Jupiter Dolichenus
Encyclopedia
Jupiter (mythology)
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Jupiter or Jove is the king of the gods, and the god of the sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon....
, the Roman 'King of the gods', and a Baal
Baal
Baʿal is a Northwest Semitic title and honorific meaning "master" or "lord" that is used for various gods who were patrons of cities in the Levant and Asia Minor, cognate to Akkadian Bēlu...
cult of Commagene in Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
. The Baal gods were themselves king gods and the combination was intended to form a powerful mixture of eastern and western regal traditions combined in the one deity. The cult was one of the Mystery Religions that gained popularity in the Roman Empire as an alternative to the open 'public' religion of mainstream Roman society. Its temples were closed to outsiders and followers had to undergo rites of initiation before they could be accepted as devotees. As a result very little is known about the actual worship of the god apart from the few clues that can be obtained from the sparse iconographic, archaeological or epigraphic evidence. The cult gained popularity in the 2nd century AD and reached a peak under the Severan dynasty
Severan dynasty
The Severan dynasty was a Roman imperial dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235. The dynasty was founded by the Roman general Septimius Severus, who rose to power during the civil war of 193, known as the Year of the Five Emperors....
in the early 3rd century AD. At least seventeen temples are known to have been built in Rome and the provinces which, while substantial, is far below the popularity enjoyed by Mithras, Isis
Isis
Isis or in original more likely Aset is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs, whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. She was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the matron of nature and magic...
or Cybele
Cybele
Cybele , was a Phrygian form of the Earth Mother or Great Mother. As with Greek Gaia , her Minoan equivalent Rhea and some aspects of Demeter, Cybele embodies the fertile Earth...
. Unlike these Mystery Cults, the worship of Jupiter Dolichenus was very fixed on its oriental origins and the cult soon died out following the fall of the city of Doliche
Gaziantep
Gaziantep , Ottoman Turkish: Ayintab) previously and still informally called Antep; ʻayn tāb is a city in southeast Turkey and amongst the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world. The city is located 185 kilometres northeast of Adana and 127 kilometres by road north of Aleppo, Syria...
to the Sassanids in the mid-3rd century AD.
History
The Baal of Doliche appears to have had his origins as a HittiteHittites
The Hittites were a Bronze Age people of Anatolia.They established a kingdom centered at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia c. the 18th century BC. The Hittite empire reached its height c...
storm god known as Tesub-Hadad
Teshub
Teshub was the Hurrian god of sky and storm. He was derived from the Hattian Taru. His Hittite and Luwian name was Tarhun , although this name is from the Hittite root *tarh- to defeat, conquer.- Depiction and myths :He is depicted holding a triple...
, whose cult was centered on the hill of Dülük-Baba Tepesi near the town of Duluk (now modern Gaziantep
Gaziantep
Gaziantep , Ottoman Turkish: Ayintab) previously and still informally called Antep; ʻayn tāb is a city in southeast Turkey and amongst the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world. The city is located 185 kilometres northeast of Adana and 127 kilometres by road north of Aleppo, Syria...
in Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
). Evidence for his worship can be traced back to the 6th century BCE, but the Roman expansion of the cult began with their conquest of the area in 64 BCE and its inclusion in the province of Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
. The new Roman deity took his name from Doliche, the Roman name for the town.
The earliest dateable evidence for his worship outside of Doliche is from Lambaesis
Lambaesis
Lambaesis, or Lambaesa, is a Roman ruin in Algeria, southeast of Batna and west of Timgad, located next to the modern village of Tazoult.-Remains:...
, where the legate
Legatus
A legatus was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer. Being of senatorial rank, his immediate superior was the dux, and he outranked all military tribunes...
dedicated an altar in 125 AD. The cult had certainly spread to Rome under Marcus Aurelius when a temple to Jupiter Dolichenus was built on the Caelian hill
Caelian Hill
The Caelian Hill is one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome. Under reign of Tullus Hostilius, the entire population of Alba Longa was forcibly resettled on the Caelian Hill...
. Not much later we can see it in Germany where a centurion
Centurion
A centurion was a professional officer of the Roman army .Centurion may also refer to:-Military:* Centurion tank, British battle tank* HMS Centurion, name of several ships and a shore base of the British Royal Navy...
of Legio VIII Augusta
Legio VIII Augusta
Legio octava Augusta was a Roman legion created by Pompey in 65 BC, along with the 6th, 7th & 9th, and continuing in service to Rome for at least 400 years thereafter....
dedicated an altar in AD 191 at Obernburg
Obernburg
Obernburg am Main is a town in the Miltenberg district in the Regierungsbezirk of Lower Franconia in Bavaria, Germany.- Location :...
in Germania Superior
Germania Superior
Germania Superior , so called for the reason that it lay upstream of Germania Inferior, was a province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany...
.. A large number of dedications then occur under Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus , also known as Severus, was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of...
and Caracalla
Caracalla
Caracalla , was Roman emperor from 198 to 217. The eldest son of Septimius Severus, he ruled jointly with his younger brother Geta until he murdered the latter in 211...
which represents the high point of the cult.
By the mid-3rd century AD, however, the worship of Jupiter Dolichenus was in terminal, and rapid, decline. The first serious blow came following the assassination of Alexander Severus
Alexander Severus
Severus Alexander was Roman Emperor from 222 to 235. Alexander was the last emperor of the Severan dynasty. He succeeded his cousin Elagabalus upon the latter's assassination in 222, and was ultimately assassinated himself, marking the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century — nearly fifty...
and the rise to power of Maximinus Thrax
Maximinus Thrax
Maximinus Thrax , also known as Maximinus I, was Roman Emperor from 235 to 238.Maximinus is described by several ancient sources, though none are contemporary except Herodian's Roman History. Maximinus was the first emperor never to set foot in Rome...
(AD 235-238). The Severan dynasty had supported the cult and with their fall not only did Jupiter Dolichenus lose imperial favour but continued support might have been seen as being politically dangerous following the change of regime. Certainly all the sanctuaries on the Rhine and Danube end under Maximinus' reign, especially those supported by the army. Maximilian would not have easily tolerated anything that could be perceived as disloyalty by his army.
The critical blow, however, fell in AD 253 or AD 256 when Shapur I
Shapur I
Shapur I or also known as Shapur I the Great was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. The dates of his reign are commonly given as 240/42 - 270/72, but it is likely that he also reigned as co-regent prior to his father's death in 242 .-Early years:Shapur was the son of Ardashir I...
captured and sacked Doliche. With the loss of his home and main sanctuary, the god was permanently discredited in terms of his perceived power. The cult had tied itself so firmly to the sanctity of Doliche and to the oriental nature of the god that it had never achieved the universality that it needed in order to survive the loss.
Worship
Jupiter Dolichenus was always addressed in full as Jupiter Optimus Maximus Dolichenus. 'Optimus Maximus', meaning 'Best and Greatest', was the standard and unique term of honour that was given to the king of the gods, and as Jupiter Dolichenus was still Jupiter, the term of respect was maintained. In LatinLatin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
epigraphy
Epigraphy
Epigraphy Epigraphy Epigraphy (from the , literally "on-writing", is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing; that is, the science of identifying the graphemes and of classifying their use as to cultural context and date, elucidating their meaning and assessing what conclusions can be...
Jupiter Optimus Maximus is simply abbreviated to IOM (Jupiter is spelt Iupiter as there is no 'J' in the Latin alphabet
Latin alphabet
The Latin alphabet, also called the Roman alphabet, is the most recognized alphabet used in the world today. It evolved from a western variety of the Greek alphabet called the Cumaean alphabet, which was adopted and modified by the Etruscans who ruled early Rome...
). Therefore in most inscriptions or dedications to Jupiter Dolichenus his name appears as IOM Dolicheno, or Iovi Optimo Maximo Dolicheno in full. The endings of the Latin words take the dative case
Dative case
The dative case is a grammatical case generally used to indicate the noun to whom something is given, as in "George gave Jamie a drink"....
(meaning 'To' or 'For') as they are gifts to or for the god. He did, however, receive some distinctive forms of address. The inscriptions from his temple on the Aventine hill in Rome, for example, address him as 'eternal preserver' (AE 1940.75) and 'Jupiter Optimus Maximus Dolichenus Eternal, preserver of the firmament, pre-eminent divinity, invincible provider' (ILS 4316).
The cult was a mystery religion
Mystery religion
Mystery religions, sacred Mysteries or simply mysteries, were religious cults of the Greco-Roman world, participation in which was reserved to initiates....
where the theology, temples and rituals were open only to the initiates. Very little is known about the cult as it did not last long enough to appear in the Christian literature that provided so many useful clues on other secret cults such as Mithraism
Mithraism
The Mithraic Mysteries were a mystery religion practised in the Roman Empire from about the 1st to 4th centuries AD. The name of the Persian god Mithra, adapted into Greek as Mithras, was linked to a new and distinctive imagery...
. Nor can the archaeological evidence help much. It is only from the epigraphic sources that we can gain much insight. References to a (priest) shows that there was an internal structure, though one that did not seem to have any great complexity. An inscription from the Aventine temple (see below) gives a list of the members of one community. The group consists of 32 names, 7 of which are identified as being a or patron
Patrón
Patrón is a luxury brand of tequila produced in Mexico and sold in hand-blown, individually numbered bottles.Made entirely from Blue Agave "piñas" , Patrón comes in five varieties: Silver, Añejo, Reposado, Gran Patrón Platinum and Gran Patrón Burdeos. Patrón also sells a tequila-coffee blend known...
. The text of the inscription refers to and (candidates), so we can assume that the other names were men who held status of . What exactly this meant is unclear. Were they candidates for initiation or candidates for a higher status? The patrons may have been sponsoring new candidates to join the community, but as the text of the inscriptions refers to both as (brothers) this would imply that they are all already initiates. One priest dedicates the inscription and styles himself as 'father of the candidates', a symbolic title similar to that of the Father grade in Mithraism. In a second inscription the roles of 'recorder', 'leaders of this place' and 'litterbearers of the god' are identified. The members of the community are introduced by the phrase 'Jupiter Optimus Maximus Dolichenus chose the following to serve him'.
97 out of the 260 named worshippers mentioned on inscriptions are soldiers, so while it can be seen that the army had an interest in the cult it was by no means dominant. There are cases of whole units making dedications to the god (e.g. a detachment of the fleet at Misenum at Ostia in 186 AD), though we cannot be sure exactly what this means. Was it the whole of the group who were devotees or was it just some of them? Similarly the appearance of military standards, trophies and the goddess Victoria
Victoria (mythology)
In ancient Roman religion, Victoria was the personified goddess of victory. She is the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Nike, and was associated with Bellona. She was adapted from the Sabine agricultural goddess Vacuna and had a temple on the Palatine Hill...
on votive tablets need not be seen as an integral military aspect to the cult. These are all symbols of triumph or kingship and are suitable attributes for a royal god. As a king deity he required a consort
Queen consort
A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king. A queen consort usually shares her husband's rank and holds the feminine equivalent of the king's monarchical titles. Historically, queens consort do not share the king regnant's political and military powers. Most queens in history were queens consort...
and the natural counterpart was Jupiter's own wife Juno
Juno (mythology)
Juno is an ancient Roman goddess, the protector and special counselor of the state. She is a daughter of Saturn and sister of the chief god Jupiter and the mother of Mars and Vulcan. Juno also looked after the women of Rome. Her Greek equivalent is Hera...
. Within this cult she takes the name Juno Dolichena. In iconography she always appears on the right of her partner.
The theology of Jupiter Dolichenus gave prominent places to Apollo
Apollo
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
and Diana
Diana (mythology)
In Roman mythology, Diana was the goddess of the hunt and moon and birthing, being associated with wild animals and woodland, and having the power to talk to and control animals. She was equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, though she had an independent origin in Italy...
who often appear on votive tablets as a pair of busts side by side. Why this is the case is uncertain, however equally important seem to be Sol
Sol (mythology)
Sol was the solar deity in Ancient Roman religion. It was long thought that Rome actually had two different, consecutive sun gods. The first, Sol Indiges, was thought to have been unimportant, disappearing altogether at an early period. Only in the late Roman Empire, scholars argued, did solar cult...
, god of the sun, and Luna
Selene
In Greek mythology, Selene was an archaic lunar deity and the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia. In Roman mythology, the moon goddess is called Luna, Latin for "moon"....
, goddess of the moon. These two provide a clear cosmic element, perhaps suggesting Jupiter Dolicenus' command of Day and Night or an allegory to the extent of his realm. Rather than being distinct members of the pantheon it may be that Apollo and Sol are serving the same function as sun gods, as are Diana and Luna with the moon. Castor and Pollux
Castor and Pollux
In Greek and Roman mythology, Castor and Pollux or Polydeuces were twin brothers, together known as the Dioscuri . Their mother was Leda, but Castor was the mortal son of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, and Pollux the divine son of Zeus, who visited Leda in the guise of a swan...
also frequently appear and their role is less clear. Most likely they are seen as the sons of Jupiter. Isis and Serapis
Serapis
Serapis or Sarapis is a Graeco-Egyptian name of God. Serapis was devised during the 3rd century BC on the orders of Ptolemy I of Egypt as a means to unify the Greeks and Egyptians in his realm. The god was depicted as Greek in appearance, but with Egyptian trappings, and combined iconography...
appear with some frequency, perhaps as 'guests' or as allusions to the royal pair of Doliche.
Attributes and iconography
Few of the characteristics of Jupiter appear in the representation of Jupiter Dolichenus, apart from the thunderboltThunderbolt
A thunderbolt is a discharge of lightning accompanied by a loud thunderclap or its symbolic representation. In its original usage the word may also have been a description of meteors, or, as Plato suggested in Timaeus, of the consequences of a close approach between two planetary cosmic bodies,...
and a beard. In all other respects the god is a new creation which blends oriental and Hellenistic conventions. The god always appears dressed in a military fashion, armed and dressed in a cuirass
Cuirass
A cuirass is a piece of armour, formed of a single or multiple pieces of metal or other rigid material, which covers the front of the torso...
. This does not suggest that his cult was especially militaristic, rather the attributes signify power and royalty. The cuirass in particular is a Hellenistic artistic convention to portray divinity. The weapon that the god carries is usually a double-headed axe (a Labris), a weapon often associated with the kings of Thrace and Asia Minor and not a common soldier's weapon. In accordance with Roman oriental convention he also wears the Phrygian cap
Phrygian cap
The Phrygian cap is a soft conical cap with the top pulled forward, associated in antiquity with the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia. In the western provinces of the Roman Empire it came to signify freedom and the pursuit of liberty, perhaps through a confusion with the pileus,...
and trousers, clothing worn by other oriental gods that the Romans invented or adapted, such as Mithras.
The unique feature of representations of Jupiter Dolichenus is that he is always shown standing on the back of a bull. The bull had a long association with concepts of strength, virility and fertility (e.g. in the Minoan civilisation) and was also a key part of Mithraic belief. Standing on the back of a bull would have been a clear connection between the powers of the beast and those of the god, but the fact that he stands on the back of the animal would have had significance too. This was a deity that had the power to tame and subdue this notoriously wild creature and bend it to his will, as well as work with it. Bulls also appear frequently within his temple sites. At the temple to Jupiter Dolichenus at Zugmantel in Germany, the altar table was supported by legs carved in the shape of two bulls. In contrast Juno Dolichena rides a deer
Deer
Deer are the ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. Species in the Cervidae family include white-tailed deer, elk, moose, red deer, reindeer, fallow deer, roe deer and chital. Male deer of all species and female reindeer grow and shed new antlers each year...
, an animal with suitably royal associations.
An altar from Obernburg
Obernburg
Obernburg am Main is a town in the Miltenberg district in the Regierungsbezirk of Lower Franconia in Bavaria, Germany.- Location :...
(now in the Stiftsmuseum Aschaffenburg
Aschaffenburg
Aschaffenburg is a city in northwest Bavaria, Germany. The town of Aschaffenburg is not considered part of the district of Aschaffenburg, but is the administrative seat.Aschaffenburg is known as the Tor zum Spessart or "gate to the Spessart"...
) perhaps displays with images the theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
of the cult. On the left side are carved a thunderbolt, a tree and a scutum
Scutum
Scutum is a small constellation introduced in the seventeenth century. Its name is Latin for shield.-History:Scutum is the only constellation that owes its name to a non-classical historical figure...
. The thunderbolt is a standard attribute of Jupiter, however the tree and the shield are not. Taken together it could be argued that the thunderbolt represents the power of the god, the tree represents success and fertility and the shield security. These could then be an expression of the benefits that Jupiter Dolichenus provides for his follower, however as is so often the case with Mystery religions, the meaning is only a plausible interpretation.
Temples
A temple to Jupiter Dolichenus is known as a Dolichenum, a term created by archaeologists. No specific term seems to have existed as the devotees only use the word templum when referring to their shrines. The temples are not in the Classical style of a rectangular colonnaded shrine standing on a raised podium with an altar outside in front. There was no need for such public visibility, as the cult was closed to all but the initiated as it was a mystery religionMystery religion
Mystery religions, sacred Mysteries or simply mysteries, were religious cults of the Greco-Roman world, participation in which was reserved to initiates....
. The design of the temple needed only to include these initiates and exclude the participation from any outsiders, therefore it needed to be insular and exclusive. There are some similarities to the Mithraeum
Mithraeum
A Mithraeum is a place of worship for the followers of the mystery religion of Mithraism.The Mithraeum was either an adapted natural cave or cavern or an artificial building imitating a cavern. Mithraea were dark and windowless, even if they were not actually in a subterranean space or in a natural...
, the temples to Mithras, as they are windowless, have a narthex
Narthex
The narthex of a church is the entrance or lobby area, located at the end of the nave, at the far end from the church's main altar. Traditionally the narthex was a part of the church building, but was not considered part of the church proper...
, possess a cella
Cella
A cella or naos , is the inner chamber of a temple in classical architecture, or a shop facing the street in domestic Roman architecture...
with a central nave terminating at a high altar, and are rectangular in shape. There is uncertainty over whether the cella also had the podium benches that are typical of a Mithraeum, on which initiates could recline when they took part in their ritual meals. The function of the temples therefore is far from clear and despite 17 being identified or excavated (see below) few details can be securely agreed on.
It is clear from the epigraphic record that the communities could attract important patrons, however it can be debated how much these VIPs were actually interested in the cult and how much their dedication of temples was simply them fulfilling the duties of a local dignitary. A case in point is the inscription from Cologne where the restoration of a Dolichenum is dedicated by the provincial governor Lucius Lucceius Martinus in AD 212 . Unfortunately we can't say that the temple could number someone of such significance within its community, however it does show that the communities could attract the attention of the most important person around.
A temple to Jupiter Optimus Maximus is placed at Porolissum
Porolissum
Porolissum was an ancient Roman city in Dacia. Established as a military camp in 106 during Trajan's Dacian Wars, the city quickly grew through trade with the native Dacians and became the capital of the province Dacia Porolissensis in 124. The site is one of the largest and best-preserved...
. On this temple are mentioned several priests (Sacerdotes Dei Iovi): Marcus Aurelius Vitalus - duumvir, Antonius Mavius - decurio
Decurio
Decurio was an official title in Ancient Rome, used in various connections:# A member of the senatorial order in the Italian towns under the administration of Rome, and later in provincial towns organized on the Italian model . The number of decuriones varied in different towns, but was usually 100...
, Acius Flavus, Caius Marcius Vegesius and, a priest with an Oriental name, Attonaris Bassus.
Sources of evidence and information
Important excavated shrines.- PorolissumPorolissumPorolissum was an ancient Roman city in Dacia. Established as a military camp in 106 during Trajan's Dacian Wars, the city quickly grew through trade with the native Dacians and became the capital of the province Dacia Porolissensis in 124. The site is one of the largest and best-preserved...
, TransylvaniaTransylvaniaTransylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
, Romania - Brigetio. SzönySzöny-History:In the year 97, the Roman legion Legio I Adiutrix campaigned in the area. The town was known as Brigetio to the Romans. The town has one of the earliest records of conjoined twins - Helen and Judith....
, Hungary. - CarnuntumCarnuntumCarnuntum was a Roman army camp on the Danube in the Noricum province and after the 1st century the capital of the Upper Pannonia province...
. Bad Deutsch-AltenburgBad Deutsch-AltenburgBad Deutsch-Altenburg is a town in the district of Bruck an der Leitha in Lower Austria in Austria.- People :* Anton Durcovici , Bishop of Iaşi * Ernest Windholz, politician* Hannes Swoboda...
, Austria. Shrine in a group of oriental temples (including Mithras) east of the legionary fortress. - DolicheDolicheDoliche can refer to several places in antiquity, including:Cities*Doliche, a city of Thessaly, Greece*Doliche, an ancient city of Asia Minor, near modern Gaziantep, TurkeyIslands...
. Dülük-Baba Tepesi, Turkey. 'Home' sanctuary of the god. - Dura Europus. Salhiyé, Syria. Military shrine.
- Aventine HillAventine HillThe Aventine Hill is one of the seven hills on which ancient Rome was built. It belongs to Ripa, the twelfth rione, or ward, of Rome.-Location and boundaries:The Aventine hill is the southernmost of Rome's seven hills...
. Rome, Italy. Shrine found under Via di S. Domenico. - StockstadtStockstadtStockstadt is the name of at least two places in Germany:*Stockstadt am Rhein, in Groß-Gerau district, Hesse*Stockstadt am Main, in Aschaffenburg district, Bavaria...
. Hessen, Germany. Shrine located east of the auxiliary cohort fort beside a MithraeumMithraeumA Mithraeum is a place of worship for the followers of the mystery religion of Mithraism.The Mithraeum was either an adapted natural cave or cavern or an artificial building imitating a cavern. Mithraea were dark and windowless, even if they were not actually in a subterranean space or in a natural...
. - Zugmantel. Hessen, Germany. Shrine located north of the auxiliary cohort fort on the limes frontier.
Important museum collections.
- Aiud Museum. AiudAiudAiud is a city located in Alba county, Transylvania, Romania. The city has a population of 28,934 people. It has the status of municipality and is the second-largest city in the county, after county seat Alba Iulia. The Aiud administrative region is 142.2 square kilometres in area.- Administration...
, Romania. Inscription from near ApulumApulumApulum may refer to:*The Latin name of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , the Roman fort of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , a Romanian porcelain manufacturing company....
recording the restoration of a temple by a sacerdos. - Archaäologisches Museum Frankfurt. Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Replicas of all six silver plaques from Heddernheim.
- British MuseumBritish MuseumThe British Museum is a museum of human history and culture in London. Its collections, which number more than seven million objects, are amongst the largest and most comprehensive in the world and originate from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its...
. London, England. Two silver plaques from Frankfurt-Heddernheim including one showing Jupiter Dolichenus purely as Jupiter. - Epigraphic Museum. Baths of DiocletianBaths of DiocletianThe Baths of Diocletian in Rome were the grandest of the public baths, or thermae built by successive emperors. Diocletian's Baths, dedicated in 306, were the largest and most sumptuous of the imperial baths. The baths were built between the years 298 AD and 306 AD...
, Rome, Italy. The altars and sculptures dedicated by the emperor's bodyguard. - Museum Carnuntum. Bad Deutsch-AltenburgBad Deutsch-AltenburgBad Deutsch-Altenburg is a town in the district of Bruck an der Leitha in Lower Austria in Austria.- People :* Anton Durcovici , Bishop of Iaşi * Ernest Windholz, politician* Hannes Swoboda...
, Austria. The fine sculptures from the CarnuntumCarnuntumCarnuntum was a Roman army camp on the Danube in the Noricum province and after the 1st century the capital of the Upper Pannonia province...
shrine. - Museum WiesbadenMuseum WiesbadenMuseum Wiesbaden is a museum in the Hessian capital Wiesbaden, Germany. Besides the museums in Kassel and Darmstadt, it is one of the three Hessian state museums. The museum comprises an art collection, a natural history collection and a collection of Nassauian antiquities.-External links:***...
. WiesbadenWiesbadenWiesbaden is a city in southwest Germany and the capital of the federal state of Hesse. It has about 275,400 inhabitants, plus approximately 10,000 United States citizens...
, Germany. The finds from Zugmantel and the originals of the Frankfurt-Heddernheim silver plaques. - Römisch-Germanisches MuseumRömisch-Germanisches MuseumThe Roman-Germanic Museum is an important archaeological museum in Cologne, Germany. It has a large collection of Roman artifacts from the Roman settlement of Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, on which modern Cologne is built...
. CologneCologneCologne is Germany's fourth-largest city , and is the largest city both in the Germany Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.Cologne is located on both sides of the...
, Germany. Inscription recording the dedication of a temple by the provincial governor. - Stiftsmuseum Aschaffenburg. AschaffenburgAschaffenburgAschaffenburg is a city in northwest Bavaria, Germany. The town of Aschaffenburg is not considered part of the district of Aschaffenburg, but is the administrative seat.Aschaffenburg is known as the Tor zum Spessart or "gate to the Spessart"...
, Germany. The finds from the StockstadtStockstadtStockstadt is the name of at least two places in Germany:*Stockstadt am Rhein, in Groß-Gerau district, Hesse*Stockstadt am Main, in Aschaffenburg district, Bavaria...
temple and the altar from Obernburg.