Hua-Yi distinction
Encyclopedia
The distinction between Hua and Yi (Sino-barbarian dichotomy) is an ancient Chinese conception that differentiated a culturally defined "China" (called Hua, Huaxia
華夏, or Xia 夏) from cultural or ethnic outsiders (Yi
"barbarians"). Although Yi is often translated as "barbarian", it could also refer to generic "others," to groups perceived as culturally different, to "non-Chinese," or to foreigners in general.
Depending on context, this sinocentric
distinction could be largely cultural
, or it could take ethnic or racist
overtones (especially in times of war). In its cultural form, the Hua-Yi distinction assumed Chinese cultural superiority, but also implied that outsiders could become Chinese
by adopting Chinese values and customs. When this "cultural universalism" took a more racial guise, however, it could have harmful effects
valley, one of the earliest centers of human civilization. According to historian Li Feng, in the Western Zhou
(ca. 1041-771 BCE) the contrast between the "Chinese" Zhou and the "Rong" or "Yi" was "more political than cultural or ethnic." Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that the perceived contrast between "Chinese" and "Barbarians" was accentuated during the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 BCE), when adherence to Zhou rituals was increasingly recognized as a "barometer of civilization." Gideon Shelach also agrees that this distinction, which was "based on shared cultural values", emerged during the Zhou period.
Shelach, however, claims that Chinese texts tended to overstate the distinction and to ignore similarities between the Chinese and their northern neighbors. Nicola di Cosmo also doubts the existence of a strong demarcation between a "Zhou universe and a discrete, 'barbarian,' non-Zhou universe" at the time. He traces this conception to Sima Qian
's "assumption (or the pretense of it) that a chasm had always existed between China - the Hua-Hsia [Huaxia] people - and the various alien groups inhabiting the north."
At the conclusion of the Warring States Period
the first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty
in 221 BCE, the office of the Emperor
was set up and the Chinese script was forcibly standardized. The subsequent Han Dynasty
(206 BCE – 220 CE) created a Han cultural identity
among its populace that would last to the present day.
The Han Chinese civilization has dominant influence on neighboring states such as Korea
, Japan, Vietnam
and Thailand
, plus many other South East Asian countries. Although only sporadically enforced, with military might, the Sinocentric system treated these countries as vassals of Emperor being the Son of Heaven
(Chinese:天子), who has the Mandate of Heaven
(Chinese:天命). Areas outside the Sinocentric influence were considered under this concept to consist of uncivilized lands inhabited by barbarians, or Huawaizhidi.
Throughout history, the frontiers of China was periodically attacked by nomadic tribes from the north and west. In ancient times, these nomadic tribal people were considered to be barbarians when compared to the people of the Central Plain
(中原), who had begun to build cities and live a urban life based on agriculture. It was consideration of how best to deal with this threat that led Confucius
(551 – 479 BCE) to formulate principles for relationships with the barbarians, briefly recorded in two of his Analects.
It was not until the explosion of European trade and colonialism in the 18th and 19th centuries that Chinese civilization become fully exposed to cultural and technological developments that had outstripped China, and was forced to painfully modify its traditional views of its relationship with the "barbarians".
, or ritual propriety, as barbarians since the workings of a state should be founded on ethical conduct rather than imposed by princes. In the Ames and Rosemont translation of Analect 3.5,
Confucius said: "The Yi
and Di
barbarian tribes with rulers are not as viable as the various Chinese states without them." This is often interpreted as meaning that the Chinese culture is superior to the barbarian culture even in times of anarchy. However, the classic translation by James Legge
is ambiguous: "The rude tribes of the east and north have their princes, and are not like the States of our great land which are without them."
The Disposition of Error, a fifth-century tract defending Buddhism
, a religion that had originated outside the Sinocentric sphere in India, notes that when Confucius was threatening to take residence among the nine barbarian nations (九黎) he said, "If a gentleman-scholar dwells in their midst, what baseness can there be among them?"' An alternate translation of Analect 9.14 is "Someone said: 'They are vulgar. What can you do about them?' The Master said: 'A gentleman used to live there. How could they be vulgar?'" In either translation, there is a clear implication that the (???) culture is superior.
Ran Min continues to be a controversial figure. He is considered by some to be a hero, whereas others believe he is an example of the extreme prejudice that can result from the concept of "Hua-Yi distinction".
was regarded as one of the Golden Ages of Chinese history, as well as one of the most cosmopolitan regimes in China's past. The Tang was one of the peaks of the Chinese Empire's military strength, political unity, economic influence, and cultural efflorescence. During Tang's time Tibetans, Southeast Asians, Persians, Arabs, Jews, Japanese, Koreans, Turks and Indians all came to Chang'an and other Tang cities to do business or study. Apart from bringing different cultures of the world into Tang Dynasty
, these people brought Buddhism, Islam, Zarathustrian (Xianjiao 祆教), Persian Manichean thought (Monijiao 摩尼教) and Syriac Christianity (Jingjiao 景教), which all began to take root and flourish in China.
However, some people argue that Tang's lax attitude towards barbarians, such as An Lushan, led to the Anshi Rebellion and the downfall of the dynasty.
This cosmopolitan policy led later to a backlash against various religions and led to xenophobia
. Buddhism, Mazdaism (Zorastarianism), Nestorian Christians, and Manichaesm along with all other "foreign" religions were outlawed, their monks laicized, their temples destroyed. Though Buddhism recovered afterwards in China, as in effect an adopted native religion of the Chinese people. In 836 AD, there was a decree forbidding Chinese to have relations with peoples of color, such as Malays, Arabs, and Persians.
Liao and Tangut Xi Xia took over territories inhabited by large numbers of Chinese, they too asserted that they were Chinese and successors to the Tang Dynasty. The Song also had to deal with legitimacy issues that several of the northern states that the Song state were continued from were ruled by Shatuo, who were non-Chinese.
Song scholars asserted two notions: firstly, they argued that groups like the Shatuo, who largely continued the rule of the Tang, were not "barbarian" but Chinese, so that the Song were descended from dynasties that were "Hua" or Chinese. Secondly, the Song asserted that the Liao (遼) and Xi Xia (西夏), and later the Jin (金), were barbarian states despite their control of large areas of Chinese territory, because they had not inherited any mandate from a legitimate dynasty that was "Hua" and not "Yi."
The Yuan engaged in racial segregation and divided society into four categories:
In addition, the Yuan also divided society into 10 castes, based on "desirability":
Mongol rule, viewed as barbaric and humiliating for the Chinese, did not last long in China (from 1271 to 1368).
Although the Ming accepted the Yuan before them as a legitimate dynasty, they accepted it only because the Yuan had destroyed all other Chinese states; the Ming referred to the preceding Yuan as "胡元", or barbarian Yuan.
During the Miao Rebellions (Ming Dynasty)
, the Ming dynasty forces engaged in massive slaughter of Miao people and other native ethnic groups to southern China, after castrating Miao boys to use as eunuch slaves, Chinese soldiers took Miao women as wives and colonized the southern provinces.
Towards the end of the Ming dynasty, Ming dynasty loyalists invoked Hua-Yi zhi bian to urge the Chinese to resist the Manchu invaders.
was viewed as a symbolic gesture of servitude by many Han Chinese, who thought that changing their dress to the same as barbarians would be contrary to the spirit of "Hua-Yi zhi bian."
Scholar Lü Liuliang
(1629–1683), who lived through the transition between the Ming
and the Manchu
-led Qing dynasty
, refused to serve the new dynasty because he claimed that upholding the difference between Huaxia and barbarians was more important than respecting the righteous bond between minister (臣) and sovereign (君王). In 1728, a failed examination candidate called Zeng Jing (曾靜), who had been influened by Lü's works, called for the overthrow of the Manchu regime. The Yongzheng Emperor
(r. 1723–1735), whom Zeng had accused of ten major crimes, took this event as an opportunity to educate the Qing's Chinese subjects. In a series of discussions with Zeng Jing that historian Jonathan Spence
recounts in Treason by the Book
, the emperor proclaimed that the Chinese were not inherently superior to the barbarians. To justify his statements, he declared that the Zhou dynasty, from which much of Chinese civilization derived, was a "barbarian state" because he alleged it had been part of the Xirong (西戎), who were barbarians. One of the goals of the tract Dayi juemi lu (大義覺迷錄), which the Yongzheng Emperor published and distributed throughout the empire in 1730, was "to undermine the credibility of the hua/yi distinction." Fearful that this tract would only feed resistance to the Qing, Yongzheng's successor the Qianlong Emperor
(r. 1736–1796) recalled the tracts and had them burned.
During the Qing, the Qing destroyed writings that criticized the Liao, Jin and Yuan out of the Hua-Yi distinction.
The leaders of the Taiping rebellion
issued a long proclamation based on Zhu Yuanzhang's denuciation of the Mongols and accused the Manchu of similar crimes. A popular slogan for rebellion in the Qing was "Crush the Qing, revive the Ming" (反清復明).
Sun Yat-sen
also used the Hua-Yi distinction to justify the overthrow of the Qing dynasty.
Initially, ROC historians refused to make an official history for the Qing dynasty, as it would recognize the legitimacy of the dynasty. Instead, they put the history of the Qing dynasty under the "four barbarians" section of the Mingshi (History of the Ming Dynasty).
After the reforms of Deng Xiaoping, however, the state ceased to take a side on the debate on the concept. Hua-Yi zhi bian is now largely an academic debate, rather than a political one.
in 1281 CE, 20-30,000 prisoners were taken but only 10,000 Southern Song Chinese were spared. The Japanese separated the Song
troops who had recently surrendered to the Mongols from the other prisoners, called them "Men of Tang", and enslaved them. On the other hand, the Northern Han Chinese, Khitan
, Jur'chens, Koreans, and Mongols who had been living in the Mongol Empire for a century, were executed.
in 1644 and established the Qing Dynasty
, the Joseon Koreans
often called themselves "Sojunghwa" which, translates into "Small China". They showed solidarity and thoughtfulness to the citizens of Ming
, rather than their now new rulers of the Qing dynasty through this stance. As Korea is often closely linked to previous Han Chinese civilizations and dynasties through writing and other cultural understandings, the concept of the "barbarians" now ruling China was a strong issue. This was especially as the foreign relations between the two countries were extremely close throughout history. These acts of closeness and understanding were shown throughout the Ming Dynasty
in various involvements.
As the Ming dynasty came to be overthrown by the Manchus, Korea itself was worried of similar invasions and its own security from threats. This was due to previous instances in which Ming
Chinese primarily aided Korea's independence such as in the Imjin Wars.
Long after the establishment of the Qing dynasty, the Joseon ruling elite and even the Joseon government continued to use the Chongzhen era name
(Chinese:崇祯年号) of the last Ming
emperor. Continually in secret, they referred to the Manchu Emperor as the "barbarian ruler" and Qing ambassadors as "barbarian ambassadors". Korean feelings diplomatically, about the Manchu, could not be expressed as the "Barbarians" essentially held great power over Korea following their successful attacks and invasions in the Manchu campaigns of 1627
and 1637
.
Its once great ally within the Ming dynasty was no more and acceptance to the power of Qing and essentially the Barbarians, had to be shown in its governance. In the future, the Qing government would, with its Manchu leadership, assert more power over Korea and influence its policies. This would eventually lead Korea into a Hermit Kingdom
. This was to prevent foreign influence in a land the Qing government viewed as close to home and a to assert authority only from China, and not western powers especially during the Opium Wars
.
rebel leader Hong Xiuquan, who eventually used ideas borrowed from the Chinese Bible, staging a massive racial hatred originated anti-Manchu military campaign.
Hong Xiuquan
, who studied Christianity under Morrison for two months, and Morrison refused to baptize Hong. Not satisfied by calling Manchus barbarians as commonly implied in Hua-Yi zibian debate, Hong went one step further by calling the Manchus devil, as in the term anti-Christ in the Bible, at the same time he made claim that he was brother of Christ, another Son of God.
Huaxia
Huaxia is a name often used to represent China or Chinese civilization.-Etymology:According to the historical record, Zuo Zhuan, the ancient Xia Dynasty of central China was a state that held propriety and justice in high esteem...
華夏, or Xia 夏) from cultural or ethnic outsiders (Yi
Dongyi
Dongyi was a collective term for people in eastern China and in lands located to the east of ancient China. People referred to as Dongyi vary across the ages.The early Dongyi culture was one of earliest neolithic cultures in China....
"barbarians"). Although Yi is often translated as "barbarian", it could also refer to generic "others," to groups perceived as culturally different, to "non-Chinese," or to foreigners in general.
Depending on context, this sinocentric
Sinocentrism
Sinocentrism is an ethnocentric perspective that regards China to be the center of civilization and superior to all other nations. The related but distinct concept of the superiority of the Han Chinese ethnicity both within and without China is known as Han chauvinism.- Overview and context...
distinction could be largely cultural
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
, or it could take ethnic or racist
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
overtones (especially in times of war). In its cultural form, the Hua-Yi distinction assumed Chinese cultural superiority, but also implied that outsiders could become Chinese
Sinicization
Sinicization, Sinicisation or Sinification, is the linguistic assimilation or cultural assimilation of terms and concepts of the language and culture of China...
by adopting Chinese values and customs. When this "cultural universalism" took a more racial guise, however, it could have harmful effects
Historic Context
Ancient China was a group of states that arose in the Yellow RiverYellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
valley, one of the earliest centers of human civilization. According to historian Li Feng, in the Western Zhou
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
(ca. 1041-771 BCE) the contrast between the "Chinese" Zhou and the "Rong" or "Yi" was "more political than cultural or ethnic." Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that the perceived contrast between "Chinese" and "Barbarians" was accentuated during the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 BCE), when adherence to Zhou rituals was increasingly recognized as a "barometer of civilization." Gideon Shelach also agrees that this distinction, which was "based on shared cultural values", emerged during the Zhou period.
Shelach, however, claims that Chinese texts tended to overstate the distinction and to ignore similarities between the Chinese and their northern neighbors. Nicola di Cosmo also doubts the existence of a strong demarcation between a "Zhou universe and a discrete, 'barbarian,' non-Zhou universe" at the time. He traces this conception to Sima Qian
Sima Qian
Sima Qian was a Prefect of the Grand Scribes of the Han Dynasty. He is regarded as the father of Chinese historiography for his highly praised work, Records of the Grand Historian , a "Jizhuanti"-style general history of China, covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to...
's "assumption (or the pretense of it) that a chasm had always existed between China - the Hua-Hsia [Huaxia] people - and the various alien groups inhabiting the north."
At the conclusion of the Warring States Period
Warring States Period
The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, or the Warring Kingdoms period, covers the Iron Age period from about 475 BC to the reunification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC...
the first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
in 221 BCE, the office of the Emperor
Emperor of China
The Emperor of China refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven , a title that predates the Qin unification, the...
was set up and the Chinese script was forcibly standardized. The subsequent Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
(206 BCE – 220 CE) created a Han cultural identity
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
among its populace that would last to the present day.
The Han Chinese civilization has dominant influence on neighboring states such as Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
, Japan, Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
and Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
, plus many other South East Asian countries. Although only sporadically enforced, with military might, the Sinocentric system treated these countries as vassals of Emperor being the Son of Heaven
Emperor of China
The Emperor of China refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven , a title that predates the Qin unification, the...
(Chinese:天子), who has the Mandate of Heaven
Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers. It is similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings, in that both sought to legitimaze rule from divine approval; however, unlike the divine right of kings, the Mandate of...
(Chinese:天命). Areas outside the Sinocentric influence were considered under this concept to consist of uncivilized lands inhabited by barbarians, or Huawaizhidi.
Throughout history, the frontiers of China was periodically attacked by nomadic tribes from the north and west. In ancient times, these nomadic tribal people were considered to be barbarians when compared to the people of the Central Plain
Central Plain (China)
Zhongyuan or the Central Plain of China refers to the area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. It forms part of the North China Plain....
(中原), who had begun to build cities and live a urban life based on agriculture. It was consideration of how best to deal with this threat that led Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
(551 – 479 BCE) to formulate principles for relationships with the barbarians, briefly recorded in two of his Analects.
It was not until the explosion of European trade and colonialism in the 18th and 19th centuries that Chinese civilization become fully exposed to cultural and technological developments that had outstripped China, and was forced to painfully modify its traditional views of its relationship with the "barbarians".
China
The great Chinese philosopher Confucius lived during a time of warfare between the Chinese states. He regarded peoples who did not respect "li"Li (Confucian)
Li is a classical Chinese word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy. Li encompasses not a definitive object but rather a somewhat abstract idea; as such, it is translated in a number of different ways...
, or ritual propriety, as barbarians since the workings of a state should be founded on ethical conduct rather than imposed by princes. In the Ames and Rosemont translation of Analect 3.5,
Confucius said: "The Yi
Dongyi
Dongyi was a collective term for people in eastern China and in lands located to the east of ancient China. People referred to as Dongyi vary across the ages.The early Dongyi culture was one of earliest neolithic cultures in China....
and Di
Di (ethnic group)
The Di were an ethnic group in China from the 8th century BCE to approximately the middle of the 6th century CE. Note that the character Di is used to differentiate this group from the Beidi , a generic term for "northern barbarians". They lived in areas of the present-day provinces of Gansu,...
barbarian tribes with rulers are not as viable as the various Chinese states without them." This is often interpreted as meaning that the Chinese culture is superior to the barbarian culture even in times of anarchy. However, the classic translation by James Legge
James Legge
James Legge was a noted Scottish sinologist, a Scottish Congregationalist, representative of the London Missionary Society in Malacca and Hong Kong , and first professor of Chinese at Oxford University...
is ambiguous: "The rude tribes of the east and north have their princes, and are not like the States of our great land which are without them."
The Disposition of Error, a fifth-century tract defending Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, a religion that had originated outside the Sinocentric sphere in India, notes that when Confucius was threatening to take residence among the nine barbarian nations (九黎) he said, "If a gentleman-scholar dwells in their midst, what baseness can there be among them?"' An alternate translation of Analect 9.14 is "Someone said: 'They are vulgar. What can you do about them?' The Master said: 'A gentleman used to live there. How could they be vulgar?'" In either translation, there is a clear implication that the (???) culture is superior.
Spring & Autumn
Duke Huan of Qi once called on the various Chinese states to fight against the barbarians and uphold the King of Zhou then amongst themselves (Chinese:尊王攘夷).Jin Dynasty
In order to alleviate the shortages of labor caused by the Three Kingdoms wars, the Jin let millions of non-Chinese people move into Jin territory. However, many officials opposed this decision in the name of the Hua-Yi distinction, claiming that if the barbarians did not identify with the Huaxia, they would conspire to destroy the Chinese empire.Wu Hu uprising
During the Wu Hu (五胡) uprising and ravaging of north China that occurred around 310CE, the Jin dynasty and other Chinese used the Hua-Yi distinction to call on the population to resist the Wu Hu. The historians of the southern dynasties, who were all Han Chinese, depicted the Wu Hu as barbaric and different from the Chinese.Ran Min's order to kill the barbarians
In either 349 or 350CE, the Han Chinese general Ran Min (冉閔) seized power from the last emperor of the Later Zhao and encouraged Han Chinese to slaughter Jie people, a large number of which were living in the Zhao capital, Ye. In this massacre and the wars that ensued, hundreds of thousands of Jie (羯), Qiang (羌), and Xiongnu (匈奴) men, women, and children were killed. The Wu Hu quickly unified to fight Ran Min, but Ran Min won victory after victory. Despite this military success, however, Ran's regime was toppled in 353 CE. As a result of this turmoil, three of the five main "barbarian" ethnic groups in China disappeared from Chinese history.Ran Min continues to be a controversial figure. He is considered by some to be a hero, whereas others believe he is an example of the extreme prejudice that can result from the concept of "Hua-Yi distinction".
Northern Wei
Emperor Shaowu of Northern Wei (a state that controlled the north of China), who was a Xianbei (鮮卑), attempted to eliminate Hua-Yi zhi bian in his state by forcing the Xianbei to sinocize and adopt Han Chinese ways. The Xianbei language was outlawed and Xianbei people began to adopt Chinese surnames ; for example, the Tuobas became the Yuans.Sui Dynasty
In 581, the Sui Emperor Yang Jian deposed the Xianbei ruler of Northern Zhou and restored the rule of the Han Chinese over North China. This event marked the end of all power that the Xianbei and other non-Chinese groups had over China, and racial tension subsided.Tang Dynasty
Tang DynastyTang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
was regarded as one of the Golden Ages of Chinese history, as well as one of the most cosmopolitan regimes in China's past. The Tang was one of the peaks of the Chinese Empire's military strength, political unity, economic influence, and cultural efflorescence. During Tang's time Tibetans, Southeast Asians, Persians, Arabs, Jews, Japanese, Koreans, Turks and Indians all came to Chang'an and other Tang cities to do business or study. Apart from bringing different cultures of the world into Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
, these people brought Buddhism, Islam, Zarathustrian (Xianjiao 祆教), Persian Manichean thought (Monijiao 摩尼教) and Syriac Christianity (Jingjiao 景教), which all began to take root and flourish in China.
This cosmopolitan policy led later to a backlash against various religions and led to xenophobia
Xenophobia
Xenophobia is defined as "an unreasonable fear of foreigners or strangers or of that which is foreign or strange". It comes from the Greek words ξένος , meaning "stranger," "foreigner" and φόβος , meaning "fear."...
. Buddhism, Mazdaism (Zorastarianism), Nestorian Christians, and Manichaesm along with all other "foreign" religions were outlawed, their monks laicized, their temples destroyed. Though Buddhism recovered afterwards in China, as in effect an adopted native religion of the Chinese people. In 836 AD, there was a decree forbidding Chinese to have relations with peoples of color, such as Malays, Arabs, and Persians.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
The "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms" was a period in which the north of China was ruled by a non-Chinese people, the Shatuo, for three short-lived dynasties and the south ruled by Chinese. Their legitimacy was recognized by the Song Dynasty.Song Dynasty
The Chinese Song Dynasty saw both an economic boom and non-Chinese states, such as the Liao, intruding on China's territory. As states such as the KhitanLiao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
Liao and Tangut Xi Xia took over territories inhabited by large numbers of Chinese, they too asserted that they were Chinese and successors to the Tang Dynasty. The Song also had to deal with legitimacy issues that several of the northern states that the Song state were continued from were ruled by Shatuo, who were non-Chinese.
Song scholars asserted two notions: firstly, they argued that groups like the Shatuo, who largely continued the rule of the Tang, were not "barbarian" but Chinese, so that the Song were descended from dynasties that were "Hua" or Chinese. Secondly, the Song asserted that the Liao (遼) and Xi Xia (西夏), and later the Jin (金), were barbarian states despite their control of large areas of Chinese territory, because they had not inherited any mandate from a legitimate dynasty that was "Hua" and not "Yi."
Yuan Dynasty
This conflict over the legitimacy of the Song-era states rose up again in the Yuan dynasty, as the rulers were non-Han-Chinese themselves. The Yuan dynasty took a different view than the Song. The Yuan argued that the Song, Liao and Jin were all legitimate; therefore all three dynasties were given their own history, as recognition of their legitimacy.The Yuan engaged in racial segregation and divided society into four categories:
- MongolsMongolsMongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
(蒙古): who were at the top. - SemuSemuSemu is the name of a caste established in China under the Yuan Dynasty. Contrary to popular belief, the term "Semu" did not imply that caste members had "colored eyes" in contrast with black-eyed Mongol Yuan people...
(色目; "assorted categories"): a term for non-Chinese and non-Mongol foreigners who occupied the second slate; - HanHan ChineseHan Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
(漢人): a term for the Han Chinese, Jurchens, and Khitan under the rule of the Jin dynasty; - SouthernerHan ChineseHan Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
(南人): a term for Han Chinese under the rule of the Song dynasty.
In addition, the Yuan also divided society into 10 castes, based on "desirability":
- High officials (Chinese: 大官)
- Minor officials (Chinese: 小官)
- Buddhist monks (Chinese: 釋)
- Daoist priests (Chinese: 道)
- Physicians (Chinese: 医)
- Peasants (Chinese: 農)
- Hunters (Chinese: 獵)
- Courtesans (Chinese: 妓)
- Confucian scholars (Chinese: 儒)
- Beggars (Chinese: 丐)
Mongol rule, viewed as barbaric and humiliating for the Chinese, did not last long in China (from 1271 to 1368).
Ming Dynasty
In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed the Ming Dynasty and issued a long manifesto, in which he accused the Mongols of being barbarians who had usurped the Chinese thrones, and who had committed atrocities such as rape and massacre. He lists incidents where the Mongols massacred men in entire villages and entitled themselves to the women. His Northern expedition was quickly successful; Beijing was captured in the same year and China was again governed by Han Chinese.Although the Ming accepted the Yuan before them as a legitimate dynasty, they accepted it only because the Yuan had destroyed all other Chinese states; the Ming referred to the preceding Yuan as "胡元", or barbarian Yuan.
During the Miao Rebellions (Ming Dynasty)
Miao Rebellions (Ming Dynasty)
The Miao Rebellions were a series of Rebellions of the aboriginal Miao and other aboriginal tribes of southern China. The Ming Dynasty crushed the rebels with overwhelming force...
, the Ming dynasty forces engaged in massive slaughter of Miao people and other native ethnic groups to southern China, after castrating Miao boys to use as eunuch slaves, Chinese soldiers took Miao women as wives and colonized the southern provinces.
Towards the end of the Ming dynasty, Ming dynasty loyalists invoked Hua-Yi zhi bian to urge the Chinese to resist the Manchu invaders.
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty took a longer time to unify China, because many Chinese viewed them as barbarian invaders despite their claims to the contrary. The Qing order that all subjects of the Qing shave their forehead and braid the rest of their hair into a queueQueue (hairstyle)
The queue or cue is a hairstyle in which the hair is worn long and gathered up into a ponytail. It was worn traditionally by certain Native American groups and the Manchu of Manchuria.-Manchu Queue:...
was viewed as a symbolic gesture of servitude by many Han Chinese, who thought that changing their dress to the same as barbarians would be contrary to the spirit of "Hua-Yi zhi bian."
Scholar Lü Liuliang
Lü Liuliang
Lü Liuliang was a Han Chinese from Tongxiang in Zhejiang province. He was born under the Ming Dynasty but died under the Manchu-led Qing....
(1629–1683), who lived through the transition between the Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
and the Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
-led Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
, refused to serve the new dynasty because he claimed that upholding the difference between Huaxia and barbarians was more important than respecting the righteous bond between minister (臣) and sovereign (君王). In 1728, a failed examination candidate called Zeng Jing (曾靜), who had been influened by Lü's works, called for the overthrow of the Manchu regime. The Yongzheng Emperor
Yongzheng Emperor
The Yongzheng Emperor , born Yinzhen , was the fifth emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty and the third Qing emperor from 1722 to 1735. A hard-working ruler, Yongzheng's main goal was to create an effective government at minimal expense. Like his father, the Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng used military...
(r. 1723–1735), whom Zeng had accused of ten major crimes, took this event as an opportunity to educate the Qing's Chinese subjects. In a series of discussions with Zeng Jing that historian Jonathan Spence
Jonathan Spence
Jonathan D. Spence is a British-born historian and public intellectual specializing in Chinese history. He was Sterling Professor of History at Yale University from 1993 to 2008. His most famous book is The Search for Modern China, which has become one of the standard texts on the last several...
recounts in Treason by the Book
Treason by the Book
Treason by the Book, by Jonathan Spence is a fast-paced historical account of the Zeng Jing case which took place during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng of China, around the 1730s...
, the emperor proclaimed that the Chinese were not inherently superior to the barbarians. To justify his statements, he declared that the Zhou dynasty, from which much of Chinese civilization derived, was a "barbarian state" because he alleged it had been part of the Xirong (西戎), who were barbarians. One of the goals of the tract Dayi juemi lu (大義覺迷錄), which the Yongzheng Emperor published and distributed throughout the empire in 1730, was "to undermine the credibility of the hua/yi distinction." Fearful that this tract would only feed resistance to the Qing, Yongzheng's successor the Qianlong Emperor
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
(r. 1736–1796) recalled the tracts and had them burned.
During the Qing, the Qing destroyed writings that criticized the Liao, Jin and Yuan out of the Hua-Yi distinction.
The leaders of the Taiping rebellion
Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who, having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty...
issued a long proclamation based on Zhu Yuanzhang's denuciation of the Mongols and accused the Manchu of similar crimes. A popular slogan for rebellion in the Qing was "Crush the Qing, revive the Ming" (反清復明).
Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen
Sun Yat-sen was a Chinese doctor, revolutionary and political leader. As the foremost pioneer of Nationalist China, Sun is frequently referred to as the "Father of the Nation" , a view agreed upon by both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China...
also used the Hua-Yi distinction to justify the overthrow of the Qing dynasty.
Republic of China
Following the overthrow of the Qing, Sun Yat-sen went to the grave of Zhu Yuanzhang and told him that the Huaxia had been restored and the barbarians overthrown.Initially, ROC historians refused to make an official history for the Qing dynasty, as it would recognize the legitimacy of the dynasty. Instead, they put the history of the Qing dynasty under the "four barbarians" section of the Mingshi (History of the Ming Dynasty).
People's Republic of China
The PRC did not abide by the concept of "Hua Yi zhi bian" and recognized the Qing and Yuan as legitimate dynasties. Initially, the CPC condemned all Chinese dynasties as "Feudal oppressors".After the reforms of Deng Xiaoping, however, the state ceased to take a side on the debate on the concept. Hua-Yi zhi bian is now largely an academic debate, rather than a political one.
Japan
In the second unsuccessful Mongol invasion of JapanMongol invasions of Japan
The ' of 1274 and 1281 were major military efforts undertaken by Kublai Khan to conquer the Japanese islands after the submission of Goryeo to vassaldom. Despite their ultimate failure, the invasion attempts are of macrohistorical importance, because they set a limit on Mongol expansion, and rank...
in 1281 CE, 20-30,000 prisoners were taken but only 10,000 Southern Song Chinese were spared. The Japanese separated the Song
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
troops who had recently surrendered to the Mongols from the other prisoners, called them "Men of Tang", and enslaved them. On the other hand, the Northern Han Chinese, Khitan
Khitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
, Jur'chens, Koreans, and Mongols who had been living in the Mongol Empire for a century, were executed.
Korea
After the Manchus conquered Ming DynastyMing Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
in 1644 and established the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
, the Joseon Koreans
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
often called themselves "Sojunghwa" which, translates into "Small China". They showed solidarity and thoughtfulness to the citizens of Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
, rather than their now new rulers of the Qing dynasty through this stance. As Korea is often closely linked to previous Han Chinese civilizations and dynasties through writing and other cultural understandings, the concept of the "barbarians" now ruling China was a strong issue. This was especially as the foreign relations between the two countries were extremely close throughout history. These acts of closeness and understanding were shown throughout the Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
in various involvements.
As the Ming dynasty came to be overthrown by the Manchus, Korea itself was worried of similar invasions and its own security from threats. This was due to previous instances in which Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
Chinese primarily aided Korea's independence such as in the Imjin Wars.
Long after the establishment of the Qing dynasty, the Joseon ruling elite and even the Joseon government continued to use the Chongzhen era name
Chinese era name
A Chinese era name is the regnal year, reign period, or regnal title used when traditionally numbering years in an emperor's reign and naming certain Chinese rulers . Some emperors have several era names, one after another, where each beginning of a new era resets the numbering of the year back...
(Chinese:崇祯年号) of the last Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
emperor. Continually in secret, they referred to the Manchu Emperor as the "barbarian ruler" and Qing ambassadors as "barbarian ambassadors". Korean feelings diplomatically, about the Manchu, could not be expressed as the "Barbarians" essentially held great power over Korea following their successful attacks and invasions in the Manchu campaigns of 1627
First Manchu invasion of Korea
The First Manchu invasion of Korea occurred in 1627, when Hong Taiji led the Manchu army against Korea's Joseon dynasty. It was followed by the Second Manchu invasion of Korea.-Background:...
and 1637
Second Manchu invasion of Korea
The second Manchu invasion of Korea occurred in 1636, when the Manchu Qing Empire brought Korea's Joseon dynasty into submission. It followed the first Manchu invasion of Korea of 1627.-Background:...
.
Its once great ally within the Ming dynasty was no more and acceptance to the power of Qing and essentially the Barbarians, had to be shown in its governance. In the future, the Qing government would, with its Manchu leadership, assert more power over Korea and influence its policies. This would eventually lead Korea into a Hermit Kingdom
Hermit kingdom
Hermit kingdom is a pejorative term applied to any country or society which willfully walls itself off from the rest of the world. The Joseon Dynasty of Korea was frequently described as a hermit kingdom during the latter part of the dynasty...
. This was to prevent foreign influence in a land the Qing government viewed as close to home and a to assert authority only from China, and not western powers especially during the Opium Wars
Opium Wars
The Opium Wars, also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, divided into the First Opium War from 1839 to 1842 and the Second Opium War from 1856 to 1860, were the climax of disputes over trade and diplomatic relations between China under the Qing Dynasty and the British Empire...
.
Christianity
At the end of the 1813, Robert Morrison's translated Bible was published in Malacca (now Malaysia), believed to be the world's first published Bible in Chinese language, the same version was reputed to be used by Taiping RebellionTaiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who, having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty...
rebel leader Hong Xiuquan, who eventually used ideas borrowed from the Chinese Bible, staging a massive racial hatred originated anti-Manchu military campaign.
Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan
Hong Xiuquan , born Hong Renkun, style name Huoxiu , was a Hakka Chinese who led the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty, establishing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom over varying portions of southern China, with himself as the "Heavenly King" and self-proclaimed brother of Jesus Christ.-Early...
, who studied Christianity under Morrison for two months, and Morrison refused to baptize Hong. Not satisfied by calling Manchus barbarians as commonly implied in Hua-Yi zibian debate, Hong went one step further by calling the Manchus devil, as in the term anti-Christ in the Bible, at the same time he made claim that he was brother of Christ, another Son of God.
See also
- Foreign relations of Imperial ChinaForeign relations of Imperial ChinaImperial China had a long tradition of foreign relations. From the Qin Dynasty until the Qing Dynasty, the Culture of China had an impact upon neighboring and distant countries, while gradually being transformed by outside influences as well....
- Greater ChinaGreater ChinaGreater China is a term used to refer to mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. As a "phrase of the moment", the precise meaning is not entirely clear, and people may use it for only the commercial ties, only the cultural actions, or even as a euphemism for the Two Chinas, while others may...
- List of recipients of tribute from China
- List of tributaries of Imperial China
- SuzeraintySuzeraintySuzerainty occurs where a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which controls its foreign affairs while allowing the tributary vassal state some limited domestic autonomy. The dominant entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the more powerful entity itself, is called a...
- Tributary stateTributary stateThe term tributary state refers to one of the two main ways in which a pre-modern state might be subordinate to a more powerful neighbour. The heart of the relationship was that the tributary would send a regular token of submission to the superior power...
- Wang FuzhiWang FuzhiWang Fuzhi , 1619–1692) courtesy name Ernong , pseudonym Chuanshan , was a Chinese philosopher of the late Ming, early Qing dynasties.-Life:...
Further reading
- Author? (date?). "Tan Sitong 'Hua-Yi zhi bian' sixiang de yanjin" 谭嗣同"华夷之辨"思想的演进 ["The evolution of Tan Sitong's thinking on the 'Hua-Yi distinction'"]. Retrieved on January 16, 2009. Google translation.
- Fan Wenli 樊文礼 (2004). "'Hua-Yi zi bian' yu Tangmo Wudai shiren de Hua-Yi guan – shiren qunti dui Shatuo zhengquan de rentong" "华夷之辨"与唐末五代士人的华夷观–士人群体对沙陀政权的认同 ["The 'Hua-Yi distinction' and scholar-officials' view of Hua and Yi in the late Tang and Five Dynasties: their recognition of the Shatuo regime"].http://scholar.ilib.cn/Article.aspx?AIT=QCode&AI=ytsfxyxb-zxsh200403008&A=ytsfxyxb-zxsh200403008 Yantai shifan xueyuan xuebao (Zhexue shehui kexue ban) 烟台师范学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) ["Bulletin of the Yantai Normal Academy (Philosophy and Social Science edition)"] 21.3. ISSN : 1003-5117(2004)03-0028-05. Google translation.
- Geng Yunzhi 耿云志 (2006). "Jindai sixiangshi shang de minzuzhuyi" 近代思想史上的民族主义 ["Nationalism in modern intellectual history"]. Shixue yuekan 史学月刊 ["Journal of Historical Science"] 2006.6. Retrieved on January 16, 2009. Google translation.
- Guan Jiayue 關嘉耀 (date?). "'Hua-Yi zhi bian' yu wenhua zhongxin zhuyi" 「華夷之辨」與文化中心主義 ["The Hua-Yi distinction and cultural [sino]centrism"] Google translation.
- He Yingying 何英莺 (date?). "Hua-Yi sixiang he Shenguo sixiang de chongtu: lun Zhong-Ri guanxi de fazhan" 华夷思想和神国思想的冲突一一论明初中日关系的发展 [The conflict between the Hua-Yi conception and the Divine-Land conception: on China-Japan relations in the early Ming]. Source? Retrieved on February 9, 2009.
- Huang Shijian 黄时鉴 (date?). "Ditu shang de 'Tianxia guan'" 地图上的"天下观" ["The 'All-under-heaven' conception on maps"]. From Zhongguo cehui 中国测绘. Google translation.
- Liu Lifu 刘立夫 and Heng Yu 恆毓 (2000). "Yi-Xia zhi bian yu Fojiao" 夷夏之辨與佛教 ["The Yi-Xia distinction and Buddhism"]. Retrieved on January 16, 2009. Google translation.
- Pang Naiming 庞乃明 (2008). "Guoji zhengzhi xin yinsu yu Mingchao houqi Hua-Yi zhi bian'" 国际政治新因素与明朝后期华夷之辨 ["A new factor in international politics and the Hua-Yi distinction in the late Ming dynasty"]. Qiushi xuekan 求是学刊 ["Seeking Truth"] 35.4. Google translation.