Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos
Encyclopedia
The Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos are in the Santa Cruz
department
of eastern Bolivia
. Six of the missions have been designated a UNESCO
World Heritage Site
. The missions are distinguished by the fusion of European
and American Indian
cultural influences. The missions were founded as reductions
or reducciones de indios by Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries to convert the Indians
to Christianity
.
The interior region bordering Spanish
and Portuguese
territories in South America
was largely unexplored at the end of the 17th century. Dispatched by the Spanish Crown, Jesuits explored and founded eleven settlements over 70 years in the Chiquitos region of Spanish America. They built churches in a unique and distinct style that combined elements of Indian and European architecture. The indigenous inhabitants of the missions were taught European music as a means of conversion
. The missions were self-sufficient, with thriving economies, and virtually autonomous from the Spanish crown.
After the expulsion of the Jesuit order in the mid-18th century most of the Jesuit reductions in South America were abandoned and fell into ruins. The Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos are unique because the settlements and the associated culture have survived largely intact; and they are the last remaining Jesuit settlements in Bolivia.
A large restoration project of the missionary churches began in the second half of the 20th century. The Jesuit Missions continue to experience growing popularity, and have become a tourist destination. A government sponsored biennial international musical festival and cultural activities within the missions contribute to the popularity of the World Heritage Site.
The six heritage-site missions are located in the hot and semiarid lowlands of the Santa Cruz
department of southeastern Bolivia
. They lie in a remote and inaccessible area of the Gran Chaco
east and northeast of Santa Cruz de la Sierra
, between the Paraguay
and Guapay
rivers.
The westernmost missions are San Javier
and Concepción
located in the province of Ñuflo de Chávez
between the rivers of San Julián and Urugayito. Santa Ana
, San Miguel
, and San Rafael
missions are located to the east in José Miguel de Velasco
province, near the Brazil
ian border. The mission San José de Chiquitos
is located in Chiquitos province
, about 200 kilometres (124.3 mi) south of San Rafael.
Three other Jesuit missions – San Juan Bautista, Santo Corazón and Santiago de Chiquitos – which have not been named as UNESCO heritage sites, lie east of San José de Los Chiquitos in the area of the town Roboré
. The capital town of José Miguel de Velasco Province – San Ignacio de Velasco
– was founded as a Jesuit mission but is not a World Heritage Site.
– a 16th century Spanish conquistador
and founder of Santa Cruz “la Vieja” – introduced the name Chiquitos
, or little ones. It referred to the small doors of the straw houses in which the indigenous population lived.There were several reasons to construct the doors in such a way: they kept out mosquitoes, flies and cold southerly winds; and they provided protection from enemies. Chiquitos has since been used both to denote people of the largest ethnic group in the area (also called Chiquitano), and collectively to denote the more than 40 ethnic groups with different languages and cultures living in the region known as Chiquitanía.
The current provincial division of the Santa Cruz department does not respect the former concept of a "missionary country". The former Chiquitanía lies within five modern provinces: Ángel Sandoval
, Germán Busch
, José Miguel de Velasco
, Ñuflo de Chávez
and Chiquitos
province.
set out to evangelize the Americas
, bringing Christianity to indigenous communities. One of these missions
were those of the Franciscan
s and the Jesuits
to Chiquitanía. The missionaries employed the strategy of gathering the often nomad
ic indigenous populations in larger communities called reductions
in order to more effectively Christianize them. This policy sprang from the colonial legal view of the Indian as a minor, who had to be protected and guided by European missionaries in order not to succumb to sin. Reductions generally were also construed as an instrument to make the Indians adopt European lifestyles and values, which was not the case in the Jesuit reductions, where the Jesuits allowed the Indians to retain many of the pre-colonial cultural practices.
a group of Jesuits travelled to the Viceroyalty of Peru
in 1566, more than 30 years later than the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians
and Mercedarians. The Jesuits established themselves in Lima
in 1569 before moving east towards Paraguay
; by 1572 they reached the Audience of Charcas in modern-day Bolivia. Because they were not allowed to establish settlements on the frontier they built chapter house
s, churches and schools in pre-existing settlements, such as La Paz
, Potosí
and La Plata
(present day Sucre).
In 1587 the first Jesuits, Fr. Diego Samaniego and Fr. Diego Martínez, arrived in Santa Cruz de la Sierra
, which was south of where San José de Chiquitos
would be established. In 1592 the city had to be moved 250 kilometres (155.3 mi) west because of conflicts with natives, but the remains of the original town exist in the Santa Cruz la Vieja archaeological site
. The Jesuits did not start missions into the valleys northeast of the cordillera
until the 17th century. The two central areas for their activities were Moxos
, situated in the department of Beni
, and Chiquitanía in the department of Santa Cruz de la Sierra
. In 1682, Fr. Cipriano Barace founded the first of the Jesuit reductions in Moxos, located at Loreto
.
The first Jesuit reduction in the Chiquitanía was the mission of San Francisco Javier, founded in 1691 by the Jesuit priest José de Arce. According to legend, in September 1691, José de Arce and Br. Antonio de Rivas intended to meet seven other Jesuits at the Paraguay river to establish a connection between Paraguay and Chiquitanía. However, the beginning of the rainy season brought bad weather and Arce and his companion only got as far as first Chiquitos settlement. The local Piñoca tribe, who were suffering from a plague, begged Arce and Rivas to stay and promised to build a house and a church for the Jesuits, which were finished by the end of year. The mission was later moved.
Ten more missions were founded in the Chiquitanía by the Jesuits in three distinct periods: the 1690s, the 1720s, and after 1748. In the 1690s, five missions were established: San Rafael (1696), San José de Chiquitos (1698), Concepción (1699) and San Juan Bautista (1699). San Juan Bautista is not part of the World Heritage Site, and only the ruins of a stone tower survive near the village San Juan de Taperas.
The War of the Spanish Succession
(1701 – 1714) caused a shortage of missionaries and instability in the reductions, so no new missions were built during this period. By 1718 San Rafael was the largest of the Chiquitos missions, and with 2,615 inhabitants could not sustain the growing population. In 1721 Felipe Suárez and Francisco Hervás established a split-off of the San Rafael mission, the mission of San Miguel. San Ignacio de Zamucos was founded in 1724 but abandoned soon after in 1745; today nothing remains of the mission.
A third period of mission foundations began in 1748 with the establishment of San Ignacio, San Ignacio de Velasco
as it is known today, which was not declared a part of the World Heritage Site. The church is a faithful 20th-century reconstruction of the original built in 1761. In 1754 the Jesuits founded the mission of Santiago de Chiquitos. The church is a reconstruction from the early 20th century and is not part of the World Heritage Site. In 1755 the mission Santa Ana was founded by Fr. Knogler and it is the only World Heritage mission of this period. The last mission in Chiquitanía to be established was founded as Santo Corazón in 1760. However, nothing of the original settlement remains in the modern village.
The Jesuits in Chiquitanía had a secondary objective which was to secure a more direct route to Asunción
than the road being used via Tucuman and Tarija
to link the Chiquitanía with the Jesuit missions in Paraguay. The missionaries of the Chiquitos missions founded their settlements increasingly further east towards the Paraguay river, while those south of Asunción moved closer to the Paraguay river by establishing missions increasingly farther north, thereby avoiding the impassable Chaco region. Although Ñuflo de Chaves had attempted a route through the Chaco on an expedition as early as 1564, the Jesuits explorations from Chiquitos (in 1702, 1703 and 1705) were unsuccessful. The Jesuits were stopped by the hostile tribes of the Payaguás and Guaycurus, and by the impenetrable swamps of Jarayes. In 1715 José de Arce, the founder of the first mission in San Javier, set out from Asunción on the Paraguay river with the Flemish priest Bartolomé Blende. Payaguás Indians killed Blende during the journey, and Arce struggled to reach San Rafael. On the return trip to Asunción he too was killed. Not until 1767, when the missions had encroached sufficiently on the hostile region and just before the Jesuits left America, did Fr. José Sánchez Labrador manage to travel from Belén in Paraguay to Santo Corazón.
seven missions
in present-day Rio Grande do Sul
were transferred from Spanish to Portuguese control. The native Guarani tribes were unhappy to see their lands turned over to Portugal (their enemy for over a century) and they rebelled against the decision leading to the Guarani War
. In Europe, where the Jesuits were under attack, they were accused of "supporting the rebellion" and were perceived as defending the Indians. In 1758 the Jesuits were accused of a conspiracy to kill the King of Portugal known as the Távora affair
. All members of the Society of Jesus were evicted from Portuguese territories in 1759, and from French territories in 1764. In 1766 Jesuits were accused of causing riots
in Madrid; consequently in February 1767, Charles III of Spain
signed a royal decree with expulsion orders for to all members of the Society of Jesus in Spanish territories which arrived in the Chiquitanía in August.
From then on, spiritual and secular
administration were to be strictly separated. At the time of the expulsion, 25 Jesuits served a Christianized population of at least 24,000,which included only those that had been baptised. The total population was estimated to be around 37,000 in the ten missions of Chiquitanía. The Chiquitos mission properties included 25 estancia
s with 31,700 cattle and 850 horses. Libraries across ten settlements held 2,094 volumes.
By September 1767 all but a single Jesuit left, and the last Jesuit left the following year. The Spanish considered it essential to maintain the settlements as a buffer against Portuguese expansion. The archbishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Francisco Ramón Herboso, established a new system of government similar to that of the Jesuits. He stipulated that each mission be run by two secular (parish) priests, one to take care of the spiritual needs while the other was in charge of all other – political and economical – affairs of the mission administration. As a novelty, the Indians were allowed to trade. In practice, the shortage of clergy and the low quality of those appointed – who often did not speak the language of the Indians and in cases had not been ordained
– led to general decline of the missions. The priests broke ethical and religious codes, appropriated the major part of the missions' income and encouraged contraband trade with the Portuguese.
Within two years of the expulsion, the population in the Chiquitanía missions dropped below 20,000. Despite the general decline of the settlements, however, the church buildings themselves were maintained and, in some cases, extended by the towns' inhabitants. The construction of the church in Santa Ana falls into this period. Bernd Fischermann, an anthropologist who studied the Chiquitos Indians, notes three reasons that the Chiquitano preserved the heritage of the Jesuits even after their expulsion: the memory of the prosperity with the Jesuits; the desire to appear as civilized Christians to the mestizos and white people; and to preserve the ethnicity that originated from a mix of various culturally distinct groups blended by common language and customs learned from the Jesuits.
In January 1790, the Audiencia of Charcas ended the mismanagement, and temporal affairs were delegated to civil administrators, making the missions economically more successful. Sixty years after the expulsion of the Jesuits the churches remained active centers of worship, as the French naturalist Alcide d'Orbigny
reported from the area during his mission to South America in 1830 and 1831. Although much diminished, economically and politically, the town culture the Jesuits established was still evident. According to d'Orbigny, the music at a Sunday mass in San Javier was better than those he had heard in the richest cities of Bolivia. The population of the Chiquitanía missions reached a low of around 15,000 inhabitants in 1830. In 1842 the comte de Castelnau
visited the area and, referring to the church in Santa Ana, proclaimed: "This beautiful building, surrounded by gardens, presents one of the most impressive views imaginable."
By the mid-19th century, the reduction system of the missions had disappeared. Mestizos who had moved to the area in their quest for land began to outnumber the original Chiquito population. Starting with the creation of the Province of Velasco
in 1880, the old Chiquitanía was split into several administrative divisions. With the rubber boom
at the turn of the century, more settlers came to the areas and established large hacienda
s, moving the economic activities together with the Indians out of the towns.
In 1931, the spiritual administration of the missions was given to German-speaking Franciscan missionaries. The ecclesiastical control moved back to the area with the creation of the Apostolic Vicariate of Chiquitos in San Ignacio. As of , the churches not only serve the mestizo inhabitants of the villages but present spiritual centers for the Indians living in the periphery.
In 1972, Swiss architect and Jesuit priest Hans Roth began an extensive restoration project of the missionary churches and many colonial buildings that were in ruins. The churches exist in their present form as a result of Roth's effort, who worked on the restoration with a few colleagues and many local people until his death in 1999. The restoration works continued into the beginning of the 21st century. Six of the reductions were listed as part of the World Heritage Site by the UNESCO
in 1990. The churches in San Ignacio de Velasco, Santiago de Chiquitos and Santo Corazon have been reconstructed from scratch and are not part of the World Heritage Site. In San Juan Bautista only ruins remain. UNESCO listed the site under criteria IV and V, acknowledging the adaption of Christian religious architecture to the local environment and the unique architecture expressed in the wooden columns and banisters. ICOMOS, the International Council on Monuments and Sites, warns that the traditional architectural ensemble that makes up the site has become vulnerable following agrarian reforms from 1953 which threatened the Chiquitos population. At the time of the nomination, the World Heritage Site was protected by the Pro Santa Cruz committee, Cordecruz,a public agency responsible for land improvements Plan Regulador de Santa Cruza technical authority responsible for urban planning and ground use and the local mayoral offices of the mission towns.
Initially established in 1691, the mission of San Javier was the first of the missions in the World Heritage Site. In 1696, due to the incursion of Paulistas
from Brazil in the east, the mission was relocated toward the San Miguel River. In 1698, the mission was relocated closer to Santa Cruz, and in 1708, San Javier was moved away from Santa Cruz to protect the Indians from the Spaniards. The inhabitants of San Javier were the Piñocas Indians. The church was built between 1749 and 1752 by the Swiss Jesuit and architect Fr. Martin Schmid
. The school and church as well as other characteristics of the domestic architecture are still visible today in the village of San Javier. San Javier was restored by Hans Roth in the latter part of the 20th century.
The mission of San Rafael de Velasco was the second mission in the World Heritage Site. Founded in 1695 by the Jesuits Fr. Zea and Fr. Hervás, San Rafael was moved several times. The mission had to be moved in 1701 and 1705 because of epidemics in the region. In 1719 the mission was moved once more due to fire. Martin Schmid built the church between 1747 and 1749, which has survived. San Rafael de Velasco was restored in the 20th century as part of Hans Roth's restoration project.
Founded in 1698 by the Jesuits Fr. Suarez and Fr. Ávila the mission of San José de Chiquitos is the third mission in the World Heritage Site. The mission was inhabited by the Penoquis Indians. The mission church was built between 1745 and 1754 by an unknown architect. The church at San José de Chiquitos is built of stone, unlike other mission churches in the area which were built with native adobe
and wood. The mission of San Jose is one of four that remain in their original location. As of , a mortuary chapel (1740), the church (1747), a bell tower (1748), a house for the priests, and workshops (1754) still exist, and were renovated by Hans Roth's restoration project between 1988 and 2003.
The fourth mission in the World Heritage Site, the mission of Concepción was initially founded in 1699 by the Jesuit priests Fr. Francisco Lucas Caballero and Fr. Francisco Hervás. The mission was moved three times: in 1707, 1708 and 1722. The mission was inhabited by the Chiquitanos. The mission church was constructed between 1753 and 1756, by Fr. Martin Schmid and Fr. Johann Mesner. From 1975 to 1996 the mission was reconstructed as part of Hans Roth's restoration project.
The fifth mission in the World Heritage Site, the mission of San Miguel de Velasco was established by the Jesuits Fr. Suarez and Fr. Hervás in 1721. San Miguel was an off-shoot of the mission of San Rafael where the population grew too large. The mission church was built between 1750 and 1757 by an architect who is believed to have been a collaborator or student of Martin Schmid. The church was restored by Hans Roth between 1979 and 1983.
The mission of Santa Ana de Velasco was the final mission to be established in the World Heritage Site. Santa Ana de Velasco was founded by the Jesuit priest Fr. Julian Knogler in 1755. The Indian inhabitants of the missions were of the Covarecas and Curuminacas tribes. The mission church was built after the expulsion of the Jesuits between 1770 and 1780 by an unknown architect and entirely by the indigenous population. The complex, consisting of the church and a grassy plaza lined by houses, is considered most closely to resemble the original reductions. In the latter half of the 20th century the mission underwent partial restoration through the efforts of Hans Roth and his team.
and Arcadia of the 16th-century European philosophers Thomas More
and Philip Sidney
. The Jesuits had specific criteria for building sites: locations with plenty of wood for construction; sufficient water for the population; good soil for agriculture; and safety from flooding during the rainy season. Though most of the towns in the Chiquitanía were relocated at least once during the time of the Jesuits, four of ten towns remain at their original site. Wood and adobe
were the main materials used in the construction of the settlements.
. In Chiquitanía the oldest mission, San Javier, was the basis for the organizational style, which consisted of a modular structure,Modular structure here refers to the basic building blocks that make up the settlement: plaza, church complex, houses. These parts are similar in all the settlements but were combined in various ways to produce distinct settlements. the center formed by a wide rectangular square, with the church complex on one side and the houses of the Indians on the three remaining sides. The centralized organization of the Jesuits dictated a certain uniformity of measures and sizes. Despite being based on the same basic model, the towns of the Chiquitos show remarkable variations. The orientation of the settlements with the cardinal points
differed and was determined by individual circumstances.The major features of the ideal layout plan were common among the Jesuit reductions. A general impression is given by a drawing of the mission in Concepción de Moxos by Victor Hugo Limpias from the Scientific Electronic Library Online — SciELO
was an almost square area varying in size from 124 by 148 m (406.8 by 485.6 ft) in the older towns of San Javier and San Rafael to 166 by 198 m (544.6 by 649.6 ft) in San Ignacio. As they were used for religious and civil purposes, these were open spaces free of vegetation except for a few palm trees
surrounding a cross in the center of the plaza. The evergreen palm trees symbolising eternal love are found in Psalms
92:12. Four chapels facing the central cross were placed at the corners of the square and were used in processions. Only remains exist of the chapels at the mission sites, because the plazas have been redesigned to reflect the republican and mestizo
lifestyle prevalent after the period of the Jesuits. Trees and shrubs were planted, and in some cases monuments were erected. Only the plaza at Santa Ana, of the original ten missions, does not show major changes, consisting as it did in colonial times, of an open grassy space.
provided protection from the elements. The latter have had a social function as meeting places up to the present day.
Over the last 150 years, this layout has been replaced by the usual Spanish colonial architecture of large square blocks with internal patio
s. Remnants of the initial design can still be seen in San Miguel, San Rafael and Santa Ana, places that were not as much exposed to modernization as the other settlements.
Martin Schmid, Swiss priest and composer
, was the architect for three missionary churches: San Javier, San Rafael de Velasco, and Concepción. Schmid combined elements of Christian architecture with traditional local design to create a unique baroque
mestizo style. Schmid placed the same quotation from the Genesis 28:17 above the main entrance of each of the three churches. In San Javier the quotation is in Spanish: ; and in Latin at the other two churches: , meaning The house of god and the gate of heaven.
The construction of the present churches falls in the period between 1745 and 1775 and is characterized by the use of locally available natural materials like wood, used in the carved columns, the pulpit
s and sets of drawers. Artistic adornments were added until around 1810. Some of the altar
s are covered in gold. Often the walls of the mission churches were made of adobe, the same material that had been used for the houses of the Indians. The church in San José is the exception: inspired by a baroque model, it has a stone facade added around 1805. The only other example where stone was used on a grand scale is in the construction of San Juan.
All of the churches consist of a wooden skeleton with columns, fixed in the ground, that provided stability to the building and supported the tile-covered roof. The adobe walls were placed directly on the ground, virtually independent of the wooden construction, and had no supporting role. Porticos and a large porch roof provided protection from the heavy tropical rains. The floor was covered in tile
s which, like those of the roof, were produced in local tile works. The churches have a barn-like appearance, albeit of monumental size (width: 16 –, length: 50 – height: 10 –) with a capacity for more than 3,000 people, with the wide structure and distinctive low hanging eaves
. This style, also, is evident in the building method of Indian community houses.
The construction of the church required a major effort by the community and employed hundreds of indigenous carpenters. Father José Cardiet described the process:
The walls were decorated with cornice
s, moldings
, pilaster
s and at times blind arcade
s. First the walls were plastered entirely by a mix of mud, sand, lima and straw, both inside and outside. Paint in earth tones was applied over the lime whitewash
, and ornaments were drawn, featuring elements from flora and fauna, as well as angels, saints and geometrical patterns. In some cases mica
was used to decorate the walls, columns and woodworks. Large oval “oeil-de-boeuf
” windows, surrounded by relief
petals, above the main doors are a characteristic feature.
The churches had three aisles, divided by wooden columns, often solomonic column
s, carved with twisted fluting resembling those at St. Peter's baldachin
in St Peter's, Rome. Until modern times, there were no pews so the congregation had to kneel on the floor. A variety of fine pieces of art adorn the inside of the churches, notably altar
s which are sometimes covered in gold, silver or mica. Especially remarkable are the pulpits made of brightly painted wood and supported by siren
s. The pulpit in the church of San Miguel features motifs derived from the local vegetation. Elements specific to the Chiquitos missions exist also in other decorations. The altars of the churches of San Javier and Concepción include depictions of Jesuits together with Indians. There remain original sculptures in retablo
s often depicting Madonnas, the crucifixion
, and saints, that were carved in wood and then painted. The sculptures exhibit a style unique to the Chiquitos region, differing from that of the reductions in Paraguay or the Bolivian highland. The tradition of figure carving has been preserved to the present day in workshops where carvers make columns, finial
s and windows for new or restored churches or chapels in the area. In addition, carvers produce decorative angels and other figures for the tourist market.
Roth researched and recovered the original techniques used to construct churches prior to the restorations. He installed new building infrastructure including saw mills, locksmiths shops, carpentry and repair shops, and trained local people in traditional crafts. European volunteers and the Bolivian Learning Institute (IBA) helped in the project.
Roth convinced the local inhabitants of the importance of the restoration works, which required a large labour force: typically 40 to 80 workers in towns with populations of 500 to 2,000 were required for church restoration. The effort indicates the strength of the common heritage present in the towns. The restoration has resulted in a revival of local traditions and a qualified workforce.The church of Concepción, Chiquitos, build by Martin Schmid in a historic photograph from the start of the 20th. century (by E. Kühne): Concepción church
leaders, who retained their function and played the role of intermediators between the people and the Jesuits. However, the degree to which the Jesuits controlled the indigenous population for which they had responsibility and the degree to which they allowed indigenous culture to function is a matter of debate, and the social organization of the reductions have been variously described as jungle utopia
s or as theocratic regimes of terror.
The Jesuits quickly learned the indigenous languages of their subjects, which eased the missionary work and contributed to the success of the missions. Numerous tribal families lived in Chiquitanía, often next to each other on the same mission. According to a report from 1745, of the 14,706 people living in the missions, 65.5% spoke Chiquitano, 11% Arawak
, 9.1% Otuque, 7.9% Zamuca, 4.4% Chapacura and 2.1% Guaraní
. Such ethnic diversity is unique among the Jesuit missions in America. Reflecting the view of the colonial powers, the Jesuit records only distinguished between Christian and non-Christian Indios. Eventually Gorgotoqui, the language spoken by the Chiquitano, became the lingua franca
of the mission settlements, and the numerous tribes were culturally united in the Chiquitano ethnic group. However, by 1770, within three years of the expulsion of the Jesuits, Spanish authorities instituted a new policy of forced "castilianization" or "Hispanicization" of language, thereby causing the number of speakers of native languages to decline.
Many Indians who joined the missions were looking for protection from Portuguese slave traders or the encomienda
system of the Spanish conquistador
es. In the reductions, the Indians were free men. The land in the missions was common property. Upon marriage, individual plots were assigned to the newly founded families. For the Jesuits the goal was to create cities in the complete harmony of the paradise in which they had encountered the Indians.
Though the settlements were officially a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru through the Audience of Charcas and of the diocese of Santa Cruz in church affairs, their remoteness made them effectively autonomous and self-sufficient. As early as 1515, Bartolomé de las Casas
initiated a "foreigner law" for the "'Indian people'", and no white or black man, other than the Jesuits and authorities, was allowed to live in the missions. Merchants were allowed to stay for three days at most.
and yuca
on a small scale. After the contact with the Spanish, cocoa and rice
were also cultivated. Hunting and fishing provided additional nutrition in the dry season. The Jesuits introduced cattle breeding.
In each settlement, one of the Jesuits was responsible for church matters, while the other dealt with commercial affairs and the general well-being of the community. As the Swiss priest, musician and architect Martin Schmid wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael: The Jesuits administered labour, the introduction of new technologies, and the disposition of the produced goods. The Jesuits designated that each family received all that was necessary to live. The Jesuits did not rely on donations, because by right the priests received a fixed income from the community to support their work. The thriving economy in the reductions enabled them to export surplus goods to all parts of Upper Peru. The income was used to pay the royal tributes and to purchase goods not locally available, such as books, paper, and wine, from as far away as Europe. In the missions themselves money was not used. This laid the foundation of the belief that the Jesuits were guarding immense riches acquired through Indian labour. In reality the communities were economically successful but hardly constituted any important source of income for the Jesuit order.
All the inhabitants, including the young and the elderly, were subject to a schedule alternating work, religious practice, and rest. According to d'Orbigny, the Chiquitania Indians enjoyed considerably more freedom than those in the Jesuit missions in Mojos. There was also less time spent on practicing religion. The Indians were instructed by the Jesuits in various arts. They learned very quickly and soon became proficient carpenters, painters, weavers, sculptors and artisans. Each settlement had its own set of craftsmen; as a result, in addition to the Caciques, a new social class of craftsmen emerged. This group and the rest of the population, who worked primarily in agriculture or cattle raising, were each represented by two alcalde
s. Initially the main commercial products included honey, yerba mate
, salt, tamarind
, cotton, shoes, and leather. Later, artisans exported musical instruments, rosaries, and silverware produced by the artisans.
, who worked in the reductions in Paraguay. Johann Mesner and Martin Schmid
, two Jesuit musicians, went to Chiquitanía.Audio recordings of works by Jesuit composers can be found at Schmid in particular was responsible for this skill being developed to such a high degree that polyphonic choirs would perform, and whole orchestras would play Baroque operas on handmade instruments. He directed the production of violins, harps, flutes, and organs, and wrote and copied masses, operas, and motets. He built an organ with six stops
in Potosí and transported it by mules over a distance of 1000 kilometres (621.4 mi) on a difficult road to the Chiquitanía lowlands. The Jesuits used the musical lessons as a first step to the Christianization of the natives.
As Schmid, who also acted as a composer, wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael:
still retain their capacities. Although the majority of the population is Catholic, a broad and rich mythology remains. Between 1992 and 2009 the population of San Javier and Concepción has tripled and more than doubled in San Ignacio. In the other mission towns the population also increased albeit on a smaller scale. As of 2009, San José, San Javier and Concepción have around 10,000 inhabitants; and San Ignacio, the largest town in Chiquitanía, has about 26,000. On the other hand, in Santa Ana there are currently only a few hundred people. The inhabitants of the cities are predominantly mestizos while the native Chiquitos Indians presently live in the villages. According to various sources, in Bolivia the number of ethnic Chiquitos is between 30,000 and 47,000 people, of which less than 6,000 – mainly elderly people – still speak the original language. Only a few hundred are monolingual in the Chiquitano language.
Economically, the area depends on agriculture. Maize
, rice, yuca
, cotton and heart of palm
are produced and exported. Cattle ranching and the industrial processing of milk have been developed extensively in recent years. Crafts, often carved of wood using the same techniques as in colonial times, provide additional income. Since the launch of the Jesuit Mission Circuit – a marketing label to promote tourismApart from the six World Heritage Missions, the mission of San Ignacio de Velasco is part of the circuit. – at the end of the 20th century, craftsmanship and tourism have been closely related.
The musical festivals and concerts held regularly in the mission towns testify to the living heritage of this artform. Some of the original instruments and sculptures made by Schmid and his apprentices survive in small museums in the mission towns, most notably in Concepción which also houses the music archive. In San Javier, San Rafael and Santa Ana the only three original harps from the time of the Jesuits are preserved. The church in Santa Ana houses the only original organ in Chiquitos. More than a dozen orchestras and choirs brought together by the Sistema de Coros y Orquestas (SICOR) dot the area.
Since 1996, the nonprofit institution Asociacion Pro Arte y Cultura (APAC) has been organizing the biennial Festival Internacional de Musica Renacentista y Barroca Americana.
Starting in the middle of 1975, restoration work in the church of Concepcion unearthed 6,000 musical scores from the 17th and 18th centuries. Later another 6,000 scores were found in Moxos and finally 10,000 more in San Javier. Many of these works were interpreted at the 2006 festival. The statistics of the festival over the years is as follows:
The festival is carried out at so-called Plazas Misionales among others in the main plaza of Santa Cruz. In one event, orchestras of various countries compete against each other. One of the local orchestras, called Orquesta Urubicha, is made up of people native to the missions who use instruments which they build by themselves according to plans left by the Jesuit missionaries.
To promote the missions as a tourist destination, travel agencies, chambers of commerce and industry, the towns' mayors, native communities and other institutions organized the , a five day tourist eventOne day of the five was spent in the Pantanal
. lasting from March 23–27, 2006. Journalists and international tour operators were shown the important tourist attractions, and introduced to the culture through visits to museums, local workshops, various concerts, native dances, high masses, processions, crafts festivals, and local cuisine. The organisers intended to raise the number of tourists from 25,000 to 1 million per year over a ten year period, which represented 400 million USD of income.
Tourism is already an important source of income for the region, amounting in Concepción Municipio alone to 296,140 USD
, or 7.2% of the annual gross production. An additional 40,000 USD or 1% comes from crafts. According to a report published by the "Coordinadora Interinstitucional de la Provincia Velasco" in 2007, 17,381 people visited San Ignacio, the largest town in the region, as tourists in 2006. About 30% of them came from outside of Bolivia. The main attraction for tourists to San Ignacio are the nearby missions of San Miguel, San Rafael, Santa Ana.83%/83%/93% of visitors to San Ignacio also visited Santa Ana/San Rafael/San Miguel Tourism to San Ignacio generated 7,821,450 Bolivianos bruto income in 2006. Tourism income is translated to an improvement of the infrastructure. Other than cultural tourism to the missionary circuit and musical festivals, the region offers many natural attractions like rivers, lagoons, hot spring
s, caves and waterfalls.
's theater play (The Strong are Lonely). Both are set in Paraguay. It has been suggested that Das heilige Experiment sparked interest in the 20th century among scholars in the forgotten Jesuit missions.
Jesuit missions in neighboring countries
Santa Cruz Department
Santa Cruz, with an area of 370,621 km², is the largest of the nine constituent departments of Bolivia. In the 2001 census, it reported a population of 2,029,471. The capital is the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The state is one of the wealthiest states in Bolivia with huge reserves of...
department
Departments of Bolivia
Bolivia is divided into nine departments . Each of the departments is subdivided into provinces , which are further subdivided into municipalities ....
of eastern Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
. Six of the missions have been designated a UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
World Heritage Site
World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
. The missions are distinguished by the fusion of European
Culture of Europe
The culture of Europe might better be described as a series of overlapping cultures. Whether it is a question of North as opposed to South; West as opposed to East; Orthodoxism as opposed to Protestantism as opposed to Catholicism as opposed to Secularism; many have claimed to identify cultural...
and American Indian
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
cultural influences. The missions were founded as reductions
Jesuit Reductions
A Jesuit Reduction was a type of settlement for indigenous people in Latin America created by the Jesuit Order during the 17th and 18th centuries. In general, the strategy of the Spanish Empire was to gather native populations into centers called Indian Reductions , in order to Christianize, tax,...
or reducciones de indios by Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries to convert the Indians
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
.
The interior region bordering Spanish
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
territories in South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
was largely unexplored at the end of the 17th century. Dispatched by the Spanish Crown, Jesuits explored and founded eleven settlements over 70 years in the Chiquitos region of Spanish America. They built churches in a unique and distinct style that combined elements of Indian and European architecture. The indigenous inhabitants of the missions were taught European music as a means of conversion
Religious conversion
Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religion that differs from the convert's previous religion. Changing from one denomination to another within the same religion is usually described as reaffiliation rather than conversion.People convert to a different religion for various reasons,...
. The missions were self-sufficient, with thriving economies, and virtually autonomous from the Spanish crown.
After the expulsion of the Jesuit order in the mid-18th century most of the Jesuit reductions in South America were abandoned and fell into ruins. The Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos are unique because the settlements and the associated culture have survived largely intact; and they are the last remaining Jesuit settlements in Bolivia.
A large restoration project of the missionary churches began in the second half of the 20th century. The Jesuit Missions continue to experience growing popularity, and have become a tourist destination. A government sponsored biennial international musical festival and cultural activities within the missions contribute to the popularity of the World Heritage Site.
Location
Santa Cruz Department
Santa Cruz, with an area of 370,621 km², is the largest of the nine constituent departments of Bolivia. In the 2001 census, it reported a population of 2,029,471. The capital is the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The state is one of the wealthiest states in Bolivia with huge reserves of...
department of southeastern Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
. They lie in a remote and inaccessible area of the Gran Chaco
Gran Chaco
The Gran Chaco is a sparsely populated, hot and semi-arid lowland region of the Río de la Plata basin, divided among eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, northern Argentina and a portion of the Brazilian states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, where it is connected with the Pantanal region...
east and northeast of Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, commonly known as Santa Cruz, is the capital of the Santa Cruz department in eastern Bolivia and the largest city in the country...
, between the Paraguay
Paraguay River
The Paraguay River is a major river in south central South America, running through Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina...
and Guapay
Río Grande (Bolivia)
The Río Grande in Bolivia rises on the southern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, at . At its source it is known as the Río Rocha and crosses the Cochabamba valley basin in a westerly direction...
rivers.
The westernmost missions are San Javier
San Javier, Ñuflo de Chávez
San Javier is the seat of the San Javier Municipality in the Ñuflo de Chávez Province, Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. San Javier is known as part of the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos, declared in 1990 a World Heritage Site, as a former Jesuit Reduction.-External links:* **...
and Concepción
Concepción, Santa Cruz
This article is about the Bolivian town. For other towns/cities named Concepción, see Concepción .Concepción is a town in the lowlands of Eastern Bolivia...
located in the province of Ñuflo de Chávez
Ñuflo de Chávez Province
Ñuflo de Chávez is one of the fifteen provinces of the Bolivian Santa Cruz Department and is situated in the northern central parts of the department. The name of the province honors the conquistador Ñuflo de Chaves who founded the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Its capital is Concepción...
between the rivers of San Julián and Urugayito. Santa Ana
Santa Ana de Velasco
Santa Ana de Velasco is a small town in the Santa Cruz Department of the South American Andean Republic of Bolivia.- Location :...
, San Miguel
San Miguel de Velasco
San Miguel de Velasco or simply San Miguel is a town in the Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. It is the capital of San Miguel Municipality, the second municipal section of José Miguel de Velasco Province. It is known as part of the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos, which is declared in 1990 a World...
, and San Rafael
San Rafael de Velasco
San Rafael de Velasco or San Rafael is the seat of the San Rafael Municipality in the José Miguel de Velasco Province, Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. It is part of the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos. In 1990 it was declared a World Heritage Site ....
missions are located to the east in José Miguel de Velasco
José Miguel de Velasco Province
José Miguel de Velasco or Velasco is a province in the Santa Cruz department of Bolivia. Its capital is San Ignacio de Velasco. The province is named after the Bolivian president José Miguel de Velasco Franco. It was created by law on October 12, 1880, during the presidency of Narciso Campero...
province, near the Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
ian border. The mission San José de Chiquitos
San José de Chiquitos
San José de Chiquitos or simply San José is the capital of Chiquitos Province in the Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. It is known as part of the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos, which is declared in 1990 a World Heritage Site, as a former Jesuit Reduction.- External links :* * *...
is located in Chiquitos province
Chiquitos Province
Chiquitanía is a region of tropical savannas in the Santa Cruz Department in eastern Bolivia."Chiquitos" is the colonial name for what is now essentially five of the six provinces that make up the Chiquitania, a region in Bolivia's Santa Cruz department. "Chiquitos" refers to a region, not a tribe...
, about 200 kilometres (124.3 mi) south of San Rafael.
Three other Jesuit missions – San Juan Bautista, Santo Corazón and Santiago de Chiquitos – which have not been named as UNESCO heritage sites, lie east of San José de Los Chiquitos in the area of the town Roboré
Roboré
-References:...
. The capital town of José Miguel de Velasco Province – San Ignacio de Velasco
San Ignacio de Velasco
San Ignacio de Velasco, San Ignacio, or SIV is the capital of the José Miguel de Velasco Province and the San Ignacio de Velasco Municipality in the Santa Cruz Department of Bolivia.-People:...
– was founded as a Jesuit mission but is not a World Heritage Site.
Name
Ñuflo de ChavesÑuflo de Chaves
Ñuflo de Chaves, also: "Ñuflo de Chávez", was a Spanish conquistador. He is best known for founding the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia....
– a 16th century Spanish conquistador
Conquistador
Conquistadors were Spanish soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th to 16th centuries, following Europe's discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492...
and founder of Santa Cruz “la Vieja” – introduced the name Chiquitos
Chiquitos
Chiquitos means "little ones" in Spanish. The Spanish Conquistadores chose this name for the people living in the rain savannas of what is now the eastern parts of the Santa Cruz Department in Bolivia, when they found the small doors of the Indian huts in the region.Today, this area is called Gran...
, or little ones. It referred to the small doors of the straw houses in which the indigenous population lived.There were several reasons to construct the doors in such a way: they kept out mosquitoes, flies and cold southerly winds; and they provided protection from enemies. Chiquitos has since been used both to denote people of the largest ethnic group in the area (also called Chiquitano), and collectively to denote the more than 40 ethnic groups with different languages and cultures living in the region known as Chiquitanía.
The current provincial division of the Santa Cruz department does not respect the former concept of a "missionary country". The former Chiquitanía lies within five modern provinces: Ángel Sandoval
Ángel Sandoval Province
Ángel Sandoval Province is one of the fifteen provinces of the Bolivian Santa Cruz Department and is situated in the department's eastern parts.- Location :...
, Germán Busch
Germán Busch Province
Germán Busch is a province in the Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. Most of the surface is covered by the Pantanal, the largest wetland area in the world.-History:...
, José Miguel de Velasco
José Miguel de Velasco Province
José Miguel de Velasco or Velasco is a province in the Santa Cruz department of Bolivia. Its capital is San Ignacio de Velasco. The province is named after the Bolivian president José Miguel de Velasco Franco. It was created by law on October 12, 1880, during the presidency of Narciso Campero...
, Ñuflo de Chávez
Ñuflo de Chávez Province
Ñuflo de Chávez is one of the fifteen provinces of the Bolivian Santa Cruz Department and is situated in the northern central parts of the department. The name of the province honors the conquistador Ñuflo de Chaves who founded the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Its capital is Concepción...
and Chiquitos
Chiquitos Province
Chiquitanía is a region of tropical savannas in the Santa Cruz Department in eastern Bolivia."Chiquitos" is the colonial name for what is now essentially five of the six provinces that make up the Chiquitania, a region in Bolivia's Santa Cruz department. "Chiquitos" refers to a region, not a tribe...
province.
History
In the 16th century, priests of different religious ordersRoman Catholic religious order
Catholic religious orders are, historically, a category of Catholic religious institutes.Subcategories are canons regular ; monastics ; mendicants Catholic religious orders are, historically, a category of Catholic religious institutes.Subcategories are canons regular (canons and canonesses regular...
set out to evangelize the Americas
European colonization of the Americas
The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492. The first Europeans to reach the Americas were the Vikings during the 11th century, who established several colonies in Greenland and one short-lived settlement in present day Newfoundland...
, bringing Christianity to indigenous communities. One of these missions
Mission (Christian)
Christian missionary activities often involve sending individuals and groups , to foreign countries and to places in their own homeland. This has frequently involved not only evangelization , but also humanitarian work, especially among the poor and disadvantaged...
were those of the Franciscan
Franciscan
Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. Besides Roman Catholic communities, there are also Old Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, ecumenical and Non-denominational Franciscan communities....
s and the Jesuits
Society of Jesus
The Society of Jesus is a Catholic male religious order that follows the teachings of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits, and are also known colloquially as "God's Army" and as "The Company," these being references to founder Ignatius of Loyola's military background and a...
to Chiquitanía. The missionaries employed the strategy of gathering the often nomad
Nomad
Nomadic people , commonly known as itinerants in modern-day contexts, are communities of people who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in one location. There are an estimated 30-40 million nomads in the world. Many cultures have traditionally been nomadic, but...
ic indigenous populations in larger communities called reductions
Jesuit Reductions
A Jesuit Reduction was a type of settlement for indigenous people in Latin America created by the Jesuit Order during the 17th and 18th centuries. In general, the strategy of the Spanish Empire was to gather native populations into centers called Indian Reductions , in order to Christianize, tax,...
in order to more effectively Christianize them. This policy sprang from the colonial legal view of the Indian as a minor, who had to be protected and guided by European missionaries in order not to succumb to sin. Reductions generally were also construed as an instrument to make the Indians adopt European lifestyles and values, which was not the case in the Jesuit reductions, where the Jesuits allowed the Indians to retain many of the pre-colonial cultural practices.
Arrival in the Viceroyalty of Peru
With the permission of King Philip II of SpainPhilip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
a group of Jesuits travelled to the Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
Created in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima...
in 1566, more than 30 years later than the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians
Augustinians
The term Augustinians, named after Saint Augustine of Hippo , applies to two separate and unrelated types of Catholic religious orders:...
and Mercedarians. The Jesuits established themselves in Lima
Lima
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima...
in 1569 before moving east towards Paraguay
Paraguay
Paraguay , officially the Republic of Paraguay , is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to the east and northeast, and Bolivia to the northwest. Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the...
; by 1572 they reached the Audience of Charcas in modern-day Bolivia. Because they were not allowed to establish settlements on the frontier they built chapter house
Chapter house
A chapter house or chapterhouse is a building or room attached to a cathedral or collegiate church in which meetings are held. They can also be found in medieval monasteries....
s, churches and schools in pre-existing settlements, such as La Paz
La Paz
Nuestra Señora de La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia, as well as the departmental capital of the La Paz Department, and the second largest city in the country after Santa Cruz de la Sierra...
, Potosí
Potosí
Potosí is a city and the capital of the department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world by elevation at a nominal . and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint, now the National Mint of Bolivia...
and La Plata
Sucre
Sucre, also known historically as Charcas, La Plata and Chuquisaca is the constitutional capital of Bolivia and the capital of the department of Chuquisaca. Located in the south-central part of the country, Sucre lies at an elevation of 2750m...
(present day Sucre).
In 1587 the first Jesuits, Fr. Diego Samaniego and Fr. Diego Martínez, arrived in Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, commonly known as Santa Cruz, is the capital of the Santa Cruz department in eastern Bolivia and the largest city in the country...
, which was south of where San José de Chiquitos
San José de Chiquitos
San José de Chiquitos or simply San José is the capital of Chiquitos Province in the Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. It is known as part of the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos, which is declared in 1990 a World Heritage Site, as a former Jesuit Reduction.- External links :* * *...
would be established. In 1592 the city had to be moved 250 kilometres (155.3 mi) west because of conflicts with natives, but the remains of the original town exist in the Santa Cruz la Vieja archaeological site
Archaeological site
An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past activity is preserved , and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely,...
. The Jesuits did not start missions into the valleys northeast of the cordillera
Cordillera
A cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges, that runs along a coastline . It comes from the Spanish word cordilla, which is a diminutive of cuerda, or "cord"...
until the 17th century. The two central areas for their activities were Moxos
Moxos Province
Moxos is a province in the Beni Department, Bolivia. It is named after the Moxos savanna.The province consists of one municipality, San Ignacio de Moxos Municipality, which is identical to the province...
, situated in the department of Beni
Beni Department
Beni, sometimes El Beni, is a northeastern department of Bolivia, in the lowlands region of the country. It is the second largest department in the country , covering 213,564 square kilometers , and it was created by supreme decree on November 18, 1842 during the administration of General José...
, and Chiquitanía in the department of Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, commonly known as Santa Cruz, is the capital of the Santa Cruz department in eastern Bolivia and the largest city in the country...
. In 1682, Fr. Cipriano Barace founded the first of the Jesuit reductions in Moxos, located at Loreto
Loreto, Beni
Loreto is a town in the Beni Department in northern Bolivia. It is the capital of the Marbán Province and Loreto Municipality .-External links:*...
.
The Jesuits in Chiquitanía
While the missionary towns in Paraguay flourished, the evangelization of the Guaraní proved difficult. With encouragement from Agustin Gutierrez de Arce, the governor of Santa Cruz, the Jesuits focused their efforts on the Chiquitanía region where the Christian doctrine was more readily accepted. From 1691 to 1760 eleven missions were founded in the area; however fires, floods, plagues, famines, attacks by hostile tribes or slave traders caused many missions to be re-established or rebuilt. The Chiquitos missions were spared large-scale epidemics, unlike those in Paraguay, mainly because of the remote locations and the lack of transport infrastructure.The first Jesuit reduction in the Chiquitanía was the mission of San Francisco Javier, founded in 1691 by the Jesuit priest José de Arce. According to legend, in September 1691, José de Arce and Br. Antonio de Rivas intended to meet seven other Jesuits at the Paraguay river to establish a connection between Paraguay and Chiquitanía. However, the beginning of the rainy season brought bad weather and Arce and his companion only got as far as first Chiquitos settlement. The local Piñoca tribe, who were suffering from a plague, begged Arce and Rivas to stay and promised to build a house and a church for the Jesuits, which were finished by the end of year. The mission was later moved.
Ten more missions were founded in the Chiquitanía by the Jesuits in three distinct periods: the 1690s, the 1720s, and after 1748. In the 1690s, five missions were established: San Rafael (1696), San José de Chiquitos (1698), Concepción (1699) and San Juan Bautista (1699). San Juan Bautista is not part of the World Heritage Site, and only the ruins of a stone tower survive near the village San Juan de Taperas.
The War of the Spanish Succession
War of the Spanish Succession
The War of the Spanish Succession was fought among several European powers, including a divided Spain, over the possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France under one Bourbon monarch. As France and Spain were among the most powerful states of Europe, such a unification would have...
(1701 – 1714) caused a shortage of missionaries and instability in the reductions, so no new missions were built during this period. By 1718 San Rafael was the largest of the Chiquitos missions, and with 2,615 inhabitants could not sustain the growing population. In 1721 Felipe Suárez and Francisco Hervás established a split-off of the San Rafael mission, the mission of San Miguel. San Ignacio de Zamucos was founded in 1724 but abandoned soon after in 1745; today nothing remains of the mission.
A third period of mission foundations began in 1748 with the establishment of San Ignacio, San Ignacio de Velasco
San Ignacio de Velasco
San Ignacio de Velasco, San Ignacio, or SIV is the capital of the José Miguel de Velasco Province and the San Ignacio de Velasco Municipality in the Santa Cruz Department of Bolivia.-People:...
as it is known today, which was not declared a part of the World Heritage Site. The church is a faithful 20th-century reconstruction of the original built in 1761. In 1754 the Jesuits founded the mission of Santiago de Chiquitos. The church is a reconstruction from the early 20th century and is not part of the World Heritage Site. In 1755 the mission Santa Ana was founded by Fr. Knogler and it is the only World Heritage mission of this period. The last mission in Chiquitanía to be established was founded as Santo Corazón in 1760. However, nothing of the original settlement remains in the modern village.
The Jesuits in Chiquitanía had a secondary objective which was to secure a more direct route to Asunción
Asunción
Asunción is the capital and largest city of Paraguay.The "Ciudad de Asunción" is an autonomous capital district not part of any department. The metropolitan area, called Gran Asunción, includes the cities of San Lorenzo, Fernando de la Mora, Lambaré, Luque, Mariano Roque Alonso, Ñemby, San...
than the road being used via Tucuman and Tarija
Tarija, Bolivia
Tarija or San Bernardo de la Frontera de Tarixa is a city in southern Bolivia. Founded in 1574, Tarija is both the capital and largest city within the Tarija Department, with an airport offering regular service to primary Bolivian cities, as well as a regional bus terminal with domestic and...
to link the Chiquitanía with the Jesuit missions in Paraguay. The missionaries of the Chiquitos missions founded their settlements increasingly further east towards the Paraguay river, while those south of Asunción moved closer to the Paraguay river by establishing missions increasingly farther north, thereby avoiding the impassable Chaco region. Although Ñuflo de Chaves had attempted a route through the Chaco on an expedition as early as 1564, the Jesuits explorations from Chiquitos (in 1702, 1703 and 1705) were unsuccessful. The Jesuits were stopped by the hostile tribes of the Payaguás and Guaycurus, and by the impenetrable swamps of Jarayes. In 1715 José de Arce, the founder of the first mission in San Javier, set out from Asunción on the Paraguay river with the Flemish priest Bartolomé Blende. Payaguás Indians killed Blende during the journey, and Arce struggled to reach San Rafael. On the return trip to Asunción he too was killed. Not until 1767, when the missions had encroached sufficiently on the hostile region and just before the Jesuits left America, did Fr. José Sánchez Labrador manage to travel from Belén in Paraguay to Santo Corazón.
Expulsion and recent development
In 1750 as a result of the Treaty of MadridTreaty of Madrid (1750)
The Spanish–Portuguese treaty of 1750 or Treaty of Madrid was a document signed by Ferdinand VI of Spain and John V of Portugal on January 13, 1750, concerning their empires and status of their territories in what is now Brazil....
seven missions
Misiones Orientales
The Misiones Orientales or Sete Povos das Missões are a historic region in South America, in present-day Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost State of Brazil....
in present-day Rio Grande do Sul
Rio Grande do Sul
Rio Grande do Sul is the southernmost state in Brazil, and the state with the fifth highest Human Development Index in the country. In this state is located the southernmost city in the country, Chuí, on the border with Uruguay. In the region of Bento Gonçalves and Caxias do Sul, the largest wine...
were transferred from Spanish to Portuguese control. The native Guarani tribes were unhappy to see their lands turned over to Portugal (their enemy for over a century) and they rebelled against the decision leading to the Guarani War
Guarani War
The Guarani War of 1756, also called the War of the Seven Reductions, took place between the Guaraní tribes of seven Jesuit Reductions and joint Spanish-Portuguese forces...
. In Europe, where the Jesuits were under attack, they were accused of "supporting the rebellion" and were perceived as defending the Indians. In 1758 the Jesuits were accused of a conspiracy to kill the King of Portugal known as the Távora affair
Távora affair
The Távora affair was a political scandal of the 18th century Portuguese court. The events triggered by the attempted murder of King Joseph I of Portugal in 1758 ended with the public execution of the entire Távora family and its closest relatives in 1759...
. All members of the Society of Jesus were evicted from Portuguese territories in 1759, and from French territories in 1764. In 1766 Jesuits were accused of causing riots
Esquilache Riots
The Esquilache Riots occurred in March 1766 during the rule of Charles III of Spain. Caused mostly by the growing discontent in Madrid about the rising costs of bread and other staples, they were sparked off by a series of measures regarding Spaniards' apparel that had been enacted by Leopoldo de...
in Madrid; consequently in February 1767, Charles III of Spain
Charles III of Spain
Charles III was the King of Spain and the Spanish Indies from 1759 to 1788. He was the eldest son of Philip V of Spain and his second wife, the Princess Elisabeth Farnese...
signed a royal decree with expulsion orders for to all members of the Society of Jesus in Spanish territories which arrived in the Chiquitanía in August.
From then on, spiritual and secular
Secularity
Secularity is the state of being separate from religion.For instance, eating and bathing may be regarded as examples of secular activities, because there may not be anything inherently religious about them...
administration were to be strictly separated. At the time of the expulsion, 25 Jesuits served a Christianized population of at least 24,000,which included only those that had been baptised. The total population was estimated to be around 37,000 in the ten missions of Chiquitanía. The Chiquitos mission properties included 25 estancia
Estância
Estância is a municipality located in the Brazilian state of Sergipe. Its population was 62,218 and its area is 642 km². The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Estância....
s with 31,700 cattle and 850 horses. Libraries across ten settlements held 2,094 volumes.
By September 1767 all but a single Jesuit left, and the last Jesuit left the following year. The Spanish considered it essential to maintain the settlements as a buffer against Portuguese expansion. The archbishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Francisco Ramón Herboso, established a new system of government similar to that of the Jesuits. He stipulated that each mission be run by two secular (parish) priests, one to take care of the spiritual needs while the other was in charge of all other – political and economical – affairs of the mission administration. As a novelty, the Indians were allowed to trade. In practice, the shortage of clergy and the low quality of those appointed – who often did not speak the language of the Indians and in cases had not been ordained
Ordination
In general religious use, ordination is the process by which individuals are consecrated, that is, set apart as clergy to perform various religious rites and ceremonies. The process and ceremonies of ordination itself varies by religion and denomination. One who is in preparation for, or who is...
– led to general decline of the missions. The priests broke ethical and religious codes, appropriated the major part of the missions' income and encouraged contraband trade with the Portuguese.
Within two years of the expulsion, the population in the Chiquitanía missions dropped below 20,000. Despite the general decline of the settlements, however, the church buildings themselves were maintained and, in some cases, extended by the towns' inhabitants. The construction of the church in Santa Ana falls into this period. Bernd Fischermann, an anthropologist who studied the Chiquitos Indians, notes three reasons that the Chiquitano preserved the heritage of the Jesuits even after their expulsion: the memory of the prosperity with the Jesuits; the desire to appear as civilized Christians to the mestizos and white people; and to preserve the ethnicity that originated from a mix of various culturally distinct groups blended by common language and customs learned from the Jesuits.
In January 1790, the Audiencia of Charcas ended the mismanagement, and temporal affairs were delegated to civil administrators, making the missions economically more successful. Sixty years after the expulsion of the Jesuits the churches remained active centers of worship, as the French naturalist Alcide d'Orbigny
Alcide d'Orbigny
Alcide Charles Victor Marie Dessalines d'Orbigny was a French naturalist who made major contributions in many areas, including zoology , palaeontology, geology, archaeology and anthropology....
reported from the area during his mission to South America in 1830 and 1831. Although much diminished, economically and politically, the town culture the Jesuits established was still evident. According to d'Orbigny, the music at a Sunday mass in San Javier was better than those he had heard in the richest cities of Bolivia. The population of the Chiquitanía missions reached a low of around 15,000 inhabitants in 1830. In 1842 the comte de Castelnau
François Louis de la Porte, comte de Castelnau
François Louis Nompar de Caumont LaPorte, comte de Castelnau was a French naturalist, known also as François Laporte or Francis de Castelnau.-Life:Born in London, he studied natural history in Paris...
visited the area and, referring to the church in Santa Ana, proclaimed: "This beautiful building, surrounded by gardens, presents one of the most impressive views imaginable."
By the mid-19th century, the reduction system of the missions had disappeared. Mestizos who had moved to the area in their quest for land began to outnumber the original Chiquito population. Starting with the creation of the Province of Velasco
José Miguel de Velasco Province
José Miguel de Velasco or Velasco is a province in the Santa Cruz department of Bolivia. Its capital is San Ignacio de Velasco. The province is named after the Bolivian president José Miguel de Velasco Franco. It was created by law on October 12, 1880, during the presidency of Narciso Campero...
in 1880, the old Chiquitanía was split into several administrative divisions. With the rubber boom
Rubber boom
The rubber boom was an important part of the economic and social history of Brazil and Amazonian regions of neighboring countries, being related with the extraction and commercialization of rubber...
at the turn of the century, more settlers came to the areas and established large hacienda
Hacienda
Hacienda is a Spanish word for an estate. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even business factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities...
s, moving the economic activities together with the Indians out of the towns.
In 1931, the spiritual administration of the missions was given to German-speaking Franciscan missionaries. The ecclesiastical control moved back to the area with the creation of the Apostolic Vicariate of Chiquitos in San Ignacio. As of , the churches not only serve the mestizo inhabitants of the villages but present spiritual centers for the Indians living in the periphery.
In 1972, Swiss architect and Jesuit priest Hans Roth began an extensive restoration project of the missionary churches and many colonial buildings that were in ruins. The churches exist in their present form as a result of Roth's effort, who worked on the restoration with a few colleagues and many local people until his death in 1999. The restoration works continued into the beginning of the 21st century. Six of the reductions were listed as part of the World Heritage Site by the UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
in 1990. The churches in San Ignacio de Velasco, Santiago de Chiquitos and Santo Corazon have been reconstructed from scratch and are not part of the World Heritage Site. In San Juan Bautista only ruins remain. UNESCO listed the site under criteria IV and V, acknowledging the adaption of Christian religious architecture to the local environment and the unique architecture expressed in the wooden columns and banisters. ICOMOS, the International Council on Monuments and Sites, warns that the traditional architectural ensemble that makes up the site has become vulnerable following agrarian reforms from 1953 which threatened the Chiquitos population. At the time of the nomination, the World Heritage Site was protected by the Pro Santa Cruz committee, Cordecruz,a public agency responsible for land improvements Plan Regulador de Santa Cruza technical authority responsible for urban planning and ground use and the local mayoral offices of the mission towns.
San Javier
16.2748°N 62.5072°WPaulistas
Paulistas are the inhabitants of the state of São Paulo, Brazil, and of its antecessor the Capitaincy of São Vicente, whose capital early shifted from the village of São Vicente to the one of São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga....
from Brazil in the east, the mission was relocated toward the San Miguel River. In 1698, the mission was relocated closer to Santa Cruz, and in 1708, San Javier was moved away from Santa Cruz to protect the Indians from the Spaniards. The inhabitants of San Javier were the Piñocas Indians. The church was built between 1749 and 1752 by the Swiss Jesuit and architect Fr. Martin Schmid
Martin Schmid
Martin Schmid was a Swiss Jesuit priest, missionary, composer and architect who was active in the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos in present day Bolivia....
. The school and church as well as other characteristics of the domestic architecture are still visible today in the village of San Javier. San Javier was restored by Hans Roth in the latter part of the 20th century.
San Rafael de Velasco
16.7869°N 60.6738°WThe mission of San Rafael de Velasco was the second mission in the World Heritage Site. Founded in 1695 by the Jesuits Fr. Zea and Fr. Hervás, San Rafael was moved several times. The mission had to be moved in 1701 and 1705 because of epidemics in the region. In 1719 the mission was moved once more due to fire. Martin Schmid built the church between 1747 and 1749, which has survived. San Rafael de Velasco was restored in the 20th century as part of Hans Roth's restoration project.
San José de Chiquitos
17.8456°N 60.7405°WFounded in 1698 by the Jesuits Fr. Suarez and Fr. Ávila the mission of San José de Chiquitos is the third mission in the World Heritage Site. The mission was inhabited by the Penoquis Indians. The mission church was built between 1745 and 1754 by an unknown architect. The church at San José de Chiquitos is built of stone, unlike other mission churches in the area which were built with native adobe
Adobe
Adobe is a natural building material made from sand, clay, water, and some kind of fibrous or organic material , which the builders shape into bricks using frames and dry in the sun. Adobe buildings are similar to cob and mudbrick buildings. Adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for...
and wood. The mission of San Jose is one of four that remain in their original location. As of , a mortuary chapel (1740), the church (1747), a bell tower (1748), a house for the priests, and workshops (1754) still exist, and were renovated by Hans Roth's restoration project between 1988 and 2003.
Concepción
16.1344°N 62.024696°WSan Miguel de Velasco
16.6986°N 60.9681°WSanta Ana de Velasco
16.5841°N 60.6888°WArchitecture
In their design of the reductions, the Jesuits were inspired by the ideal cities UtopiaUtopia
Utopia is an ideal community or society possessing a perfect socio-politico-legal system. The word was imported from Greek by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book Utopia, describing a fictional island in the Atlantic Ocean. The term has been used to describe both intentional communities that attempt...
and Arcadia of the 16th-century European philosophers Thomas More
Thomas More
Sir Thomas More , also known by Catholics as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist. He was an important councillor to Henry VIII of England and, for three years toward the end of his life, Lord Chancellor...
and Philip Sidney
Philip Sidney
Sir Philip Sidney was an English poet, courtier and soldier, and is remembered as one of the most prominent figures of the Elizabethan Age...
. The Jesuits had specific criteria for building sites: locations with plenty of wood for construction; sufficient water for the population; good soil for agriculture; and safety from flooding during the rainy season. Though most of the towns in the Chiquitanía were relocated at least once during the time of the Jesuits, four of ten towns remain at their original site. Wood and adobe
Adobe
Adobe is a natural building material made from sand, clay, water, and some kind of fibrous or organic material , which the builders shape into bricks using frames and dry in the sun. Adobe buildings are similar to cob and mudbrick buildings. Adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for...
were the main materials used in the construction of the settlements.
Mission layout
The architecture and internal layout of the missions followed a scheme which was repeated later with some variations in the rest of the missionary reductionsIndian Reductions
Reductions were settlements founded by the Spanish colonizers of the New World with the purpose of assimilating indigenous populations into European culture and religion.Already since the beginning of the Spanish presence in the Americas, the Crown had been concerned...
. In Chiquitanía the oldest mission, San Javier, was the basis for the organizational style, which consisted of a modular structure,Modular structure here refers to the basic building blocks that make up the settlement: plaza, church complex, houses. These parts are similar in all the settlements but were combined in various ways to produce distinct settlements. the center formed by a wide rectangular square, with the church complex on one side and the houses of the Indians on the three remaining sides. The centralized organization of the Jesuits dictated a certain uniformity of measures and sizes. Despite being based on the same basic model, the towns of the Chiquitos show remarkable variations. The orientation of the settlements with the cardinal points
Cardinal Points
Cardinal Points is a student newspaper published in Plattsburgh, New York which serves the SUNY Plattsburgh community. The newspaper publishes 3,000 copies every Friday morning throughout the semester, from February until May 12...
differed and was determined by individual circumstances.The major features of the ideal layout plan were common among the Jesuit reductions. A general impression is given by a drawing of the mission in Concepción de Moxos by Victor Hugo Limpias from the Scientific Electronic Library Online — SciELO
Plaza
The plazaPlaza
Plaza is a Spanish word related to "field" which describes an open urban public space, such as a city square. All through Spanish America, the plaza mayor of each center of administration held three closely related institutions: the cathedral, the cabildo or administrative center, which might be...
was an almost square area varying in size from 124 by 148 m (406.8 by 485.6 ft) in the older towns of San Javier and San Rafael to 166 by 198 m (544.6 by 649.6 ft) in San Ignacio. As they were used for religious and civil purposes, these were open spaces free of vegetation except for a few palm trees
Arecaceae
Arecaceae or Palmae , are a family of flowering plants, the only family in the monocot order Arecales. There are roughly 202 currently known genera with around 2600 species, most of which are restricted to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates...
surrounding a cross in the center of the plaza. The evergreen palm trees symbolising eternal love are found in Psalms
Psalms
The Book of Psalms , commonly referred to simply as Psalms, is a book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible...
92:12. Four chapels facing the central cross were placed at the corners of the square and were used in processions. Only remains exist of the chapels at the mission sites, because the plazas have been redesigned to reflect the republican and mestizo
Mestizo
Mestizo is a term traditionally used in Latin America, Philippines and Spain for people of mixed European and Native American heritage or descent...
lifestyle prevalent after the period of the Jesuits. Trees and shrubs were planted, and in some cases monuments were erected. Only the plaza at Santa Ana, of the original ten missions, does not show major changes, consisting as it did in colonial times, of an open grassy space.
Houses
The houses of the Indians had an elongated layout, and were arranged in parallel lines extending from the main square in three directions. Those facing the plaza were originally occupied by the chiefs of the indigenous tribes, and were often larger. The architecture of the houses was simple, consisting of large rooms (6x4 metres), walls up to 60 centimetres (2 ft) thick, and a roof made of reed (caña) and wood (cuchi) that reached a height of 5 m (16.4 ft) in the center. Double doors and open galleriesLong gallery
Long gallery is an architectural term given to a long, narrow room, often with a high ceiling. In British architecture, long galleries were popular in Elizabethan and Jacobean houses. They were often located on the upper floor of the great houses of the time, and stretched across the entire...
provided protection from the elements. The latter have had a social function as meeting places up to the present day.
Over the last 150 years, this layout has been replaced by the usual Spanish colonial architecture of large square blocks with internal patio
Patio
A patio is an outdoor space generally used for dining or recreation that adjoins a residence and is typically paved. It may refer to a roofless inner courtyard of the sort found in Spanish-style dwellings or a paved area between a residence and a garden....
s. Remnants of the initial design can still be seen in San Miguel, San Rafael and Santa Ana, places that were not as much exposed to modernization as the other settlements.
Church complex
Along the fourth side of the plaza lay the religious, cultural and commercial center of the towns. In addition to the church, which dominated the complex, there would have been a mortuary chapel, a tower and a "school",The term school here refers to the priests' house. connected by a wall along the side of the plaza. Behind the wall and away from the plaza would have been the patio with living quarters for the priests or visitors, rooms for the town council, for music, storage, as well as workshops, which often were arranged around a second patio. Behind the buildings, a vegetable garden surrounded by a wall and a cemetery could have been found. The cemeteries and workshops have disappeared completely from the mission settlements, while the other elements of the church complex still survive to varying degree. Two stone towers (in San Juan and San José) and one of adobe (in San Miguel) can be traced back to the time of the Jesuits. Others are of more recent construction, or the result of the conservation and restoration work from the end of the 20th century. Many of these are tall wooden constructions open on all sides. Of the Jesuit schools only those in San Javier and Concepción are preserved entirely. Like the houses of the Indians, the buildings of the church complex were single level.In San Rafael there existed a two-storeyed “guest house” as part of the school.Church
Once a settlement had been established, the missionaries, working with the native population, began to erect the church, which served as the educational, cultural and economic center of the town.Martin Schmid, Swiss priest and composer
Composer
A composer is a person who creates music, either by musical notation or oral tradition, for interpretation and performance, or through direct manipulation of sonic material through electronic media...
, was the architect for three missionary churches: San Javier, San Rafael de Velasco, and Concepción. Schmid combined elements of Christian architecture with traditional local design to create a unique baroque
Baroque architecture
Baroque architecture is a term used to describe the building style of the Baroque era, begun in late sixteenth century Italy, that took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion, often to express the triumph of the Catholic Church and...
mestizo style. Schmid placed the same quotation from the Genesis 28:17 above the main entrance of each of the three churches. In San Javier the quotation is in Spanish: ; and in Latin at the other two churches: , meaning The house of god and the gate of heaven.
The construction of the present churches falls in the period between 1745 and 1775 and is characterized by the use of locally available natural materials like wood, used in the carved columns, the pulpit
Pulpit
Pulpit is a speakers' stand in a church. In many Christian churches, there are two speakers' stands at the front of the church. Typically, the one on the left is called the pulpit...
s and sets of drawers. Artistic adornments were added until around 1810. Some of the altar
Altar
An altar is any structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes. Altars are usually found at shrines, and they can be located in temples, churches and other places of worship...
s are covered in gold. Often the walls of the mission churches were made of adobe, the same material that had been used for the houses of the Indians. The church in San José is the exception: inspired by a baroque model, it has a stone facade added around 1805. The only other example where stone was used on a grand scale is in the construction of San Juan.
All of the churches consist of a wooden skeleton with columns, fixed in the ground, that provided stability to the building and supported the tile-covered roof. The adobe walls were placed directly on the ground, virtually independent of the wooden construction, and had no supporting role. Porticos and a large porch roof provided protection from the heavy tropical rains. The floor was covered in tile
Tile
A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, or even glass. Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other objects such as tabletops...
s which, like those of the roof, were produced in local tile works. The churches have a barn-like appearance, albeit of monumental size (width: 16 –, length: 50 – height: 10 –) with a capacity for more than 3,000 people, with the wide structure and distinctive low hanging eaves
Eaves
The eaves of a roof are its lower edges. They usually project beyond the walls of the building to carry rain water away.-Etymology:"Eaves" is derived from Old English and is both the singular and plural form of the word.- Function :...
. This style, also, is evident in the building method of Indian community houses.
The construction of the church required a major effort by the community and employed hundreds of indigenous carpenters. Father José Cardiet described the process:
The walls were decorated with cornice
Cornice
Cornice molding is generally any horizontal decorative molding that crowns any building or furniture element: the cornice over a door or window, for instance, or the cornice around the edge of a pedestal. A simple cornice may be formed just with a crown molding.The function of the projecting...
s, moldings
Molding (decorative)
Molding or moulding is a strip of material with various profiles used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration. It is traditionally made from solid milled wood or plaster but may be made from plastic or reformed wood...
, pilaster
Pilaster
A pilaster is a slightly-projecting column built into or applied to the face of a wall. Most commonly flattened or rectangular in form, pilasters can also take a half-round form or the shape of any type of column, including tortile....
s and at times blind arcade
Arcade (architecture)
An arcade is a succession of arches, each counterthrusting the next, supported by columns or piers or a covered walk enclosed by a line of such arches on one or both sides. In warmer or wet climates, exterior arcades provide shelter for pedestrians....
s. First the walls were plastered entirely by a mix of mud, sand, lima and straw, both inside and outside. Paint in earth tones was applied over the lime whitewash
Whitewash
Whitewash, or calcimine, kalsomine, calsomine, or lime paint is a very low-cost type of paint made from slaked lime and chalk . Various other additives are also used...
, and ornaments were drawn, featuring elements from flora and fauna, as well as angels, saints and geometrical patterns. In some cases mica
Mica
The mica group of sheet silicate minerals includes several closely related materials having highly perfect basal cleavage. All are monoclinic, with a tendency towards pseudohexagonal crystals, and are similar in chemical composition...
was used to decorate the walls, columns and woodworks. Large oval “oeil-de-boeuf
Oeil-de-Boeuf
Oeil-de-boeuf, also œil de bœuf, is a term applied to a relatively small oval window, typically for an upper storey, and sometimes set on a roof slope as a dormer, or above a door to give light. Windows of this type are commonly found in the grand architecture of Baroque France...
” windows, surrounded by relief
Relief
Relief is a sculptural technique. The term relief is from the Latin verb levo, to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is thus to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane...
petals, above the main doors are a characteristic feature.
The churches had three aisles, divided by wooden columns, often solomonic column
Solomonic column
The Solomonic column, also called Barley-sugar column, is a helical column, characterized by a spiraling twisting shaft like a corkscrew...
s, carved with twisted fluting resembling those at St. Peter's baldachin
St. Peter's baldachin
Saint Peter's baldachin is a large Baroque sculpted bronze canopy, technically called a ciborium or baldachin, over the high altar of Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City, Rome, which is at the centre of the crossing and directly under the dome...
in St Peter's, Rome. Until modern times, there were no pews so the congregation had to kneel on the floor. A variety of fine pieces of art adorn the inside of the churches, notably altar
Altar
An altar is any structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes. Altars are usually found at shrines, and they can be located in temples, churches and other places of worship...
s which are sometimes covered in gold, silver or mica. Especially remarkable are the pulpits made of brightly painted wood and supported by siren
Siren
In Greek mythology, the Sirens were three dangerous mermaid like creatures, portrayed as seductresses who lured nearby sailors with their enchanting music and voices to shipwreck on the rocky coast of their island. Roman poets placed them on an island called Sirenum scopuli...
s. The pulpit in the church of San Miguel features motifs derived from the local vegetation. Elements specific to the Chiquitos missions exist also in other decorations. The altars of the churches of San Javier and Concepción include depictions of Jesuits together with Indians. There remain original sculptures in retablo
Retablo
A Retablo or lamina is a Latin American devotional painting, especially a small popular or folk art one using iconography derived from traditional Catholic church art....
s often depicting Madonnas, the crucifixion
Crucifixion of Jesus
The crucifixion of Jesus and his ensuing death is an event that occurred during the 1st century AD. Jesus, who Christians believe is the Son of God as well as the Messiah, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged, and finally executed on a cross...
, and saints, that were carved in wood and then painted. The sculptures exhibit a style unique to the Chiquitos region, differing from that of the reductions in Paraguay or the Bolivian highland. The tradition of figure carving has been preserved to the present day in workshops where carvers make columns, finial
Finial
The finial is an architectural device, typically carved in stone and employed decoratively to emphasize the apex of a gable or any of various distinctive ornaments at the top, end, or corner of a building or structure. Smaller finials can be used as a decorative ornament on the ends of curtain rods...
s and windows for new or restored churches or chapels in the area. In addition, carvers produce decorative angels and other figures for the tourist market.
Restoration
The missionary churches are the true architectural highlight of the area. Hans Roth initiated an important restoration project of the missionary churches in 1972. In San Javier, San Rafael, San José de Chiquitos, Concepción, San Miguel and Santa Ana, churches have undergone meticulous restoration. In the 1960s the San Ignacio church was replaced with modern construction; in the 1990s Hans Roth and co-workers brought the restoration closer to the original. In addition to the churches, Roth constructed more than a hundred new buildings, including schools and houses. He also founded museums and archives.Roth researched and recovered the original techniques used to construct churches prior to the restorations. He installed new building infrastructure including saw mills, locksmiths shops, carpentry and repair shops, and trained local people in traditional crafts. European volunteers and the Bolivian Learning Institute (IBA) helped in the project.
Roth convinced the local inhabitants of the importance of the restoration works, which required a large labour force: typically 40 to 80 workers in towns with populations of 500 to 2,000 were required for church restoration. The effort indicates the strength of the common heritage present in the towns. The restoration has resulted in a revival of local traditions and a qualified workforce.The church of Concepción, Chiquitos, build by Martin Schmid in a historic photograph from the start of the 20th. century (by E. Kühne): Concepción church
Life in the mission towns
The reductions were self-sufficient indigenous communities of 2,000–4,000 inhabitants, ideally headed by two Jesuit priests and the CaciqueCacique
Cacique is a title derived from the Taíno word for the pre-Columbian chiefs or leaders of tribes in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles...
leaders, who retained their function and played the role of intermediators between the people and the Jesuits. However, the degree to which the Jesuits controlled the indigenous population for which they had responsibility and the degree to which they allowed indigenous culture to function is a matter of debate, and the social organization of the reductions have been variously described as jungle utopia
Utopia
Utopia is an ideal community or society possessing a perfect socio-politico-legal system. The word was imported from Greek by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book Utopia, describing a fictional island in the Atlantic Ocean. The term has been used to describe both intentional communities that attempt...
s or as theocratic regimes of terror.
The Jesuits quickly learned the indigenous languages of their subjects, which eased the missionary work and contributed to the success of the missions. Numerous tribal families lived in Chiquitanía, often next to each other on the same mission. According to a report from 1745, of the 14,706 people living in the missions, 65.5% spoke Chiquitano, 11% Arawak
Arawakan languages
Macro-Arawakan is a proposed language family of South America and the Caribbean based on the Arawakan languages. Sometimes the proposal is called Arawakan, in which case the central family is called Maipurean....
, 9.1% Otuque, 7.9% Zamuca, 4.4% Chapacura and 2.1% Guaraní
Guaraní language
Guaraní, specifically the primary variety known as Paraguayan Guaraní , is an indigenous language of South America that belongs to the Tupí–Guaraní subfamily of the Tupian languages. It is one of the official languages of Paraguay , where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and half of...
. Such ethnic diversity is unique among the Jesuit missions in America. Reflecting the view of the colonial powers, the Jesuit records only distinguished between Christian and non-Christian Indios. Eventually Gorgotoqui, the language spoken by the Chiquitano, became the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
of the mission settlements, and the numerous tribes were culturally united in the Chiquitano ethnic group. However, by 1770, within three years of the expulsion of the Jesuits, Spanish authorities instituted a new policy of forced "castilianization" or "Hispanicization" of language, thereby causing the number of speakers of native languages to decline.
Many Indians who joined the missions were looking for protection from Portuguese slave traders or the encomienda
Encomienda
The encomienda was a system that was employed mainly by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas to regulate Native American labor....
system of the Spanish conquistador
Conquistador
Conquistadors were Spanish soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th to 16th centuries, following Europe's discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492...
es. In the reductions, the Indians were free men. The land in the missions was common property. Upon marriage, individual plots were assigned to the newly founded families. For the Jesuits the goal was to create cities in the complete harmony of the paradise in which they had encountered the Indians.
Though the settlements were officially a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru through the Audience of Charcas and of the diocese of Santa Cruz in church affairs, their remoteness made them effectively autonomous and self-sufficient. As early as 1515, Bartolomé de las Casas
Bartolomé de Las Casas
Bartolomé de las Casas O.P. was a 16th-century Spanish historian, social reformer and Dominican friar. He became the first resident Bishop of Chiapas, and the first officially appointed "Protector of the Indians"...
initiated a "foreigner law" for the "'Indian people'", and no white or black man, other than the Jesuits and authorities, was allowed to live in the missions. Merchants were allowed to stay for three days at most.
Economy
Traditionally most of the Chiquitos had practised swidden agriculture, growing maizeMaize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
and yuca
Cassava
Cassava , also called yuca or manioc, a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America, is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates...
on a small scale. After the contact with the Spanish, cocoa and rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
were also cultivated. Hunting and fishing provided additional nutrition in the dry season. The Jesuits introduced cattle breeding.
In each settlement, one of the Jesuits was responsible for church matters, while the other dealt with commercial affairs and the general well-being of the community. As the Swiss priest, musician and architect Martin Schmid wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael: The Jesuits administered labour, the introduction of new technologies, and the disposition of the produced goods. The Jesuits designated that each family received all that was necessary to live. The Jesuits did not rely on donations, because by right the priests received a fixed income from the community to support their work. The thriving economy in the reductions enabled them to export surplus goods to all parts of Upper Peru. The income was used to pay the royal tributes and to purchase goods not locally available, such as books, paper, and wine, from as far away as Europe. In the missions themselves money was not used. This laid the foundation of the belief that the Jesuits were guarding immense riches acquired through Indian labour. In reality the communities were economically successful but hardly constituted any important source of income for the Jesuit order.
All the inhabitants, including the young and the elderly, were subject to a schedule alternating work, religious practice, and rest. According to d'Orbigny, the Chiquitania Indians enjoyed considerably more freedom than those in the Jesuit missions in Mojos. There was also less time spent on practicing religion. The Indians were instructed by the Jesuits in various arts. They learned very quickly and soon became proficient carpenters, painters, weavers, sculptors and artisans. Each settlement had its own set of craftsmen; as a result, in addition to the Caciques, a new social class of craftsmen emerged. This group and the rest of the population, who worked primarily in agriculture or cattle raising, were each represented by two alcalde
Alcalde
Alcalde , or Alcalde ordinario, is the traditional Spanish municipal magistrate, who had both judicial and administrative functions. An alcalde was, in the absence of a corregidor, the presiding officer of the Castilian cabildo and judge of first instance of a town...
s. Initially the main commercial products included honey, yerba mate
Yerba mate
Maté, yerba maté or erva maté , Ilex paraguariensis, is a species of holly native to subtropical South America in northeastern Argentina, Bolivia, southern Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay...
, salt, tamarind
Tamarind
Tamarind is a tree in the family Fabaceae. The genus Tamarindus is monotypic .-Origin:...
, cotton, shoes, and leather. Later, artisans exported musical instruments, rosaries, and silverware produced by the artisans.
Music
Music played a special part in all aspects of life and in the evangelization of the natives. Realizing the musical capacities of the Indians, the Jesuits sent important composers, choir directors, and manufacturers of musical instruments to South America. The most famous was probably the Italian baroque composer Domenico ZipoliDomenico Zipoli
Domenico Zipoli was an Italian Baroque composer. He became a Jesuit in order to work in the Reductions of Paraguay where his musical expertise contributed to develop the natural musical talents of the Guaranis...
, who worked in the reductions in Paraguay. Johann Mesner and Martin Schmid
Martin Schmid
Martin Schmid was a Swiss Jesuit priest, missionary, composer and architect who was active in the Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos in present day Bolivia....
, two Jesuit musicians, went to Chiquitanía.Audio recordings of works by Jesuit composers can be found at Schmid in particular was responsible for this skill being developed to such a high degree that polyphonic choirs would perform, and whole orchestras would play Baroque operas on handmade instruments. He directed the production of violins, harps, flutes, and organs, and wrote and copied masses, operas, and motets. He built an organ with six stops
Organ stop
An organ stop is a component of a pipe organ that admits pressurized air to a set of organ pipes. Its name comes from the fact that stops can be used selectively by the organist; some can be "on" , while others can be "off" .The term can also refer...
in Potosí and transported it by mules over a distance of 1000 kilometres (621.4 mi) on a difficult road to the Chiquitanía lowlands. The Jesuits used the musical lessons as a first step to the Christianization of the natives.
As Schmid, who also acted as a composer, wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael:
Today
Some of the Jesuit institutions still exist. For example, San Rafael, San Miguel and San Ignacio have functioning town councils, and the caciques and the sextonSexton (office)
A sexton is a church, congregation or synagogue officer charged with the maintenance of its buildings and/or the surrounding graveyard. In smaller places of worship, this office is often combined with that of verger...
still retain their capacities. Although the majority of the population is Catholic, a broad and rich mythology remains. Between 1992 and 2009 the population of San Javier and Concepción has tripled and more than doubled in San Ignacio. In the other mission towns the population also increased albeit on a smaller scale. As of 2009, San José, San Javier and Concepción have around 10,000 inhabitants; and San Ignacio, the largest town in Chiquitanía, has about 26,000. On the other hand, in Santa Ana there are currently only a few hundred people. The inhabitants of the cities are predominantly mestizos while the native Chiquitos Indians presently live in the villages. According to various sources, in Bolivia the number of ethnic Chiquitos is between 30,000 and 47,000 people, of which less than 6,000 – mainly elderly people – still speak the original language. Only a few hundred are monolingual in the Chiquitano language.
Economically, the area depends on agriculture. Maize
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
, rice, yuca
Cassava
Cassava , also called yuca or manioc, a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceae native to South America, is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root, a major source of carbohydrates...
, cotton and heart of palm
Heart of palm
Heart of palm, also called palm heart, palmito, burglar's thigh, chonta, palm cabbage or swamp cabbage, is a vegetable harvested from the inner core and growing bud of certain palm trees Heart of palm, also called palm heart, palmito, burglar's thigh, chonta, palm cabbage or swamp cabbage, is a...
are produced and exported. Cattle ranching and the industrial processing of milk have been developed extensively in recent years. Crafts, often carved of wood using the same techniques as in colonial times, provide additional income. Since the launch of the Jesuit Mission Circuit – a marketing label to promote tourismApart from the six World Heritage Missions, the mission of San Ignacio de Velasco is part of the circuit. – at the end of the 20th century, craftsmanship and tourism have been closely related.
The musical festivals and concerts held regularly in the mission towns testify to the living heritage of this artform. Some of the original instruments and sculptures made by Schmid and his apprentices survive in small museums in the mission towns, most notably in Concepción which also houses the music archive. In San Javier, San Rafael and Santa Ana the only three original harps from the time of the Jesuits are preserved. The church in Santa Ana houses the only original organ in Chiquitos. More than a dozen orchestras and choirs brought together by the Sistema de Coros y Orquestas (SICOR) dot the area.
Since 1996, the nonprofit institution Asociacion Pro Arte y Cultura (APAC) has been organizing the biennial Festival Internacional de Musica Renacentista y Barroca Americana.
Starting in the middle of 1975, restoration work in the church of Concepcion unearthed 6,000 musical scores from the 17th and 18th centuries. Later another 6,000 scores were found in Moxos and finally 10,000 more in San Javier. Many of these works were interpreted at the 2006 festival. The statistics of the festival over the years is as follows:
| 1996 | 1998 | 2000 | 2002 | 2004 | 2006 | 2008 | 2010 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Groups | 14 | 32 | 28 | 30 | 42 | 44 | 50 | 45 |
| Concerts | 32 | 68 | 76 | 77 | 122 | 143 | 165 | 121 |
| Musicians | 355 | 517 | 402 | 400 | 980 | 623 | 600 | 800 |
| Countries | 8 | 14 | 14 | 17 | 21 | 19 | 24 | 14 |
| Venues | 3 | 9 | 9 | 14 | 16 | 19 | 22 | 12 |
| Audience | 12.000 | 20.000 | 30.000 | 40.500 | 70.000 | 71.000 | 75.000 | 60.000 |
The festival is carried out at so-called Plazas Misionales among others in the main plaza of Santa Cruz. In one event, orchestras of various countries compete against each other. One of the local orchestras, called Orquesta Urubicha, is made up of people native to the missions who use instruments which they build by themselves according to plans left by the Jesuit missionaries.
Tourism
Shortly after the start of the restoration project, the potential for tourism in the missions was assessed in a report published by UNESCO in 1977.To promote the missions as a tourist destination, travel agencies, chambers of commerce and industry, the towns' mayors, native communities and other institutions organized the , a five day tourist eventOne day of the five was spent in the Pantanal
Pantanal
The Pantanal is a tropical wetland and one of the world's largest wetland of any kind. Most of it lies within the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul, but it extends into Mato Grosso and portions of Bolivia and Paraguay, sprawling over an area estimated at between and...
. lasting from March 23–27, 2006. Journalists and international tour operators were shown the important tourist attractions, and introduced to the culture through visits to museums, local workshops, various concerts, native dances, high masses, processions, crafts festivals, and local cuisine. The organisers intended to raise the number of tourists from 25,000 to 1 million per year over a ten year period, which represented 400 million USD of income.
Tourism is already an important source of income for the region, amounting in Concepción Municipio alone to 296,140 USD
United States dollar
The United States dollar , also referred to as the American dollar, is the official currency of the United States of America. It is divided into 100 smaller units called cents or pennies....
, or 7.2% of the annual gross production. An additional 40,000 USD or 1% comes from crafts. According to a report published by the "Coordinadora Interinstitucional de la Provincia Velasco" in 2007, 17,381 people visited San Ignacio, the largest town in the region, as tourists in 2006. About 30% of them came from outside of Bolivia. The main attraction for tourists to San Ignacio are the nearby missions of San Miguel, San Rafael, Santa Ana.83%/83%/93% of visitors to San Ignacio also visited Santa Ana/San Rafael/San Miguel Tourism to San Ignacio generated 7,821,450 Bolivianos bruto income in 2006. Tourism income is translated to an improvement of the infrastructure. Other than cultural tourism to the missionary circuit and musical festivals, the region offers many natural attractions like rivers, lagoons, hot spring
Hot spring
A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater from the Earth's crust. There are geothermal hot springs in many locations all over the crust of the earth.-Definitions:...
s, caves and waterfalls.
Cultural references
Many elements of the early days of the Jesuit missions are shown in the movie The Mission. The events around the expulsion of the Jesuits are depicted in Fritz HochwälderFritz Hochwälder
Fritz Hochwälder also known as Fritz Hochwaelder, was an Austrian playwright. Known for his spare prose and strong moralist themes, Hochwälder won several literary awards, including the Austrian State Prize for Literature in 1966...
's theater play (The Strong are Lonely). Both are set in Paraguay. It has been suggested that Das heilige Experiment sparked interest in the 20th century among scholars in the forgotten Jesuit missions.
See also
- Society of JesusSociety of JesusThe Society of Jesus is a Catholic male religious order that follows the teachings of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits, and are also known colloquially as "God's Army" and as "The Company," these being references to founder Ignatius of Loyola's military background and a...
- Jesuit ReductionsJesuit ReductionsA Jesuit Reduction was a type of settlement for indigenous people in Latin America created by the Jesuit Order during the 17th and 18th centuries. In general, the strategy of the Spanish Empire was to gather native populations into centers called Indian Reductions , in order to Christianize, tax,...
Jesuit missions in neighboring countries
- Jesuit Block and Estancias of CórdobaJesuit Block and Estancias of CórdobaThe Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba are a former Jesuit reduction built by missionaries in the province of Córdoba, Argentina, named a World Heritage Site in 2000....
(Argentina) - Jesuit missions of the Guaraní (Argentina and Brazil)
- Jesuit missions of La Santisima Trinidad de ParanáLa Santisima Trinidad de ParanáLa Santisima Trinidad de Paraná, or the Holy Trinity of Paraná is the name of a former Jesuit mission in Paraguay. It is an example of one of the many Jesuit Reductions, small colonies established by the missionaries in various locations in South America throughout the 17th and 18th century...
and Jesús de TavarangueJesús and Trinidad Jesuit RuinsThe Jesús and Trinidad Jesuit Ruins are located in Itapúa Department, Paraguay, and are religious mission that are sill preserved and that were founded by the Jesuit missioners during the colonization of South America in the 17th century....
(Paraguay)