marked philosophical views and positions.
A. VV. 1-2: THE INVOCATION: TRIAD OF COMMUNICATION
B. VV. 3-6: THE LAMENTATION: CAUSATION
C. VV. 7(11)-10(14): THE NARRATION: LOGIC
Simplifying the whole syllogism, we have the following:
The structure seems to be based on four moments, namely:
the true rock and the apparent rock (i.e., the clay) on which the foundations were build by the workmen for the erection of the house
The blame for the collapse of the house is given to none of the moments save the appearance of something real, namely, of the rock (i.e., the clay).
D. VV. 11(15) – THE RENEWAL: METAPHYSICS
) vulgar idiom by Caxaro. This marked a qualitative leap which resulted from a humanistic formation. The option to express himself with masterly skill while positively valuing highly the language of the people, as opposed to the Latin and Sicilian idioms of the cultured class, indicates real quality on the part of Caxaro. Not only is it a mere choice of tongue but, over and above, it is the adherence to a set mentality peculiar to a geographic territory.
It also shows the worth given to a local culture and heritage, considering it capable of standing on its own two feet on an equal par with that of other neighbouring countries.
The use of the Maltese
vulgar tongue is not a call for independent rule but an affirmation of a native identity characteristic of a people.
The theme dwells on the qualities distinctive of the human nature, such faculties which affirm the astonishing skills of humans and their intrinsic power to transcend the otherwise despairing limitations of their essential characters. Caxaro’s composition in fact shows a trustworthy reliance on the spiritual, or better, immaterial possibilities of humans. The Cantilena can thus rightly be considered a profession of faith in humankind.
Such a belief reverts our attention to the classical humanism of the Sophists and of Socrates
himself, a school which immensely inspired early Renaissance philosophy
. We note here the surpassing of the merely naturalistic mentality of the classics, placing humans at the centre of serious consideration. The classical excellence of proposing natural solutions to age-old problems, over and above the former religious tentative answers, must not be discarded from the context.
Caxaro’s inclination towards action rather than speculation, subordinating (though not eliminating) the latter to the former reveals his inclination towards the platonic school and away from Aristotelico-Scholastic categories of thought.
This, indeed, marks yet another asset to his humanistic character; a trait so strongly felt in the movement.
Caxaro’s composition, following the line of Plato
’s own professional preferences, is shrouded in a linguistic and conceptual veil so as to incite us to an active surmise. Its very narrative construction prompts our latent curiosity to probe the hidden meaning under the apparently shallow surface.
As opposed to a technical (“Aristotelico-Scholastic”) form, which is almost always intrinsically rigid and lineated, even if more immediate and direct, Caxaro’s philosophy is given under the disguise of a narration which has a reality of its own.
While Caxaro himself synthetically states his concepts, especially as regards the unpleasantness of illusion, he prefers to express himself under “deceptive” clothing. The objective nature of his philosophy is thus skilfully guarded behind a screen through which a mere sensuous perception fails to penetrate.
Correspondences do exist indeed in the Cantilena between the various symbolisms which Caxaro harmoniously employs. In truth, he does not simply portray an image for the mere artificial imitation of its external form but moreover dwells on the wealthy analogous qualities of the theory of symbols so widely used in the Middle Ages
.
At this point it is essential to note that the use of allegory in Caxaro’s Cantilena, in accordance with Mediaeval usage, adheres to a subject under the semblance of narrative suggesting similar characteristics. In all probability, Caxaro may not be referring to one single case but to a life-situation in general. The use of an allegory technically functions as a stimulation to further reflection; an openness to the mystery and riddle of life.
This may well be the key to the composition’s enigma. We have here a juxtaposition of an apparent truth (a pseudo-truth) and the truth itself.
In its most general terms this is a metaphysical problem. It marks human’s encounter with a reality which is in itself concealed and garbed with the immediate consciousness and evidence of the sensible. Caxaro eventually contrasts the phenomenal to the noumenical reality, that is, the object of the senses, to which he was attracted in the first place, and the object of the intellect, which he discovered posteriorly. Caxaro’s emphasis, however, and this is his proper characteristic in this sphere, is less on the intuitive function of humans and more on experiential undergoing. The senses are the media with which the real is arrived at.
The theme is an echo of Plato
’s most fundamental problematic. Plato
opposes appearance to the truth (reality), to which he identifies life. To the former he identifies existence. Appearance stops at the level of things which are not of any prime importance save as a vehicle of thought. A general superficiality in life at large is a result of constant and persisting shallowness in all aspects of humans’ being. The ability, on the other hand, to go to the heart of things, to the truth of reality, to life itself, would make this appearance ineffective.
From the reflection of this mode of existence determined by circumstances there arises in Caxaro the humanistic trigger to break out of the humiliating condition (diametrically opposed to the humanizing condition) by a rediscovery of the intrinsic spiritual power within humans themselves. “Vargia ibnie” (“and build it up again”, v. 11{15}) recalls Petrarca’s call for rebirth; a reblooming out of the dust. This marks an essential moment in the rekindled faith and confidence in oneself to overcome helplessness and inertia.
Action now takes the fore (see v. 12{16}). The place of the distorted vision of reality, of the illusory appearance which ruins human living, is to be taken by a fresh renewed conception and introspection. We have here the (spiritual) decision, founded on knowledge, to drastically and decidedly opt for a higher quality of life, namely by the choice of the truth, however troublesome, instead of pseudo-truth (that is, presumed being).
Similarly, being a state of living, this is an option in favour of science, religion, the Church, the State, and the like. Over and above, it is an option in favour of individual personality. All of this is in opposition to pseudo-science, -religion, -Church, -State, and pseudo-personality).
Thus humans are indeed vulnerable and susceptible to the riddle of existence (see vv. 13-14{17-18}). It is their sense of real ascertainment, their capability of applying their judging faculties with right measure (see vv. 15-16{19-20}), that gives them the right sense of direction.
The first four propositions seem to form two pairs of conditional statements, called “consequential” by the mediaevalists, with true status for both the “antecedents” and the “consequents”. The remaining four follow from the former propositions and seem to be constructed on the first inferential schemata of traditional logic.
concepts of cause. The whole of vv. 3-4 recall one of the motive forces which Empedocles
called “Strife”, accounting for the dissolution or decay of the other force, “Love”, which is the principle of generation.
Furthermore, Plato
’s own concept of cause seems to play an additional part. The forms, or formal causes, of things are proposed by Plato to give account for the changes in the world. It seems that Caxaro, especially in v. 3, touches upon this idea.
In general, the mediaeval humanists consistently attempted to avow Aristotle’s concepts whenever possible, including those of cause. However, his influence was never completely cancelled. Consequently, they tried to adhere to other theories of causation, especially those, as Caxaro’s lines seem to demonstrate, which do not admit of any necessary consequence, if not with further qualifications.
and Plato
up to Petrarca
, and further on the transmission of that experience.
This is opposed to the teaching of an otherwise abstract theory, somewhat confirming a superiority of the subject of communication over the object of that communication. A narration of an undergone experience strictly speaking does not rest on the cognitive understanding of the addressee but on his affective capabilities, which to some degree are universal. In other words, it calls for sympathy of sentiments.
Caxaro’s narration, in which he takes a clear philosophical position, retracts from being an instruction, whether it moral or dogmatic. The narration qualifies as an announcement of the discovery of an all-important immaterial world, over and above mere semblances.
Caxaro does not seem to employ images in an unrelated (or extrinsically related) aloof manner. He does not merely appropriate their external form in some way. Caxaro aptly creates a harmony of nuances amongst the symbols he uses, taking advantage of their mutual agreeability. Moreover, he presents them in an analogous relationship with his world of being through the understanding of that world as an indissoluble unity.
Caxaro’s symbols, like those of the Megalithics in Malta and the posteriors Eleatics
in Greece
, are neither simple nor artificial. They do not point to the author’s identification to the images qua images. Caxaro’s peculiar material expression presupposes a prior cosmic spiritual relationship between all matter.
This is a philosophy very proper to the mediaeval philosophers, especially those of the so-called Platonic school.
Unfortunately, here we must sadly restrain myself from going into each and every symbolic implication of the Cantilena. The qualities of the symbolism of the heart (calb, v. 3), the well (bir, v. 4), the steps (...tiragin and tirag, vv. 4 and 5 respectively), the water (bachar, v. 6), the house (miramm{a}..., vv. 7{11}, 10{14} and 11{15}), the foundations (sisen, v. 7{11}, the rock (gebel, vv. 8{12} and 9{13}), the land (miken, vv. 12{16} and 13{17}; ...rad... and ard, vv. 14{18} and 15{19}), and the colours (bayda, white; seude, black; hamyra, red, v. 15{19}), are all proportional to other qualities in humans themselves, who are also part of a coherent, interconnected reality.
Each symbol used by Caxaro is given a qualification, thus modifying their absoluteness. At the same time he recognises their contingent being in relation to humans themselves. The heart is qualified with “mehandihe chakim soltan ui le mule” (“ungoverned, kingless and lordless”, v. 3). The well with “imgamic” (“bottomless”, v. 4). The steps with “mecsule” and “mizeli” (“stop short” and “downfall” respectively, v. 4). The water with “il hali” (“stormy” or “deep”, v. 6). The house with “lili zimen nibni” (“I had long been building”, v. 10{14}).
The rest of the symbolisms follow an indirect qualification. The foundations with “tafal morchi” (“soft clay”, v. 9{13}). The rock with “kitatili” (“gave way”, v. 8{12}). The land with “vintura” and “sura” (“fortune” and “difference”, vv. 13{17} and 14{18} respectively). The colours with “ard” (“land”) itself (v. 15{19}).
Of course, the qualification are essential as the correspondences themselves, and also as much as the logical associations of vv. 7(11) to 10(12), where symbolism has a major role.
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Maltese people
The Maltese are an ethnic group indigenous to the Southern European nation of Malta, and identified with the Maltese language. Malta is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea...
philosopher and poet
Poet
A poet is a person who writes poetry. A poet's work can be literal, meaning that his work is derived from a specific event, or metaphorical, meaning that his work can take on many meanings and forms. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary...
. He is so far Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
’s first known philosopher, fragments of whose works are still extant. His philosophical views and positions qualify him as an honourable adherent of the mediaeval humanist movement. His contribution skilfully stands as a mature reflection of the social and cultural revival of his time.
Caxaro’s cultural preparation and his humanistic character, together with his philosophy, entirely reflect the peculiar force, functions and needs of a Mediterranean people whose golden age had still to come, but whose mental constitution and mode of expression were readily set. The discovery of the man and his philosophy is immeasurably relevant to further recognition of the wise tenure of an ancient civilization.
Unfortunately, no portrait of Caxaro has ever been located so far.
Family
Peter Caxaro was born of a noble MdinaMdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
family in Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
. Unfortunately, the date of his birth is still unknown, and it is very doubtful whether it had ever been recorded at all. We might suppose, however, that he was born around the beginning of the 15th century, perhaps around 1400.
His father’s name was Leo, and his mother’s Zuna. It might be possible that the family was of Jewish descent which had been forced to convert to the Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
faith. It is known that one of Caxaro’s brothers, Nicholas, was killed in 1473 following a brawl with people from Siggiewi
Siggiewi
Siġġiewi is a village and a local council in the southwestern part of Malta. It is situated on a plateau, a few kilometres away from Mdina, the ancient capital city of Malta, and 10 kilometres away from Valletta, the contemporary capital...
, Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, because of a girl he was secretely seeing.
Studies and offices
Caxaro’s first studies were undertaken in MaltaMalta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
. Later he went to Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
, Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, to pursue them further. At the time, Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
was a flourishing city imbued with the spirit of Renaissance humanism
Humanism
Humanism is an approach in study, philosophy, world view or practice that focuses on human values and concerns. In philosophy and social science, humanism is a perspective which affirms some notion of human nature, and is contrasted with anti-humanism....
. There Caxaro completed his studies and became a notary in 1438. A couple of months after his graduation, he was appointed judge at the courts of Gozo
Gozo
Gozo is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago...
for the years 1440-41. In 1441 he also set as judge in the courts of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, and the similarly in 1475. He was judge at the civil courts in 1460-61, 1470-71 and 1481-82, and judge at the ecclesiastical courts in 1473 and 1480-81.
Caxaro was also jurat at the Town Council of Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
in 1452-53, 1458-59, 1461-62, 1469-70, 1474-75 and 1482-83. He was a notary or secretary to the same council in 1460 and 1468.
He possessed considerable property at the northern side of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, and was the owner of six slaves.
Friendship with Dominicans
During all this time, Caxaro was on very good terms with the DominicanDominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
friars. These had a monastery at Rabat, Malta
Rabat, Malta
Rabat is a village just outside Mdina, Malta. The name of the village is derived from the Arabic word for 'suburb': الرباط, as it was the suburb of the old capital Mdina. Half of the present-day village core also formed part of the Roman city of Melita, before the latter was resized during the...
, very close to Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
, Caxaro’s home-town and centre of operatioin. The Dominicans had originally arrived to Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
around 1450, and quickly forged good friendships amongst the literary population and professional people, including academics. Towards the end of the 15th century, the Dominicans could boast of erudite friars amongst their fold, such as Peter Xara, Peter Zurki, Dominic Bartolo (who was also Pro-Inquisitor for some cases of the Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
in Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
) and Bartolomeus Pace.
Caxaro was certainly a good friend of some of these men, both for intellectual as well as personal reasons. The fact that he designated the Dominicans as his general inheritors, or residuary legatees, in his will is proof enough of this.
Marriage attempt
Around 1463, Caxaro aspired to marrying a widow, Franca de Biglera. However, her brother, a Canon at the bishop’s cathedral chapter, objected on the grounds of “spiritual affinity”, since Caxaro’s father was a godfather to Franca.Despite the fact that Caxaro did all he could to win Franca over, and also obtained the official blessing of the bishop of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, the marriage did not take place just the same. To the great consternation of Caxaro, Franca changed her mind after all.
Thereafter, Caxaro remained a bachelor to the end of his days.
Excommunicated
At the Town Council of MdinaMdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
Caxaro had three particular themes which he seemed to come to life about: the welfare and maintanance of his town-home Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
, the education of the common people, and the accountability of civil servants.
In 1480, Caxaro took an active and bold part in an issue which involved the bishop of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, who was suspected of corruption. Caxaro was vehement against such corruption, and vigorous in his demand for an immediate remedy. In June 1480, as an act of retarliation, the bishop excommunicated him, an action which was considered immensely serious in those days. Nevertheless, Caxaro was unyielding in his opposition and demands. Consequently, the bishop interdicted him. However, Caxaro was nonetheless undaunted.
The issue lingered on until the first half of the following year, when the bishop had to accede to Caxaro’s and the Town Council’s demands. Accordingly, the excommunication and the interdict were removed. Caxaro’s determination and resolve in the matter were highly praised.
Death
On August 12, 1485, Caxaro drew up his will, and died a few days later. Unfortunately, the precise date of his death is still not known with any certainty. All his possession went to the DominicanDominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
friars.
It is not known were he was initially buried. However, later, as he had it willed, his remains were laid to rest in one of the newly-built chapels of the church of St. Dominic at Rabat, Malta
Rabat, Malta
Rabat is a village just outside Mdina, Malta. The name of the village is derived from the Arabic word for 'suburb': الرباط, as it was the suburb of the old capital Mdina. Half of the present-day village core also formed part of the Roman city of Melita, before the latter was resized during the...
. The chapel had been actually constructed at Caxaro’s expense, and dedicated to Our Lady of Divine Help.
A memorial was unveiled within the same chapel over Caxaro’s tomb on September 30, 1992.
Unveiled
Peter Caxaro was virtually unknown until he was made famous in 1968 by the publication of his Cantilena by the DominicanDominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
Michael Fsadni and Godfrey Wettinger. The authors discovered it on September 22, 1966, at the back of the third page from the last in the first of Reverend Brandan Caxaro’s notarial registers (1533-1536), currently numbered R175, in the Notarial Archives, Valletta
Valletta
Valletta is the capital of Malta, colloquially known as Il-Belt in Maltese. It is located in the central-eastern portion of the island of Malta, and the historical city has a population of 6,098. The name "Valletta" is traditionally reserved for the historic walled citadel that serves as Malta's...
. Caxaro’s work was actually transcribed by Rev. Brandan himself in its original Maltese version. The discovery was encountered with enthusiasm within scholarship circles since it had eventually given Maltese literature its greatest boost for a very long time. It had taken the authors about two years before they were able to present Caxaro’s Cantilena to the general public.
The authenticity of Caxaro’s work is undoubtable, and so is Brandan’s transcription. The discoverers themselves, both reliable historical researchers, carefully examined the document and found that it could not reveal any suspicious feature. It was next to impossible for the document to have been faked so well that no sign of its faking remained.
Up till 1968, modern scholarly references to Peter Caxaro had been few. The first known to have referred to him was the Dominican Paul Galea in his history of the Dominicans at Rabat, Malta
Rabat, Malta
Rabat is a village just outside Mdina, Malta. The name of the village is derived from the Arabic word for 'suburb': الرباط, as it was the suburb of the old capital Mdina. Half of the present-day village core also formed part of the Roman city of Melita, before the latter was resized during the...
published in 1949. Further data was produced by Michael Fsadni O.P. in 1965, also attempting his hand at as similar history. Both friars based their information on a common source, namely, on the Descrittione delli Tre Conventi che l’Ordine dei Predicatori tiene nell’Isola di Malta, I, 1, by Francesco Maria Azzopardo O.P., written about 1676.
Mention of Caxaro had also been made in a work preceding Azzopardo’s by approximately three decades. This had been by Giovanni Francesco Abela
Giovanni Francesco Abela
Giovanni Francesco Abela was a Maltese of noble birth who in the early 17th century wrote an important work on Malta, Malta illustrata con le sue Antichità ed altre Notizie ....
’s 1647 publication entitled (in short) Della Descrittione di Malta.
The man
Introducing his transcription of the composition, Rev. Brandan - a member of the Society of True ChristiansSociety of True Christians
The Society of True Christians , whose original name was Confraternita dei Buoni Cristiani, was a philosophy study group in Malta which sought freedom of thought and action. It was made up of both clerical and lay persons, and its members were Maltese as well as foreign. Its area of specialisation...
- indicated its author as a philosopher, poet and orator.
On examination, it is positively held that Caxaro’s original version was in the Maltese
Maltese language
Maltese is the national language of Malta, and a co-official language of the country alongside English,while also serving as an official language of the European Union, the only Semitic language so distinguished. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic...
tongue, and that Rev. Brandan transcribed it as faithfully as possible as he recalled it. The composition proves that Caxaro’s qualification as a philosopher, poet and orator is fully justified since its construction is professionally accomplished. He certainly was a man of learning.
Lately, a few proposals have been made which held that the said composition, in part or as a whole, does not have Peter Caxaro as its author. It has been said that the poem is none other than Rev. Brandan’s innocent transcription in Latin characters of a Megrebian or Andalusian
Andalusian
The adjective Andalusian can refer to:*Andalusia, a region in Spain*Al-Andalus, a historical state on the Iberian Peninsula*Andalusian people, an ethnic group or nation in Spain centered in the Andalusia region...
qasida. The proponent unscientifically based his suppositions, as he himself said, on an “extrasensorial impression”. Thus the author hastily concluded that the qualifications attributed to Caxaro by Rev. Brandan are spurious.
The truth, however, seems to be otherwise. Caxaro’s competence as a poetic writer, apart from his philosophic and oratorical skills, is highly estimable. He seems to qualify as a phonetic master, as well as one having control of classical rhetoric techniques. He has tact in expressing his veiled poetic thought in striking and tempting allusions. In other words, Caxaro is a forceful writer, possessing clarity of thought, and is confident in handling of style. The Cantilena is a piece of fine literature; the work of dextrous mastership. It shows a very particular formal attention, and an uncommon capability of stylistic invention in its structure.
It must be noticed, however, that Giovanni Francesco Abela
Giovanni Francesco Abela
Giovanni Francesco Abela was a Maltese of noble birth who in the early 17th century wrote an important work on Malta, Malta illustrata con le sue Antichità ed altre Notizie ....
, in his Descrittione of 1647, did not include Caxaro in his list of some forty-six Houmini di Malta per varie guise d’eccellenza celebri, e famosi, of which not all are that illustrious. Abela could have mentioned Caxaro’s philosophic, poetic or oratorical skills, if anything. This may suggest that Caxaro’s aptitudes were somewhat concealed.
The known sources of Caxaro’s biographical data are few, namely four, the State Archives of Palermo, Sicily (Protocollo del Regno, mainly vol. 34), the National Library of Malta (Universitas, 11), the Archives of the Dominicans, Rabat (Ms. 321, Giuliana Antica, I), and Della Descrittione di Malta Isola nel Mare Siciliano con le sue Antichità, ed altre Notitie of Giovanni Francesco Abela
Giovanni Francesco Abela
Giovanni Francesco Abela was a Maltese of noble birth who in the early 17th century wrote an important work on Malta, Malta illustrata con le sue Antichità ed altre Notizie ....
, printed by Paolo Bonecota, Malta, in 1647 (passim).
The first known date regarding Caxaro is April 1, 1438, when he set for the examination to be given the warrant of public notary of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
and Gozo
Gozo
Gozo is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago...
by the competent authorities in Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
, Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
. In those times, Malta and its dependencies formed part of the Kingdom of Aragon
Kingdom of Aragon
The Kingdom of Aragon was a medieval and early modern kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, corresponding to the modern-day autonomous community of Aragon, in Spain...
. This means that Caxaro had spent some time in Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
, a city then imbued with humanism
Humanism
Humanism is an approach in study, philosophy, world view or practice that focuses on human values and concerns. In philosophy and social science, humanism is a perspective which affirms some notion of human nature, and is contrasted with anti-humanism....
.
Next, we are informed of a series of appointments in Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
and Gozo
Gozo
Gozo is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago...
between 1440 and 1483, a span of forty-three years. Alternatively or concurrently, at one time or another Caxaro acted as judge in the civil courts of Gozo
Gozo
Gozo is a small island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea. The island is part of the Southern European country of Malta; after the island of Malta itself, it is the second-largest island in the archipelago...
and of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, and in the ecclesiastical cours. He was further juror in Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
at the Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
city-council, to which he sometimes acted as secretary.
Finally, the Dominicans at Rabat, Malta
Rabat, Malta
Rabat is a village just outside Mdina, Malta. The name of the village is derived from the Arabic word for 'suburb': الرباط, as it was the suburb of the old capital Mdina. Half of the present-day village core also formed part of the Roman city of Melita, before the latter was resized during the...
preserve a substantial part of his will, drawn on August 12, 1485, shortly before his death. No wife or offspring are mentioned in the will.
Caxaro had willed that he be buried in the Dominican newly-built church at Rabat, Malta
Rabat, Malta
Rabat is a village just outside Mdina, Malta. The name of the village is derived from the Arabic word for 'suburb': الرباط, as it was the suburb of the old capital Mdina. Half of the present-day village core also formed part of the Roman city of Melita, before the latter was resized during the...
as eventually happened. in a chapel built at his own expense, dedicated to the Gloriosissima Vergine del Soccorso.
It is further known with certainty that Peter Caxaro was a native of Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, born of Maltese parents, and lived at Mdina, Malta. His date of birth is still unknown. His immobile property was considerable, though not exuberant. It is known that he had in his service at least six slaves.
Apart from Caxaro’s public offices and death, which is satisfactorily documented, two other personal episodes are known. The first, occurring either in 1463 or 1478, concerns his proposed marriage to Francha di Biglera. From the court proceedings we know that Caxaro’s father had frequently visited Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
(specifically Barcelona
Barcelona
Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain after Madrid, and the capital of Catalonia, with a population of 1,621,537 within its administrative limits on a land area of...
and Valencia). This may have some bearing on Peter’s own formation.
The second instance concerns the murder of Caxaro’s brother, Cola, in 1473 at Siggiewi
Siggiewi
Siġġiewi is a village and a local council in the southwestern part of Malta. It is situated on a plateau, a few kilometres away from Mdina, the ancient capital city of Malta, and 10 kilometres away from Valletta, the contemporary capital...
, Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
which may have given a not-so-good reputation to his family.
The most recent significant addition to the personal data and profile of Peter Caxaro was made by Frans Sammut in 2009. He suggested that Caxaro came from a Jewish family that had been converted to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. In support of his claim he proposed that Caxaro’s Cantilena was in fact a zajal, which in Arabic refers to a song which the Jews
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
of Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
(and Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
) adopted and promoted.
Extant fragments
Little of Caxaro’s scholarship is known to exist. Much work has yet to be accomplished in this difficult field. We only possess isolated parts of his contributions, the most complete being the Cantilena, which, in itself, comes down to us through an imperfect, indirect source.That Brandan’s transcript of the Cantilena is faulty is evident from various internal traits. Furthermore, the reasons for which Brandan recalled the work, and even the manner in which he did so, is unto this day a baffling uncertainty. The cheerfulness felt by Brandan apparently seems to be doubly caused, namely by both the memory of the composition and the memory of his ancestor (with a necessary relationship of one to the other). Brandan’s opening sentence of the short prologue seems to suggest that he was gladdened more by the relationship than by any of the related parts. Wettinger and Fsadni had suggested that it was the consolation which Brandan saw in the content of the composition that prompted him to leave us a memory of it, writing it down in one of the registers of his acts. But this is a question which must still be open to discussion.
The first to seriously suspect certain imperfections in Brandan’s transcript was Joseph Brincat in 1986, suspicious of the verses which do not have any rhyme. He specifically refers here to the four lines of the refrain (vv. 7-10) and the first four lines of the second stanza (vv. 11-14). Brincat, guided by his erudition as by common sense, concludes that the quatrain which stands on its own between the two stanzas, of six verses and ten verses each respectively, is erroneously transcribed by Brandan. Brincat very aptly provides convincing internal evidence for the error. Brincat’s important conclusion was followed by other scholars, and to which we also subscribe here.
Apart from the Cantilena, other fragments concerning Caxaro’s contributions are extant, namely, a few judicial sentences passed by Caxaro at the ecclesiastical courts, and secretarial minutes taken at the Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
town-council meetings in which Caxaro took part. Both are naturally extra-philosophical in nature.
The sentences, however interesting they may be, only give us an inkling into the equilibrate soberness of Caxaro. Herein, we search in vain for any of Caxaro’s own original thinking, apart from the arid judicial and official terminology.
The same may be said of the municipal acts. Only here the information provided regards Caxaro’s context in matters which interested his town (Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
) particularly, and the Maltese Islands in general. Caxaro’s name is mentioned at least in some 267 sittings of the council between 1447 and 1485. At most of these, he had a minor say; at other times, his share is more substantial. Some acts are also written in Caxaro’s own hand.
The philosopher
Philosopher is the title attributed to Caxaro by Rev. Brandan. In the rest of the Cantilena’s prologue, which is formally in accord with the general practice of the times, the poetic rather than the philosophical or oratorical excellences of Caxaro are emphasized. These are left in the shadow, even by modern scholars. It has been naively ventured that the appellative philosopher is to be understood merely in the sense of a man of wisdom or learning (“bniedem gharef”, literally indicating a sophist rather than a philosopher). However, being a trustworthy notary in possession of a precise vocabulary (to which the rest of the prologue, at least, is witness), Rev. Brandan is to be understood in a strict sense. The hope of the discovery of corroborative material in this regard must remain enkindled.The fact that a man’s philosophy is to be detected from nothing more than a fragment of his written thought, however substantial it may be, does not make novelty in the history of philosophy. Innumerable cases of the sort may be found to exist, including philosophers of a gigantic stature, such as the Miletians, or even Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
himself.
The same is to be said regarding the poetic form of Caxaro’s extant philosophy. We have similar cases with philosophers of outstanding relevance, such as the Eleatics
Eleatics
The Eleatics were a school of pre-Socratic philosophers at Elea , a Greek colony in Campania, Italy. The group was founded in the early fifth century BCE by Parmenides. Other members of the school included Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos...
, including Parmenides
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem, On Nature, which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides...
himself, the father of philosophy. However, here, with Caxaro’s case, the question is slightly more complex. We do not have to do with a then out-going poetic custom in an age where prose took the precedence, as in the Greek naturalistic philosophers (of the 5th century BCE). We are in the context of (15th-century) Mediaeval philosophy, highly susceptible to classical literature, both Greek and Roman, but particularly to Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
and Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
. Here, more than anything else, the poetic form is a technique, an expressive and cognitive distinction.
Some scholars today, especially those brought up in a scholastic tradition, would like to qualify a philosophic work from its systematic nature. Such a definite distinctness would have philosophers like Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
, Avicenna
Avicenna
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā , commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived...
, Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus
Albertus Magnus, O.P. , also known as Albert the Great and Albert of Cologne, is a Catholic saint. He was a German Dominican friar and a bishop, who achieved fame for his comprehensive knowledge of and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. Those such as James A. Weisheipl...
, Aquinas, and the like, fitting like drawers. On the other hand, however, it would unwittingly exclude, if none other, Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
himself, the archetype philosopher of all time, who, unlike the scientist Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
, is an artist prior to being a philosopher. The Corpus Platonicum stands as evident testimony.
Thus Caxaro is part of a tradition which may characteristically and properly be called platonic. The accent here would fall less on unsysthemization, and more on narration, or better, on the myth-type philosophy in its technical connotation. From the formal, essential aspect, we are in the line of Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
, St. Augustine
St. Augustine
-People:* Augustine of Hippo or Augustine of Hippo , father of the Latin church* Augustine of Canterbury , first Archbishop of Canterbury* Augustine Webster, an English Catholic martyr.-Places:*St. Augustine, Florida, United States...
and the Mediaeval neo-Platonists, especially those with a humanistic formation in the early Renaissance
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
period. This was later continued by people like Descartes, Pascal
Blaise Pascal
Blaise Pascal , was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen...
, Rousseau, Nietzsche, and the like. In general, it is a philosophical trend commencing with an ideal response, technically speaking, to Parmenides
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem, On Nature, which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides...
’ concept of being, marked with an intense attention to the affective functions in man, to that knowledge acquired through a volitive prompting, and further manifested with an openness to flexibility. Though the will is duly valued, the intrinsic mental capabilities of man are held to be necessary, prior to the senses, in discovering the true object of knowledge, that being which is different and superior to mere sense data.
A Humanistic character
It seems to be opportune at this point to highlight two instances from Caxaro’s acquaintances, namely, his father’s contact with BarcelonaBarcelona
Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain after Madrid, and the capital of Catalonia, with a population of 1,621,537 within its administrative limits on a land area of...
and Valencia, and Caxaro’s own connection with Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
.
Humanist Catalonia
CataloniaCatalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
, together with Aragon
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
, became familiar with humanism before Castille. The first contact of the Catalan scholars with the movement was at its first appearance at the Pontifical court of Avignon
Avignon
Avignon is a French commune in southeastern France in the départment of the Vaucluse bordered by the left bank of the Rhône river. Of the 94,787 inhabitants of the city on 1 January 2010, 12 000 live in the ancient town centre surrounded by its medieval ramparts.Often referred to as the...
, where Petrarca
Petrarca
Petrarca may refer to:* Petrarch, the English name for Francesco Petrarca , Italian scholar, poet, and Renaissance humanist* David Petrarca , director at the Goodman Theatre* Petrarca Rugby, an Italian rugby union club...
sojourned, and at the Council of Constance
Council of Constance
The Council of Constance is the 15th ecumenical council recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1414 to 1418. The council ended the Three-Popes Controversy, by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining Papal claimants and electing Pope Martin V.The Council also condemned and...
(1414-1418), Basle (1431) and Florence
Florence
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the province of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with approximately 370,000 inhabitants, expanding to over 1.5 million in the metropolitan area....
(1438-1455), as at the Neapolitan court of Alphonse V of Aragon
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
, so-called El Magnanimo (d. 1458).
The Catalan movement was initiated by Juan Fernandez’ efforts in the 14th century. Fernandez travelled to the East and returned with many Greek manuscripts. He later established himself as a translator, compiler and commentator of classical texts, therefore giving rise to a literary culture concerned with human interests.
Fernandez was followed by other men of standing, such as Pedro de Saplana, a Dominican (14th century), Antonio Canals, Bernat Metge
Bernat Metge
Bernat Metge was a Catalan humanist, best known as the author of Lo Somni .He held a position at the court of Joan I of Aragon, and, following some troubles, once more served Martí of Aragon....
(c.1340-1413), Carlos de Aragon (1421-1461), nephew of King Alphonse V, and Bachiller Alfonso de la Torre (15th century). These men of letters concentrated on the works of Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
, Boethius, Petrarca
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca , known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar, poet and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch is often called the "Father of Humanism"...
, Boccaccio, Marcianus Capella, Pedro Campostella, and the like. They were additionally highly instrumental in animating the cultural centres of Barcelona
Barcelona
Barcelona is the second largest city in Spain after Madrid, and the capital of Catalonia, with a population of 1,621,537 within its administrative limits on a land area of...
and Valencia with the spirit of humanism.
It would not be surprising that Caxaro’s father, in the course of his constant voyaging between Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
, Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
and Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, like so many other tradesmen of his time, came in contact with the then prevailing environment of Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
’s Mediterranean city-harbours. Here, as elsewhere, humanism was not restricted to mere cultural circles, but had become the philosophy of the people. Caxaro, apart from his father, had other members of his family, together with many of his townfolk, taking part in this same commerce of goods and ideas.
Humanist Palermo
King Alphonse the Magnanimous of AragonAragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
, asserting his seat at Naples
Naples
Naples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
, and set in giving additional splendour to the reign of Aragon
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
, was successful in changing the Neapolitan court in one of Renaissance
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
’ most brilliant great centres. Naples
Naples
Naples is a city in Southern Italy, situated on the country's west coast by the Gulf of Naples. Lying between two notable volcanic regions, Mount Vesuvius and the Phlegraean Fields, it is the capital of the region of Campania and of the province of Naples...
and its favoured twin Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
were visited by the most eminent of humanists from all over the Italian peninsula
Italian Peninsula
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is one of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe , spanning from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. The peninsula's shape gives it the nickname Lo Stivale...
, Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
, Castille and Aragon
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
.
From the first half of the 15th century onwards, Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
went through an enormous and impressive economic, demographic and urbanistic development, manifesting a substantial cultural facelift. Though the times were rather difficult due to the frequent incursions of the Turks, and the disastrous effect of epidemics and other diseases, the enthusiasts of the humanæ litteræ were great in number. Up to Caxaro’s visit to Palermo many native men familiar with the studia humanitatis made a name for themselves and for their town, scholars like Giovanni Aurispa
Giovanni Aurispa
Giovanni Aurispa was an Italian historian and savant of the 15th century. He is remembered in particular as a promoter of the revival of the study of Greek in Italy. It is to Aurispa that the world is indebted for preserving the greater part of our knowledge of the Greek classics.-Life:He was...
and Giovanni Marrasio.
As in the case of Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
, the spirit of humanism was imported to Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
from Northern Italy
Northern Italy
Northern Italy is a wide cultural, historical and geographical definition, without any administrative usage, used to indicate the northern part of the Italian state, also referred as Settentrione or Alta Italia...
where large numbers of Palemitans went to study. Prior to 1445, when the Studio di Catania was established, it was Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
which attracted the largest number of law students. These were centres where the classical texts were circulated mainly in manuscript form. In those days, the large number of intellectuals and law students considered the juridical culture as instrumental in acquiring a worthy social standing. The professional state, especially the juridical, became an integral part of the refreshed milieu of the times at Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
. Moreover, while the use of the vulgar tongues became established as a practised norm, the so-called cultura del decoro of the humanists became, more than restricted to cultural circles, a quality of life. Slowly it became the diffused, general mentality of the educated Palermitans.
During his visit to Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
the young Caxaro himself must have been extremely impressed by the evident restoration and construction of Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
’s edifices, both within and without the walls, according to the tastes of the time. The whole city was caught in a rediscovered renovation, manifesting a strong concern for the quality of life. The prevailing humanism brought to the fore a movement of the spirit, each time aesthetic, philosophic, scientific and religious, sharpening the notion of beauty, and brightening the relationship to nature (and naturalism).
Caxaro’s sojourn at Palermo
Palermo
Palermo is a city in Southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old...
in 1438 must have recalled to him King Alphonse’ stop in Malta, amidst great pomp and exultation, five years earlier. The Magnanimous, personifying the spirit of the time, entered Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
, Caxaro’s town-fortress, “con quelle magiori dimostrationi di giubilo, & applauso, che potevan originarsi da affetto sincero di devoti, e riverenti Vassalli verso il loro Signore”.
The spirit of mediaeval humanism
In order to comprehend better Caxaro’s philosophy we cannot do less than grasp the spirit of humanism in his age.The heart of the Mediaeval humanists, as distinct from that of the 14th century Mediaeval masters, and from the exponents of the 16th century Renaissance
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
, was the retrieval and imitation of the beauty of ancient letters. This had nothing of any anti-Christian sentiment but definitely emphasized naturalism enormously. The imitation of the customs of pagan antiquity came later.
The beginning of humanism coincided with a number of other occurrences. In the first place, the Eastern Schism, a critical moment in the Catholic Church which weakened the papacy. Next, a marked ignorance of the clergy and a relaxation of discipline. Thirdly, the corruption of the customs of the high classes. And finally, the decadence of Scholasticism
Scholasticism
Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context...
.
The forerunners of humanism
Humanism
Humanism is an approach in study, philosophy, world view or practice that focuses on human values and concerns. In philosophy and social science, humanism is a perspective which affirms some notion of human nature, and is contrasted with anti-humanism....
imprinted their views with surprising power. The works of Brunetto Latini
Brunetto Latini
Brunetto Latini was an Italian philosopher, scholar and statesman.-Life:...
(1230-1291), Dante Alighieri
Dante Alighieri
Durante degli Alighieri, mononymously referred to as Dante , was an Italian poet, prose writer, literary theorist, moral philosopher, and political thinker. He is best known for the monumental epic poem La commedia, later named La divina commedia ...
(1265-1321), Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio
Giovanni Boccaccio
Giovanni Boccaccio was an Italian author and poet, a friend, student, and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist and the author of a number of notable works including the Decameron, On Famous Women, and his poetry in the Italian vernacular...
(1313-1375) became the daily bread of the humanists. All of these extensively admired classical antiquity, idealising its splendour and richness, and dreaming of an ideal society equivalent to that apparently gorgeous achievement.
Ironically (maybe), it was the melancholic and pessimistic cleric Petrarca
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca , known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar, poet and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch is often called the "Father of Humanism"...
who exerted the greatest influence on the humanists, advocating, like Socrates
Socrates
Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
, the true wisdom in the knowledge of self, and true humility as the path to the secrets of life. His adherence to Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
and his fierce attacks on Scholasticism
Scholasticism
Scholasticism is a method of critical thought which dominated teaching by the academics of medieval universities in Europe from about 1100–1500, and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy in an increasingly pluralistic context...
deeply impressed his posteriors. It was Petrarca, eventually, who supplied the humanist movement with its battle-cries: Rinascere! Rifiorire! Rivivere! Ritrovare! ― stressing the ri more than anything else.
The humanist rebirth was felt in the whole of Western Europe
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
, especially in the Italian peninsula
Italian Peninsula
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is one of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe , spanning from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. The peninsula's shape gives it the nickname Lo Stivale...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
. Being the cultural climax of all that has been done in the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
, the humanist wave of erudition superbly retrieved the Latin, Greek and Christian classical literature, with its proper techniques, methods, forms and tastes. It developed sciences, such as philology
Philology
Philology is the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics.Classical philology is the philology of Greek and Classical Latin...
, palaeography
Palaeography
Palaeography, also spelt paleography is the study of ancient writing. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating historical manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of...
, epigraphy
Epigraphy
Epigraphy Epigraphy Epigraphy (from the , literally "on-writing", is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing; that is, the science of identifying the graphemes and of classifying their use as to cultural context and date, elucidating their meaning and assessing what conclusions can be...
, archaeology
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
, numismatics
Numismatics
Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, and related objects. While numismatists are often characterized as students or collectors of coins, the discipline also includes the broader study of money and other payment media used to resolve debts and the...
, textual criticism
Textual criticism
Textual criticism is a branch of literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts...
and literary criticism
Literary criticism
Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals...
, geography
Geography
Geography is the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes...
and history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
. It also gave rise to the printing press
Printing press
A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium , thereby transferring the ink...
, the libraries, to new universities, paternities and literary associations, such as the renowned Academic Platonica of Marsilio Ficino
Marsilio Ficino
Marsilio Ficino was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance, an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism who was in touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin...
(1433-1499). In other words, a true renaissance with its proper philosophy which recognises the value and dignity of man and makes him, as Protagoras
Protagoras
Protagoras was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional sophist or teacher of virtue...
would have it, the “measure of all things”, somehow taking human nature, its limits and delimits, together with its interests, as it main theme.
The Cantilena
The textual analyses of the Cantilena, employed during these last twenty-five years, have given ample food for thought. In general, the comments regarded the embarrassing inconsistencies which exist in the extant copy of the Cantilena.The literary value of Caxaro’s work, and its standing in the Maltese literary tradition, has likewise been embellished from the historical literary analyses’ point of view. The general lines of this discussion, however, had already been quite satisfactorily described by Wettinger and Fsadni in 1968.
More interesting comments had been advanced from the perspective of literary criticism
Literary criticism
Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals...
. However, much work has to be done in this field, especially by scholars with professional standing on mediaeval Arabic, Spanish and Sicilian idioms, dialects and poetic forms.
Due to the Cantilena’s uniqueness interesting results have been put forward by historical linguistics, emphasising the drastic changes in the Maltese language
Maltese language
Maltese is the national language of Malta, and a co-official language of the country alongside English,while also serving as an official language of the European Union, the only Semitic language so distinguished. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic...
over a span of four centuries.
What interests us here, however, is not the Cantilena’s literary value as much as its philosophical content. Before proceeding further, it would be opportune to give the transliteration of the Cantilena:
-
- Xideu il cada ye gireni tale nichadithicum
- Mensab fil gueri uele nisab fo homorcom 2
- Calb mehandihe chakim soltan ui le mule
- Bir imgamic rimitine betiragin mecsule 4
- fen hayran al garca nenzel fi tirag minzeli
- Nitila vy nargia ninzil deyem fil-bachar il hali 6
-
-
- [Omission]
-
-
- Huakit hy mirammiti Nizlit hi li sisen
- Mectatilix il mihallimin ma kitatili li gebel 8(12)
- fen tumayt insib il gebel sib tafal morchi
- Huakit thi mirammiti lili zimen nibni 10(14)
- Huec ucakit hi mirammiti vargia ibnie
- biddilihe inte il miken illi yeutihe 12(16)
- Min ibidill il miken ibidil il vintura
- halex liradi ‘al col xebir sura 14(18)
- hemme ard bayda v hemme ard seude et hamyra
- Hactar min hedaun heme tred minne tamarra 16(20)
Paraphrased in English:
-
- The recital of misfortune, O my neighbours, come I’ll tell you
- Such as has not been found in the past, nor in your lifetime.
- A heart ungoverned, kingless, and lordless
- Has thrown me into a deep well with steps that stop short;
- Where, desiring to drown, I descend by the steps of my downfall;
- Rising and falling always in the stormy sea.
-
- My house has fallen! It has pushed the foundations.
- The workmen did not traspass me, but the rock gave way.
- Where I had hoped to find rock, I found loose clay.
- The house I had long been building has collapsed.
- And that’s how my house fell! And build it up again!
- Change for it the place that harms it.
- He who changes the place changes his fortune;
- For each land makes a difference with every span;
- There is white land and black and red land;
- More than this, there is that fromw hich you’d better leave.
Idiosyncratic analysis
At its appearance in 1968 the Cantilena had been declared to be not readily understandable by today’s generation. The discoverers themselves found it “terribly difficult and absolutely daunting”. The interpreter, it had been said, had to be a philologist, a MalteseMaltese people
The Maltese are an ethnic group indigenous to the Southern European nation of Malta, and identified with the Maltese language. Malta is an island in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea...
, one in possession of Arabic, familiar with the history of Malta
History of Malta
Malta has been inhabited since it was settled around 5200 BC from Sicily. It was settled by the Phoenicians and later the Greeks who named the island Μελίτη meaning "honey sweet" in reference to Malta's endemic variety of bee.-B.C.:*5000 First Human settlers...
, and well informed on the author of the composition. It must be admitted that a foreigner, even if expert in this field of study, but unfamiliar to a Maltese way of thinking, will find the text difficult and obscure.
The main idea of the text, the so-called “physical interpretation”, is simple enough. An uncontrollable person had been responsible for the collapse of a building which the author considered to be his. In other words, he had misjudged the situation. The theme seems to follow a definite scheme, namely, an apparently simple one: an invocation (vv. 1-2), the narration of an unhappy love event and the lyric I’s situation thereby (vv. 3-6), its delusion (vv. 7-10, 11-14), and finally its attempt to try and reverse the misfortune (vv. 15-20). It is a scheme which in its content resembles the general classical Semitic
Semitic
In linguistics and ethnology, Semitic was first used to refer to a language family of largely Middle Eastern origin, now called the Semitic languages...
(specifically Arabic) qasida pattern.
A point of curiosity might be interesting here. As from the beginning of 1450, the Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
town-council had been discussing the precarious state of the town walls (the mirammerii) of Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
. In March of that same year, the Augustinian Matteo di Malta had been commissioned as the town-council’s ambassador to lead the talks with the viceroy on the question so as to provide funds for their urgent restoration. Little, if any, progress seems to have been made on the matter, until at the beginning of 1454 an internal tower of the castle at mdina collapsed. So as to take immediate action and prevent further immanent collapse of the walls, at the town-council sitting of January 11 Peter Caxaro, acting as secretary, spoke in favour of an urgent collecta (which was later effected), with the approval of the whole house. Furthermore, on May 24, Nicholas Caxaro, Peter’s brother, had been appointed by the council as supramarammerius to supervise the restoration of the walls. On that occasion, Peter Caxaro had highly praised the decision taken. Strictly by way of speculation, it seems interesting to associate the Cantilena’s mirammiti to Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
’s marammerii (being the same term). What is said in the Cantilena’s refrain might be identified to the disastrous collapse of part of Mdina
Mdina
Mdina, Città Vecchia, or Città Notabile, is the old capital of Malta. Mdina is a medieval walled town situated on a hill in the centre of the island. Punic remains uncovered beyond the city’s walls suggest the importance of the general region to Malta’s Phoenician settlers. Mdina is commonly...
’s walls in 1454. The Cantilena might have been inspired from that serious occasion, which was the effect of a general negligence. Supposing that the Cantilena had been sung to some of those noblemen at the town-council who were collaborators of Caxaro (as is possible), such speculation might hold some water.
Apart from the immediate and superficial message, we obviously have a more profound and veiled communication. The overall drift of this so-called “metaphysical interpretation”, has been seen to be the ruin of the author’s project, either concerning his career or a love affair. The general melancholic tone of the composition did not pass unnoticed, though it had been recognised that the final note sounded the victory of hope over desperation; the building anew over the ruins of unfulfilled dreams or ambitions.
In 1977 Wettinger categorically denied that the murder of Caxaro’s brother had any relevance to the theme of the Cantilena. On the other hand, he proposed that it may have to do with Caxaro’s marriage proposal which apparently went up in smoke. The suggestion had been confirmed jointly by Wettinger and Fsadni in 1983.
Though presumably well calculated, it would seem that the comments put forward so far reveal little depth, hinging on to a restricted inspection of the matter. This may have somewhat betrayed Caxaro’s philosophic prowess. Some have audaciously stated that the composition has no dept of feeling at all. Others have indeed valued its content highly, wisely noting that the subject is entirely profane (as opposed to the sacred), and moreover sheds light on the concrete versus abstract thinking of the populace (a feature common amongst Mediterranean peoples unto this day); reality against illusion.
What mostly concerns us here is Caxaro’s idiosyncrasy in order to comprehend the entire complexity of his thought as it appears synthetically in the text. His cognitive peculiarities as well as his cultural shared-interests jointly constitute his marked philosophical views and positions.
The text
An idiosyncratic analysis of the Cantilena implies the minute examination of its constitution, particularly of the ideas expressed therein. In the first place we shall describe the intrinsic pattern in philosophical terms:A. VV. 1-2: THE INVOCATION: TRIAD OF COMMUNICATION
- 1. The Subject: Xideu il cada/... Mensab fil gueri uele nisab fo homorcom = vv. 1a-2
- 2. The Object: ye gireni = v. 1b
- 3. The Relation: tale nichadithicum = v. 1c
B. VV. 3-6: THE LAMENTATION: CAUSATION
- I – The Cause (vv. 3-4)
-
- 1. The Active Agent (Primary Cause): Calb mehandihe chakim soltan ui le mule = v. 3
- 2. The Action: Bir imgamic rimitine betiragin mecsule = v. 4
- II – The Effect (vv. 5-6)
-
- 1. The Cooperative Action (Instrumental Secondary Cause): fen hayran al garca nenzel fi tirag minzeli = v. 5
- 2. The Passive Agent: Nitila vy nargia ninzil deyem fil-bachar il hali = v. 6
C. VV. 7(11)-10(14): THE NARRATION: LOGIC
- I – An Implicit Question: Stating the Predicate [P] and the Copula [C] without a Subject [S]
-
- 1. The fact [F]: Huakit [C1] hy (emphatic demonstrative pronoun of P1) mirammiti [P1] = v. 7(11)a
- 1a. Association of P1 with li sisen [P2]: a necessary relationship
- II – Tentative Solution [TS1]
-
- 2. F + a Progressive Disclosure [PD] [Fact F2]: Nizlit [C2] hi [S2] (emphatic demonstrative pronoun of P1) li sisen [P2] = v. 7(11)b
- 2a. Association of P2 with il mihallimin [S3]: a necessary relationship
- III – Elimination of a Possibility [TS2]
-
- 3. F2 + further PD [F3]: Mectat... [C3] (negative) ... ilix [P3] il mihallimin [S3] = v. 8(12)a
- 3a. Association of P2 with li gebel [S4]: a necessary relationship
- IV – Affirmation of a Possibility [TS3]
-
- 4. F3 + more PD [F4]: ma kitat... [C4] (positive) ...ili [P4] li gebel [S4] = v. 8(12)b
- 4a. Association of P2 with il gebel [P5]: a necessary relationship
-
- 5. F4 + more PD [F5]: fen (preposition) + [S5 understood] + tumayt insib [C5] (positive) il gebel [P5] = v. 9(13)a
- 5a. Association of P2 with tafal [P6]: a contingent relationship
-
- 6. F5 + more PD [F6]: [S6 understood] + sib [C6] (positive) tafal [P6] morchi (adjective qualifying tafal) = v. 9(13)b
- V – Restating the Implicit Question (which is now merely rhetorical)
-
- 6a. Return to F (= Conclusion of Syllogism) [F']: identification of P and S (in a reflexive action)
-
- 7. Repetition of v. 7(11)a = v. 10(14)a
- 7a. Association of P1 with li... [part of C8]: a contingent relationship
-
- 8. Qualification of mirammiti [P1]: [S8 understood] + lili zimen nibni [C8] (positive) + [P8 understood] = v. 10(14)b
Simplifying the whole syllogism, we have the following:
- 1. If
- [S1?]
- [C1] Huakit
- [P1] mirammiti,
- 2. And if
- [S2] hi (i.e., mirammiti)
- [C2] Nizlit
- [P2] li sisen,
- 3. And
- [S3] il mihallimin
- [C3] Mectat...
- [P3] ...ilix;
- 4. Then
- [S4] li gebel
- [C4] kitat...
- [P4] ...ili;
- 5. And
- [S5] (Jien; I)
- [C5] tumayt insib
- [P5] il gebel;
- 6. And
- [S6] (Jien; I)
- [C6] sib
- [P6] tafal (morchi):
- 7. Reaffirming n. 1:
- [C1] Huakit
- [P1] mirammiti,
- 8.
- [S8] li... (Jien; I)
- [C8] ...ili zimen nibni
- [P8] (lilha; it).
The structure seems to be based on four moments, namely:
the true rock and the apparent rock (i.e., the clay) on which the foundations were build by the workmen for the erection of the house
The blame for the collapse of the house is given to none of the moments save the appearance of something real, namely, of the rock (i.e., the clay).
D. VV. 11(15) – THE RENEWAL: METAPHYSICS
- I – The Moment of Restoration (vv. 11-12{15-16})
-
- 1. The Defeat: Huec ucakit hi mirammiti = vv. 11(15)a
- 2. The Turning Point: vargia ibnie = v. 11(15)b
- 3. The Moral: biddilihe inte il miken illi yeutihe = v. 12(16)
- II – The Philosophy of Man (vv. 13-16{17-20})
-
- 1. Man’s Vulnerability: Min ibidill il miken ibidil il vintura / halex liradi ‘al col xebir sura = vv. 13-14(17-18)
- 2. Truth Perception: hemme ard bayda v hemme ard seude et hamyra / Hactar min hedaun heme tred minne tamarra = vv. 15-16(19-20)
Caxaro’s philosophy
Given the aforementioned background to Caxaro’s thought we shall hereunder indicate introductory and merely signalatory problematics proper to the philosopher under study. The suggested propositions can neither be exhaustive nor comprehensive but may simply aid our understanding of Caxaro’s philosophical positions.The common tongue
In the first place it is never enough to emphasise the use of the (MalteseMaltese language
Maltese is the national language of Malta, and a co-official language of the country alongside English,while also serving as an official language of the European Union, the only Semitic language so distinguished. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic...
) vulgar idiom by Caxaro. This marked a qualitative leap which resulted from a humanistic formation. The option to express himself with masterly skill while positively valuing highly the language of the people, as opposed to the Latin and Sicilian idioms of the cultured class, indicates real quality on the part of Caxaro. Not only is it a mere choice of tongue but, over and above, it is the adherence to a set mentality peculiar to a geographic territory.
It also shows the worth given to a local culture and heritage, considering it capable of standing on its own two feet on an equal par with that of other neighbouring countries.
The use of the Maltese
Maltese language
Maltese is the national language of Malta, and a co-official language of the country alongside English,while also serving as an official language of the European Union, the only Semitic language so distinguished. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic...
vulgar tongue is not a call for independent rule but an affirmation of a native identity characteristic of a people.
Humankind at the centre
Similarly important is the profane theme and nature of Caxaro’s composition. This marks a further sign of Caxaro’s humanistic character. The Cantilena is not a-religious or anti-Christian but it decidedly does not belong to what is sacred, religious or biblical. It is definitely not irreverent or blasphemous but it characteristically considers life, persons and their surroundings from a human standing.The theme dwells on the qualities distinctive of the human nature, such faculties which affirm the astonishing skills of humans and their intrinsic power to transcend the otherwise despairing limitations of their essential characters. Caxaro’s composition in fact shows a trustworthy reliance on the spiritual, or better, immaterial possibilities of humans. The Cantilena can thus rightly be considered a profession of faith in humankind.
Such a belief reverts our attention to the classical humanism of the Sophists and of Socrates
Socrates
Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
himself, a school which immensely inspired early Renaissance philosophy
Renaissance philosophy
Renaissance philosophy was the period of the history of philosophy in Europe that falls roughly between the Middle Ages and the Enlightenment. It includes the 15th century; some scholars extend it to as early as the 1350s or as late as the 16th century or early 17th century, overlapping the...
. We note here the surpassing of the merely naturalistic mentality of the classics, placing humans at the centre of serious consideration. The classical excellence of proposing natural solutions to age-old problems, over and above the former religious tentative answers, must not be discarded from the context.
The sphere of reality
The concreteness of Caxaro’s reflections stands out loud and clear against any theoretical speculation. The arid, scholastic, professional terminology and mental structure is completely done away with. The practical existential perspective to life and reality is preferred. This may be considered typically Maltese in nature or at least Mediterranean where an acute common sense is noticeable in everyday dealings.Caxaro’s inclination towards action rather than speculation, subordinating (though not eliminating) the latter to the former reveals his inclination towards the platonic school and away from Aristotelico-Scholastic categories of thought.
This, indeed, marks yet another asset to his humanistic character; a trait so strongly felt in the movement.
Myth vs. Logos
Narration in Caxaro, as elsewhere, does not imply shallowness. Nor does it hint at an incapability to express oneself otherwise, namely, in arbitrary (professional) terms. Narration must be considered also as a scientific genre of expression. In fact, it is a traditional technique rich in history where sophistication is purposely ignored, choosing a more fluid, free and inclusive mode of communication.Caxaro’s composition, following the line of Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
’s own professional preferences, is shrouded in a linguistic and conceptual veil so as to incite us to an active surmise. Its very narrative construction prompts our latent curiosity to probe the hidden meaning under the apparently shallow surface.
As opposed to a technical (“Aristotelico-Scholastic”) form, which is almost always intrinsically rigid and lineated, even if more immediate and direct, Caxaro’s philosophy is given under the disguise of a narration which has a reality of its own.
While Caxaro himself synthetically states his concepts, especially as regards the unpleasantness of illusion, he prefers to express himself under “deceptive” clothing. The objective nature of his philosophy is thus skilfully guarded behind a screen through which a mere sensuous perception fails to penetrate.
Allegory vs. Parable
Caxaro’s narration cannot be taken as a puerile typificatioin of moral or spiritual relations. It is futile to search for strict correspondence between each and every figure he uses and concrete occurrences in life, his or any other. It is on these grounds that the “marriage proposal” interpretation must not be taken seriously, for it despoils Caxaro’s composition from its abounding intrinsic qualities.Correspondences do exist indeed in the Cantilena between the various symbolisms which Caxaro harmoniously employs. In truth, he does not simply portray an image for the mere artificial imitation of its external form but moreover dwells on the wealthy analogous qualities of the theory of symbols so widely used in the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
.
At this point it is essential to note that the use of allegory in Caxaro’s Cantilena, in accordance with Mediaeval usage, adheres to a subject under the semblance of narrative suggesting similar characteristics. In all probability, Caxaro may not be referring to one single case but to a life-situation in general. The use of an allegory technically functions as a stimulation to further reflection; an openness to the mystery and riddle of life.
Truth vs. Appearance
This is an important theme in the Cantilena, maybe carrying the greatest consequence for the whole composition. “Fen tumayt insib il gebel sib tafal morchi” (“Where I hoped to find rock I found soft clay”, v. 13{19}) gives us the hint.This may well be the key to the composition’s enigma. We have here a juxtaposition of an apparent truth (a pseudo-truth) and the truth itself.
In its most general terms this is a metaphysical problem. It marks human’s encounter with a reality which is in itself concealed and garbed with the immediate consciousness and evidence of the sensible. Caxaro eventually contrasts the phenomenal to the noumenical reality, that is, the object of the senses, to which he was attracted in the first place, and the object of the intellect, which he discovered posteriorly. Caxaro’s emphasis, however, and this is his proper characteristic in this sphere, is less on the intuitive function of humans and more on experiential undergoing. The senses are the media with which the real is arrived at.
The theme is an echo of Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
’s most fundamental problematic. Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
opposes appearance to the truth (reality), to which he identifies life. To the former he identifies existence. Appearance stops at the level of things which are not of any prime importance save as a vehicle of thought. A general superficiality in life at large is a result of constant and persisting shallowness in all aspects of humans’ being. The ability, on the other hand, to go to the heart of things, to the truth of reality, to life itself, would make this appearance ineffective.
Metaphysics
Caxaro’s ontological and epistemological philosophy, together with his psychology, commences with the concrete experience of defeat and impotency (see v. 11{15}). It is not a momentary despondency but rather a state of being. It is the consciousness of humans helplessly succumbing to a reality which overshadows them.From the reflection of this mode of existence determined by circumstances there arises in Caxaro the humanistic trigger to break out of the humiliating condition (diametrically opposed to the humanizing condition) by a rediscovery of the intrinsic spiritual power within humans themselves. “Vargia ibnie” (“and build it up again”, v. 11{15}) recalls Petrarca’s call for rebirth; a reblooming out of the dust. This marks an essential moment in the rekindled faith and confidence in oneself to overcome helplessness and inertia.
Action now takes the fore (see v. 12{16}). The place of the distorted vision of reality, of the illusory appearance which ruins human living, is to be taken by a fresh renewed conception and introspection. We have here the (spiritual) decision, founded on knowledge, to drastically and decidedly opt for a higher quality of life, namely by the choice of the truth, however troublesome, instead of pseudo-truth (that is, presumed being).
Similarly, being a state of living, this is an option in favour of science, religion, the Church, the State, and the like. Over and above, it is an option in favour of individual personality. All of this is in opposition to pseudo-science, -religion, -Church, -State, and pseudo-personality).
Thus humans are indeed vulnerable and susceptible to the riddle of existence (see vv. 13-14{17-18}). It is their sense of real ascertainment, their capability of applying their judging faculties with right measure (see vv. 15-16{19-20}), that gives them the right sense of direction.
Logic
No minute examination of Caxaro’s logic as presented in vv. 7-10{11-14}. Caxaro’s formal logic seems to be characteristic of his times, showing a notable departure from the former scholastic logic. His syllogism is simple. It avoids complicated compounds. It is based on mental associations of necessary and contingent relationships.The first four propositions seem to form two pairs of conditional statements, called “consequential” by the mediaevalists, with true status for both the “antecedents” and the “consequents”. The remaining four follow from the former propositions and seem to be constructed on the first inferential schemata of traditional logic.
Causation
Caxaro seems to have in mind notions other than the archaic AristotelianAristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
concepts of cause. The whole of vv. 3-4 recall one of the motive forces which Empedocles
Empedocles
Empedocles was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek city in Sicily. Empedocles' philosophy is best known for being the originator of the cosmogenic theory of the four Classical elements...
called “Strife”, accounting for the dissolution or decay of the other force, “Love”, which is the principle of generation.
Furthermore, Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
’s own concept of cause seems to play an additional part. The forms, or formal causes, of things are proposed by Plato to give account for the changes in the world. It seems that Caxaro, especially in v. 3, touches upon this idea.
In general, the mediaeval humanists consistently attempted to avow Aristotle’s concepts whenever possible, including those of cause. However, his influence was never completely cancelled. Consequently, they tried to adhere to other theories of causation, especially those, as Caxaro’s lines seem to demonstrate, which do not admit of any necessary consequence, if not with further qualifications.
Communication
The triad at the head of the Cantilena is part of the general narrative theory of language. It rests on two legs, namely, Caxaro’s examined life, a tenet proceeding from SocratesSocrates
Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
and Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
up to Petrarca
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca , known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar, poet and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch is often called the "Father of Humanism"...
, and further on the transmission of that experience.
This is opposed to the teaching of an otherwise abstract theory, somewhat confirming a superiority of the subject of communication over the object of that communication. A narration of an undergone experience strictly speaking does not rest on the cognitive understanding of the addressee but on his affective capabilities, which to some degree are universal. In other words, it calls for sympathy of sentiments.
Caxaro’s narration, in which he takes a clear philosophical position, retracts from being an instruction, whether it moral or dogmatic. The narration qualifies as an announcement of the discovery of an all-important immaterial world, over and above mere semblances.
Symbolism
In this context one can easily comprehend the nature of the language used by Caxaro: an expressive mode which, in accordance with his general philosophy, is intrinsically unconfined and porous. It is likewise based on a theory of correspondences.Caxaro does not seem to employ images in an unrelated (or extrinsically related) aloof manner. He does not merely appropriate their external form in some way. Caxaro aptly creates a harmony of nuances amongst the symbols he uses, taking advantage of their mutual agreeability. Moreover, he presents them in an analogous relationship with his world of being through the understanding of that world as an indissoluble unity.
Caxaro’s symbols, like those of the Megalithics in Malta and the posteriors Eleatics
Eleatics
The Eleatics were a school of pre-Socratic philosophers at Elea , a Greek colony in Campania, Italy. The group was founded in the early fifth century BCE by Parmenides. Other members of the school included Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos...
in Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
, are neither simple nor artificial. They do not point to the author’s identification to the images qua images. Caxaro’s peculiar material expression presupposes a prior cosmic spiritual relationship between all matter.
This is a philosophy very proper to the mediaeval philosophers, especially those of the so-called Platonic school.
Unfortunately, here we must sadly restrain myself from going into each and every symbolic implication of the Cantilena. The qualities of the symbolism of the heart (calb, v. 3), the well (bir, v. 4), the steps (...tiragin and tirag, vv. 4 and 5 respectively), the water (bachar, v. 6), the house (miramm{a}..., vv. 7{11}, 10{14} and 11{15}), the foundations (sisen, v. 7{11}, the rock (gebel, vv. 8{12} and 9{13}), the land (miken, vv. 12{16} and 13{17}; ...rad... and ard, vv. 14{18} and 15{19}), and the colours (bayda, white; seude, black; hamyra, red, v. 15{19}), are all proportional to other qualities in humans themselves, who are also part of a coherent, interconnected reality.
Each symbol used by Caxaro is given a qualification, thus modifying their absoluteness. At the same time he recognises their contingent being in relation to humans themselves. The heart is qualified with “mehandihe chakim soltan ui le mule” (“ungoverned, kingless and lordless”, v. 3). The well with “imgamic” (“bottomless”, v. 4). The steps with “mecsule” and “mizeli” (“stop short” and “downfall” respectively, v. 4). The water with “il hali” (“stormy” or “deep”, v. 6). The house with “lili zimen nibni” (“I had long been building”, v. 10{14}).
The rest of the symbolisms follow an indirect qualification. The foundations with “tafal morchi” (“soft clay”, v. 9{13}). The rock with “kitatili” (“gave way”, v. 8{12}). The land with “vintura” and “sura” (“fortune” and “difference”, vv. 13{17} and 14{18} respectively). The colours with “ard” (“land”) itself (v. 15{19}).
Of course, the qualification are essential as the correspondences themselves, and also as much as the logical associations of vv. 7(11) to 10(12), where symbolism has a major role.
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1979
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1983
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1987
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1994
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2000
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2009
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