History of Senegal
Encyclopedia
Paleolithic
As we know now, according to Abdoulaye CamaraAbdoulaye Camara
Abdoulaye Camara is a Malian international footballer currently playing for Butcherfille Rovers in South Africa.-Career:...
, men appeared in Senegal 350000 years ago. The earliest evidence of human life is found in the valley of the Faleme
Faleme
Faleme is a commune in the Cercle of Kayes in the Kayes Region of south-western Mali. The principal town lies at Diboli. As of 1998 the commune had a population of 5,864. Faleme is in the process of acquiring telephone service for its residents....
in the south-east.
The remains found there are threatened not only by the acidity of the soil in West Africa
West Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. Geopolitically, the UN definition of Western Africa includes the following 16 countries and an area of approximately 5 million square km:-Flags of West Africa:...
that destroys the bones, but also by tourists on the , the machines used for the mining of phosphate
Phosphate
A phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Organic phosphates are important in biochemistry and biogeochemistry or ecology. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in...
s in the Thiès Region
Thiès Region
-Administrative divisions:Thiès is divided in 3 departments , 11 communes, 10 arrondissements, and 31 communautés rurales.-Departments:The departments of Thies region are:*M'bour*Thiès*Tivaoune-Communes:In Thiès:*Pout*Khombole...
, and vegetable crops and the increasing urbanization in the peninsula of Cap Vert.
However, the presence of man in the Lower Paleolithic
Lower Paleolithic
The Lower Paleolithic is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. It spans the time from around 2.5 million years ago when the first evidence of craft and use of stone tools by hominids appears in the current archaeological record, until around 300,000 years ago, spanning the...
is attested by the discovery of stone tools
Archaeological industry
An archaeological industry, normally just "industry", is the name given in the study of prehistory to a consistent range of assemblages connected with a single product, such as the Langdale axe industry...
characteristic of Acheulean
Acheulean
Acheulean is the name given to an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture associated with early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic era across Africa and much of West Asia, South Asia and Europe. Acheulean tools are typically found with Homo erectus remains...
such as hand axes reported by Théodore Monod
Théodore Monod
Théodore André Monod was a French naturalist, explorer, and humanist scholar.-Exploration:...
at the tip of Fann
Fann-Point E-Amitié
Fann-Point E-Amitié is a commune d'arrondissement of the city of Dakar, Senegal. As of 2007 it had a population of 19,983....
in the peninsula of Cap-Vert
Cap-Vert
Cap-Vert is a peninsula in Senegal, and the westernmost point of the continent of Africa and of the Old World mainland. Originally called Cabo Verde or "Cape Green" by Portuguese explorers, it is not to be confused with the Cape Verde islands, which are some further west...
in 1938, or cleavers found in the south-east. There were also found stones shaped by the Levallois technique
Levallois technique
The Levallois technique is a name given by archaeologists to a distinctive type of stone knapping developed by precursors to modern humans during the Palaeolithic period....
, characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic
Middle Paleolithic
The Middle Paleolithic is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleolithic in African archeology. The Middle Paleolithic and the Middle Stone Age...
. Mousterian
Mousterian
Mousterian is a name given by archaeologists to a style of predominantly flint tools associated primarily with Homo neanderthalensis and dating to the Middle Paleolithic, the middle part of the Old Stone Age.-Naming:...
Industry is represented mainly by scraper
Scraper (archaeology)
In archaeology, scrapers are unifacial tools that were used either for hideworking or woodworking purposes. Whereas this term is often used for any unifacially flaked stone tool that defies classification, most lithic analysts maintain that the only true scrapers are defined on the base of...
s found in the peninsula of Cap-Vert, as well in the low and middle valleys of the Senegal and the Faleme
Faleme
Faleme is a commune in the Cercle of Kayes in the Kayes Region of south-western Mali. The principal town lies at Diboli. As of 1998 the commune had a population of 5,864. Faleme is in the process of acquiring telephone service for its residents....
. Some pieces are explicitly linked to hunting, like those found in Tiémassass, near Mbour, a controversial site that some claim belongs to the Upper Paleolithic
Upper Paleolithic
The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates to between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of...
, while other argue in favor of the Neolithic
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
.
Neolithic
In the Senegambia the period when humans became hunters, fishermen are producers (farmer and artisan) are all well represented and studied. This is when more elaborate objects and ceramicCeramic
A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous...
s emerged. But gray areas remain. Although the characteristics and manifestations of civilization from the Neolithic
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
have been identified their origins and relationship have not yet fully defined.
What can be distinguish is:
- The dig of Cape Manuel: the Neolithic deposit Manueline Dakar was discovered in 1940. BasaltBasaltBasalt is a common extrusive volcanic rock. It is usually grey to black and fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava at the surface of a planet. It may be porphyritic containing larger crystals in a fine matrix, or vesicular, or frothy scoria. Unweathered basalt is black or grey...
rocks including ankaramite were used for making microlithic tools such as axes or planes. Such tools have been found at GoréeGoréeÎle de Gorée Île de Gorée Île de Gorée (i.e. "Gorée Island"; is one of the 19 communes d'arrondissement (i.e. "commune of arrondissement") of the city of Dakar, Senegal. It is a island located at sea from the main harbor of Dakar ....
and the Magdalen IslandsMagdalen IslandsThe Magdalen Islands form a small archipelago in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence with a land area of . Though closer to Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, the islands form part of the Canadian province of Quebec....
, indicating the activity of shipbuildingShipbuildingShipbuilding is the construction of ships and floating vessels. It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history.Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both...
by nearby fishermen. - The dig of Bel-AirHann Bel-AirHann Bel-Air is a commune d'arrondissement of the city of Dakar, Senegal.-Neighbourhoods:The Arrondissement comprises both the neighbourhoods of Bel-Air and Hann. Bel-Air, to the south, is the rocky plateau which juts east into the bay away from the city centre. It lays directly north of the Port...
: Neolithic Bélarien tools, usually made out of flintFlintFlint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as a variety of chert. It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks and limestones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white, or brown in colour, and...
, are present in the dunes of the west, near the current capital. In addition to axes, adzeAdzeAn adze is a tool used for smoothing or carving rough-cut wood in hand woodworking. Generally, the user stands astride a board or log and swings the adze downwards towards his feet, chipping off pieces of wood, moving backwards as they go and leaving a relatively smooth surface behind...
s and pottery, there is also a statuette, the Venus Thiaroye - The dig of Khant: the Khanty creek, located in the north near Kayar in the lower valley of the Senegal RiverSénégal RiverThe Sénégal River is a long river in West Africa that forms the border between Senegal and Mauritania.The Sénégal's headwaters are the Semefé and Bafing rivers which both originate in Guinea; they form a small part of the Guinean-Malian border before coming together at Bafoulabé in Mali...
, gave its name to a Neolithic industry which mainly uses bone and wood. This deposit is on the list of closed sites and monuments of Senegal. - The dig the FalemeFalemeFaleme is a commune in the Cercle of Kayes in the Kayes Region of south-western Mali. The principal town lies at Diboli. As of 1998 the commune had a population of 5,864. Faleme is in the process of acquiring telephone service for its residents....
located in the south-east of Senegal, has uncovered a Neolithic Falemian tools industry that produced polished materials as diverse as sandstoneSandstoneSandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains.Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust. Like sand, sandstone may be any colour, but the most common colours are tan, brown, yellow,...
, hematiteHematiteHematite, also spelled as haematite, is the mineral form of iron oxide , one of several iron oxides. Hematite crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, and it has the same crystal structure as ilmenite and corundum...
, shaleShaleShale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. The ratio of clay to other minerals is variable. Shale is characterized by breaks along thin laminae or parallel layering...
, quartzQuartzQuartz is the second-most-abundant mineral in the Earth's continental crust, after feldspar. It is made up of a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall formula SiO2. There are many different varieties of quartz,...
, and flintFlintFlint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as a variety of chert. It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks and limestones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white, or brown in colour, and...
. Grinding equipment and pottery from the period are well represented at the site. - The Neolithic civilization of the Senegal River valley and the FerloFerloFerlo is a region in Senegal's Ferio Desert, rapidly depopulated because of desertification. There are two Faunal Reserves in Ferlo....
are the least well known due to not always being separated.
Protohistory
In the case of Senegal, the periodization of prehistoryPrehistory
Prehistory is the span of time before recorded history. Prehistory can refer to the period of human existence before the availability of those written records with which recorded history begins. More broadly, it refers to all the time preceding human existence and the invention of writing...
remains controversial. Indeed, one often begins it at the age of metallurgy
Metallurgy
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. It is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to their practical use...
, thus placing it between the first metalworking
Metalworking
Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large scale structures. The term covers a wide range of work from large ships and bridges to precise engine parts and delicate jewelry. It therefore includes a correspondingly wide range of skills,...
and the appearance of writing
Writing
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols . It is distinguished from illustration, such as cave drawing and painting, and non-symbolic preservation of language via non-textual media, such as magnetic tape audio.Writing most likely...
. This definition, however, seems somewhat Eurocentric adapted to African realities. Therefore, other approaches must be take into account, such as Guy Thilmans and his team in 1980, who felt that any archeology from pre-colonial could be attached to that designation or that of Hamady Bocoum, who speaks of "Historical Archaeology" from the 4th century, at least for the former Tekrur.
Evin if the debate is not settled yet, the abundance of such remains is not in doubt, especially in western countries, in river valleys and near the border with Gambia.
Four sets can be distinguished:
- On the coast and in river estuaries of the Senegal, SaloumSaloumThe Kingdom of Saloum in Senegal is a traditional kingdom which was renamed Saloum in the late 15th century by the son of a Serer and a Guelowar from the kingdom of Kaabu to the south. The ancient and present capital of the Kingdom of Saloum is the city of Kahone. Previous to that, it was known...
, Gambia, and CasamanceCasamance RiverThe Casamance River flows westward for the most part into the Atlantic Ocean along a path about 200 miles in length. However, only 80 miles of it are navigable. The Casamance is the principal river of the Kolda, Sédhiou, and Ziguinchor Regions in the southern portion of Senegal between The...
rivers, burial mounds with clusters of shells – sometimes referred to by their Danish name Køkkenmødding which means "kitchen waste". 217 of these clusters have been identified in the Saloum Delta alone, for exemple in Joal-Fadiouth, and they are also found in the north near Saint-LouisSaint-Louis, SenegalSaint-Louis, or Ndar as it is called in Wolof, is the capital of Senegal's Saint-Louis Region. Located in the northwest of Senegal, near the mouth of the Senegal River, and 320 km north of Senegal's capital city Dakar, it has a population officially estimated at 176,000 in 2005. Saint-Louis...
, and in the estuary of the Casamance. Among mollusks identified, the dominant species is the Anadara senilis, also called "arch" or "loincloth". - The West is rich in burial mounds of sand that the WolofWolof peopleThe Wolof are an ethnic group found in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania.In Senegal, the Wolof form an ethnic plurality with about 43.3% of the population are Wolofs...
refer to as mbanaar, which translates to "graves", while the SererSerer peopleThe Serer people along with the Jola people are acknowledged to be the oldest inhabitants of The Senegambia....
call them podom. All these historical sites are in Serer Countries and built by the Serer peopleSerer peopleThe Serer people along with the Jola people are acknowledged to be the oldest inhabitants of The Senegambia....
, the oldest inhabitants of the Senegambia region along with the Jola peopleJola peopleThe Jola are an ethnic group found in Senegal , The Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. There are great numbers on the Atlantic coast between the southern banks of the Gambia River, the Casamance region of Senegal and the northern part of Guinea-Bissau...
.. A solid gold pectoralGorgetA gorget originally was a steel or leather collar designed to protect the throat. It was a feature of older types of armour and intended to protect against swords and other non-projectile weapons...
of mass 191 g has also been discovered near Saint-LouisSaint-Louis, SenegalSaint-Louis, or Ndar as it is called in Wolof, is the capital of Senegal's Saint-Louis Region. Located in the northwest of Senegal, near the mouth of the Senegal River, and 320 km north of Senegal's capital city Dakar, it has a population officially estimated at 176,000 in 2005. Saint-Louis...
.
.
- In a huge area of nearly ((2 km)) located in the center-south around the Gambia there have been found alignments of boulders known as the Stone Circles of Senegambia which were placed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites in 2006. Two of these sites are located within the territory of Senegal: Sine Ngayène and Sine Wanar, both located in the Department of Nioro Rip. Sine Ngayène has 52 stone circles including a double circle. At Wanar, they number 24 and the stones are smaller. There are stone-carved lyre in the lateriteLateriteLaterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock...
, Y- or A-shaped. - The existence of proto-historic ruins in the middle Senegal River valley was confirmed in the late 1970s. Pottery, perforated ceramicCeramicA ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous...
discs or ornements have bene unearthed. Excavations at thé site of Sinthiou Bara, near MatamMatam, SenegalMatam is a city in northeast Senegal, on the Sénégal River. It is the capital of the Matam Region .- People :Well-known people from the city include footballer Mamadou Niang, politician Samba Diouldé Thiam and writer Cheikh Hamidou Kane, the first mayor ISSA KANE and Hamidou Samba KASSE ...
, have proved particularly fruitful. They have revealed, for example, the flow of trans-Saharan trade from distant parts of North AfricaNorth AfricaNorth Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
.
Kingdoms and Empires
The region of modern Senegal was a part of the larger region called Upper GuineaUpper Guinea
Upper Guinea or la Haute-Guinée is a large plain covering eastern Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and extending into north western Côte d'Ivoire. Mostly forming the upper watershed of the River Niger, it is sparsely populated and is home to the Haut Niger National Park.Upper Guinea can also refer to...
by European traders. In the absence of written sources and monumental ruins in this region, the history of the early centuries of our era must be based primarily on archaeological excavations, the writing of early geographers and travelers, written in Arabic and data derived from oral tradition. Combining these data suggests that Senegal was first populated from the north and east (probably from current-day Egypt, as suggested by the work of Professor Cheikh Anta Diop
Cheikh Anta Diop
Cheikh Anta Diop was a historian, anthropologist, physicist, and politician who studied the human race's origins and pre-colonial African culture. He is regarded as an important figure in the development of the Afrocentric viewpoint, in particular for his theory that the ancient Egyptians were...
), in several waves of migration, the last being that of the Wolof
Wolof people
The Wolof are an ethnic group found in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania.In Senegal, the Wolof form an ethnic plurality with about 43.3% of the population are Wolofs...
, the Fulani and the Serer
Serer people
The Serer people along with the Jola people are acknowledged to be the oldest inhabitants of The Senegambia....
. Probable descendants of Bafour
Bafour
The Bafours were the original inhabitants of Mauritania, and the ancestors of the Imraguen and Soninke peoples of western Africa. They were primarily agriculturalist and agro-pastoralists, and were relatively stationary. At the time they lived in Mauritania, it was far more fertile than it is...
s were pushed southward by the Berber
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
dynasty of Almoravids
Almoravids
The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty of Morocco, who formed an empire in the 11th-century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Their capital was Marrakesh, a city which they founded in 1062 C.E...
.
Before the arrival of European settlers, the history of the Saharan region is mainly characterized by the consolidation of settlements in large state entities – the Ghana Empire
Ghana Empire
The Ghana Empire or Wagadou Empire was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, and Western Mali. Complex societies had existed in the region since about 1500 BCE, and around Ghana's core region since about 300 CE...
, the Mali Empire
Mali Empire
The Mali Empire or Mandingo Empire or Manden Kurufa was a West African empire of the Mandinka from c. 1230 to c. 1600. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I...
and the Songhai Empire
Songhai Empire
The Songhai Empire, also known as the Songhay Empire, was a state located in western Africa. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest Islamic empires in history. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the Songhai. Its capital was the city...
. The cores of these great empires were located on the territory of the current Republic of Mali, so current-day Senegal occupied a peripheral position.
The earliest of these empires is that of Ghana, probably founded in the first millennium by Soninke and whose animists
Animism
Animism refers to the belief that non-human entities are spiritual beings, or at least embody some kind of life-principle....
populations subsisted by agriculture and trade across the Sahara, including gold, salt and cloth. Its area of influence slowly spread to regions between the river valleys of the Senegal
Sénégal River
The Sénégal River is a long river in West Africa that forms the border between Senegal and Mauritania.The Sénégal's headwaters are the Semefé and Bafing rivers which both originate in Guinea; they form a small part of the Guinean-Malian border before coming together at Bafoulabé in Mali...
and Niger
Niger River
The Niger River is the principal river of western Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in southeastern Guinea...
.
A contemporary empire of Ghana, but less extensive, the kingdom of Tekrur was its vassal. Ghana and Tekrur were the only organized populations before Islamization. The territory of Tekrur approximates that of the current Fouta Toro. Its existence in the ((ninth century)) is attested by Arabic manuscripts, but it could have gone back to the beginning of the Christian era, according to historian Joseph Ki-Zerbo
Joseph Ki-Zerbo
Joseph Ki-Zerbo was a Burkinabé politician and writer. He spent his youth in Toma where he grew up in a rural context inside a big family. Ki-Zerbo himself declared that his first 11 years passed in a rural context marked his personality and thoughts. He was recognized as one of Africa’s foremost...
. Other sources attribute the foundation of Tekrur to the Dia Ogo (or Dyago) dynasty, from the north. The name, borrowed from Arabic writings, may be linked to that of the ethnicity Toucouleur
Toucouleur
The Toucouleurs are a Fula agricultural people who live primarily in West Africa: the north of Senegal in the Senegal River valley, Mauritania, and Mali.-History:...
. However, according to historical and archaeological sources, the kingdom was founded by the Serer people
Serer people
The Serer people along with the Jola people are acknowledged to be the oldest inhabitants of The Senegambia....
who build civilisations there, ruled it and set up a Priestly Class (Saltigue
Saltigue
Saltigue are Serer High Priests and Priestesses who precide over the religious ceremonies and affairs of the Serer people. They usually come from ancient Serer paternal families. Such a title is usually inheritted by birth right.- Sources:Louis Diene Faye,...
).
Trade with the Arabs was prevalent. The Kingdom imported wool
Wool
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals, including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, vicuña, alpaca, camel from animals in the camel family, and angora from rabbits....
, copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
and pearl
Pearl
A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is made up of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other...
s and exported gold and slaves. Indeed the growth of a vast empire by Arab-Muslim Jihad
Jihad
Jihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is...
s is not devoid of economic and political issues and brought in its wake the first real growth of the slave trade. This trade called the Arab slave trade
Arab slave trade
The Arab slave trade was the practice of slavery in the Arab World, mainly Western Asia, North Africa, East Africa and certain parts of Europe during their period of domination by Arab leaders. The trade was focused on the slave markets of the Middle East and North Africa...
provided North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
and Saharan Africa
Sahara
The Sahara is the world's second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over , it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean...
with slave labor. The Tekrur were among the first converts to the Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, certainly before 1040.
Two other major political entities were formed and grew during the thirteenth and fourteenth century: the Mali Empire
Mali Empire
The Mali Empire or Mandingo Empire or Manden Kurufa was a West African empire of the Mandinka from c. 1230 to c. 1600. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I...
and the empire of Djolof which become the vassal of the first in its heyday. Originating in the Mandinka invasion, Mali continued to expand, encompassing first eastern Senegal, and later almost all the present territory. Founded in the 14th century by the Chief of the Wolof Ndiadiane Ndiaye, who was a Serer of Waalo
Waalo
The Kingdom of Waalo was a kingdom on the lower Senegal River in West Africa, in what are now Senegal and Mauritania. It included parts of the valley proper and areas north and south, extending to the Atlantic Ocean...
(Ndiaye is originally a Serer surname which Wolof people adopted).
Mam Kumba Njie (or Ndiaye) is a Serer Goddess in the Serer religion
Serer religion
The Serer religion, Fat Rog is the original religious beliefs, practices and teachings of the Serer people. The Serer people believe in a universal Supreme Deity called "Rog. "The Serer people are found throughout the Senegambia Region...
a religion which predates Islam by thousands of years as well as the Almoravid invasion of Tekrur.
Djolof expanded its dominance of small chiefdoms south of the Senegal River (Waalo
Waalo
The Kingdom of Waalo was a kingdom on the lower Senegal River in West Africa, in what are now Senegal and Mauritania. It included parts of the valley proper and areas north and south, extending to the Atlantic Ocean...
, Cay
Cay
A cay , also spelled caye or key, is a small, low-elevation, sandy island formed on the surface of coral reefs. Cays occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans , where they provide habitable and agricultural land for hundreds of thousands of people...
Baol
Baol
The Kingdom of Baol or Bawol in central Senegal was one of the ancient kingdoms of the Serer people pre-the Jolof Empire, an Empire it would later join voluntarily just like the other States. However it gained prominence after the split-up of the Empire in 1555...
, Sine
Kingdom of Sine
The Kingdom of Sine was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom along the north bank of the Saloum River delta in modern Senegal. Much of the kingdom's population was and still is Serer.-History:...
– Saloum), bringing together all the Senegambia to which he gave religious and social unity: the "Grand Djolof" which collapsed in 1550.
The arrival of Europeans engendered autonomy of small kingdoms which were under the influence of Djolof. Less dependent on trans-Saharan trade with the new shipping lanes, they turn more readily to trade with the New World
New World
The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically America and sometimes Oceania . The term originated in the late 15th century, when America had been recently discovered by European explorers, expanding the geographical horizon of the people of the European middle...
. The decline of these kingdoms can be explained by internal rivalries, then by the arrival of Europeans, who organized the mass exodus of young Africans to the New World. Ghazis, wars, epidemics and famine afflicted the people, while the powerful practice of the Atlantic slave trade
Atlantic slave trade
The Atlantic slave trade, also known as the trans-atlantic slave trade, refers to the trade in slaves that took place across the Atlantic ocean from the sixteenth through to the nineteenth centuries...
, in exchange for weapons and manufactured goods. Under the influence of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, these kingdoms were transformed and marabouts played an increasing role.
In Casamance
Casamance
Casamance is the area of Senegal south of The Gambia including the Casamance River. It consists of Basse Casamance and Haute Casamance...
, the Baïnounks, the Manjaques and Diola inhabited the coastal area while the mainland – unified ((thirteenth century)) under the name of Gabou – was occupied by the Mandingo
Mandinka people
The Mandinka, Malinke are one of the largest ethnic groups in West Africa with an estimated population of eleven million ....
. In the ((fifteenth century)), the king of one of the tribes, Kassas gave his name to the region: Kassa Mansa
Mansa
Mansa is a Mandinka word meaning "king of kings". It is particularly associated with the Keita Dynasty of the Mali Empire, which dominated West Africa from the thirteenth to the fifthteenth century...
(King of Kassas). Until the French intervention The Casamance was a heterogeneous entity, weakened by internal rivalries.
The era of trading posts and trafficking
According to several ancient sources, including occasions by the 'Dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire by Ferdinand BuissonFerdinand Buisson
Ferdinand Édouard Buisson was a French academic, educational bureaucrat, pacifist and Socialist politician...
in 1887, the first French settlement in Senegal dates back to the Dieppe Mariners in the fourteenth century. Flattering for Norman sailors, this argument gives credence also to the idea of a precedence of the French presence in the region, but it is not confirmed by subsequent work.
In the mid-fifteenth century several European nations reached the coast of West Africa, vested successively or simultaneously by the Portuguese, the Dutchman, the English and French. Europeans first settled along the coasts, on islands in the mouths of rivers and then a little further upstream. They opened trading posts and engaged in the "trade:" – a term which, under the Ancien Régime, means any type of trade (wheat, pepper
Black pepper
Black pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit, known as a peppercorn when dried, is approximately in diameter, dark red when fully mature, and, like all drupes, contains a single seed...
ivory
Ivory trade
The ivory trade is the commercial, often illegal trade in the ivory tusks of the hippopotamus, walrus, narwhal, mammoth, and most commonly, Asian and African elephants....
…), and not necessarily, or only the slave trade, although this "infamous traffic," as it was called at the end of the eighteenth century, was indeed at the heart of a new economic order, controlled by powerful companies in privilege
Privilege
A privilege is a special entitlement to immunity granted by the state or another authority to a restricted group, either by birth or on a conditional basis. It can be revoked in certain circumstances. In modern democratic states, a privilege is conditional and granted only after birth...
.
The Portuguese navigators
Portuguese EmpireEncouraged by Henry the Navigator and always in search of the Passage to India, and not forgetting gold and slaves, Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
explorers explored the African coast and ventured still farther south.
Dinis Dias
Dinis Dias was a 15th century Portuguese explorer.In 1445, as Dias was beginning to enter old age and made the decision to take up exploring because "he was unwilling to let himself grow soft in the well being of repose", left Portugal and sailed down the West African coast, setting a new record by...
went off the mouth of the Senegal River
Sénégal River
The Sénégal River is a long river in West Africa that forms the border between Senegal and Mauritania.The Sénégal's headwaters are the Semefé and Bafing rivers which both originate in Guinea; they form a small part of the Guinean-Malian border before coming together at Bafoulabé in Mali...
to reach the westernmost point of Africa he calls Cabo Verde, Cape Vert, because of the lush vegetation seen there. He also reached the island of Gorée
Gorée
Île de Gorée Île de Gorée Île de Gorée (i.e. "Gorée Island"; is one of the 19 communes d'arrondissement (i.e. "commune of arrondissement") of the city of Dakar, Senegal. It is a island located at sea from the main harbor of Dakar ....
, referred to by its inhabitants as Berzeguiche, but which he called Ilha de Palma, the island of Palms. The Portuguese did not settle there permanently, but used the site for landing and engaged in commerce in the region. They built a chapel there in 1481. Portuguese trading posts were installed in Tanguegueth in Cay
Cay
A cay , also spelled caye or key, is a small, low-elevation, sandy island formed on the surface of coral reefs. Cays occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans , where they provide habitable and agricultural land for hundreds of thousands of people...
, a town they renamed Fresco Rio (the future Rufisque
Rufisque
Rufisque is a city in the Dakar region of western Senegal, at the base of the Cap-Vert Peninsula. It has a population of 179,797 . In the past it was an important port city in its own right, but is now a suburb of Dakar....
) because of the freshness of its sources in the Baol
Baol
The Kingdom of Baol or Bawol in central Senegal was one of the ancient kingdoms of the Serer people pre-the Jolof Empire, an Empire it would later join voluntarily just like the other States. However it gained prominence after the split-up of the Empire in 1555...
Sali (later the seaside town of Saly
Saly
Saly is a seaside resort area on the Petite Côte of Senegal, south of Dakar. It is the top tourist destination in all of West Africa.-History:...
) which takes the name of Portudal, or to Joal in the Kingdom of Sine
Kingdom of Sine
The Kingdom of Sine was a pre-colonial Serer kingdom along the north bank of the Saloum River delta in modern Senegal. Much of the kingdom's population was and still is Serer.-History:...
.
They also traversed the lower Casamance
Casamance
Casamance is the area of Senegal south of The Gambia including the Casamance River. It consists of Basse Casamance and Haute Casamance...
and founded Ziguinchor
Ziguinchor
Ziguinchor is the capital of the Ziguinchor Region, and the chief town of the Casamance area of Senegal, lying at the mouth of the Casamance River. It has a population of over 230,000...
in 1645. The introduction of Christianity accompanied this business expansion.
The Dutch West India Company
After the Act of Abjuration in 1581, the United ProvincesDutch Republic
The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the Batavian Republic and ultimately...
flouted the authority of the King of Spain
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
. They based their growth on maritime trade and expanded their colonial empire in Asia, the Americas
Americas
The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
and the South Africa. In West Africa trading posts were opened at some points of the current Senegal
Senegal
Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
, Gambia, Ghana
Ghana
Ghana , officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south...
and Angola
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city...
.
Created in 1621, the Dutch West India Company
Dutch West India Company
Dutch West India Company was a chartered company of Dutch merchants. Among its founding fathers was Willem Usselincx...
purchased the island of Gorée
Gorée
Île de Gorée Île de Gorée Île de Gorée (i.e. "Gorée Island"; is one of the 19 communes d'arrondissement (i.e. "commune of arrondissement") of the city of Dakar, Senegal. It is a island located at sea from the main harbor of Dakar ....
in 1627. The company built two forts that are in ruins today: in 1628 on the face of Nassau Cove and 1639 at Nassau on the hill, as well as warehouses for goods destined for the mainland trading posts .
In his Description of Africa(1668), the humanist
Humanism
Humanism is an approach in study, philosophy, world view or practice that focuses on human values and concerns. In philosophy and social science, humanism is a perspective which affirms some notion of human nature, and is contrasted with anti-humanism....
Dutch Olfert Dapper
Olfert Dapper
Olfert Dapper was a Dutch physician and writer. He wrote books about history and geography, although he never travelled outside Holland. Until today, his book Description of Africa is a key text for Africanists....
gives the etymology of the name given to it by his countrymen,Goe-ree Goede Reede, that is to say "good road".
The Dutch settlers occupied the island for nearly half a century, but were dislodged several times: in 1629 by the Portuguese, in 1645 and 1659 by the French and in 1663 by the British troops. They dealt inwax, amber
Amber
Amber is fossilized tree resin , which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Amber is used as an ingredient in perfumes, as a healing agent in folk medicine, and as jewelry. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents...
, gold, ivory
Ivory
Ivory is a term for dentine, which constitutes the bulk of the teeth and tusks of animals, when used as a material for art or manufacturing. Ivory has been important since ancient times for making a range of items, from ivory carvings to false teeth, fans, dominoes, joint tubes, piano keys and...
and also participated in the slave trade, but kept away from trading posts on the coast.
Against the backdrop of Anglo-French rivalry
The "trade" and the slave trade intensified in the seventeenth century. In Senegal, the French and English competed mainly on two issues, the island of GoréeGorée
Île de Gorée Île de Gorée Île de Gorée (i.e. "Gorée Island"; is one of the 19 communes d'arrondissement (i.e. "commune of arrondissement") of the city of Dakar, Senegal. It is a island located at sea from the main harbor of Dakar ....
and St. Louis
Saint-Louis, Senegal
Saint-Louis, or Ndar as it is called in Wolof, is the capital of Senegal's Saint-Louis Region. Located in the northwest of Senegal, near the mouth of the Senegal River, and 320 km north of Senegal's capital city Dakar, it has a population officially estimated at 176,000 in 2005. Saint-Louis...
. On 10 February 1763 the Treaty of Paris
Treaty of Paris (1763)
The Treaty of Paris, often called the Peace of Paris, or the Treaty of 1763, was signed on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. It ended the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War...
ended the Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
and reconciled, after three years of negotiations, France, Great Britain and Spain. Great Britain returned the island of Gorée to France, but now the premere colonial power, it acquired, among many other territories, "the river of Senegal, with forts & trading posts St. Louis, Podor, and Galam and all rights & dependencies of the said River of Senegal.".
Under Louis XIII and especially Louis XIV, the privileges were quite extensively granted to certain French shipping lines, which still faced many difficulties. In 1626 Richelieu founded the Norman Company, an association of Dieppe and Rouen
Rouen
Rouen , in northern France on the River Seine, is the capital of the Haute-Normandie region and the historic capital city of Normandy. Once one of the largest and most prosperous cities of medieval Europe , it was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy in the Middle Ages...
merchants responsible for the operation in Senegal and The Gambia. It was dissolved in 1658 and its assets were acquired by the Company of Cape Vert and Senegal, itself expropriated following the creation by Colbert
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Jean-Baptiste Colbert was a French politician who served as the Minister of Finances of France from 1665 to 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing...
in 1664 of the French West India Company
French West India Company
In the history of French trade, the French West India Company was a chartered company established in 1664. Their charter gave them the property and seignory of Canada, Acadia, the Antilles, Cayenne, and the terra firma of South America, from the Amazon to the Orinoco...
. The Company of Senegal was in turn founded by Colbert in 1673. It became the major tool of French colonialism in Senegal, but saddled with debt, it was dissolved 1681 and replaced by another that lasted until 1694, the date of creation of the Royal Company of Senegal, whose director, Andre Brue, would be captured by the Damel
Damel
Damel was the title of the ruler of the Wolof kingdom of Cayor in what is now northwest Senegal, West Africa.The most well-known damel is probably Lat Dior Diop who died in battle during the final French drive to capture his territory, which was one of the strongest areas of resistance...
of Cay
Cay
A cay , also spelled caye or key, is a small, low-elevation, sandy island formed on the surface of coral reefs. Cays occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans , where they provide habitable and agricultural land for hundreds of thousands of people...
and released against ransom in 1701. A third Company of Senegal was founded in 1709 and lasted until 1718. On the British side, the monopoly of trade with Africa was granted to the Royal African Company
Royal African Company
The Royal African Company was a slaving company set up by the Stuart family and London merchants once the former retook the English throne in the English Restoration of 1660...
in 1698.
Grand Master of the naval war of Louis XIV, Admiral Jean Estrées seized Gorée
Gorée
Île de Gorée Île de Gorée Île de Gorée (i.e. "Gorée Island"; is one of the 19 communes d'arrondissement (i.e. "commune of arrondissement") of the city of Dakar, Senegal. It is a island located at sea from the main harbor of Dakar ....
on November 1, 1677. The island was taken up by the English on February 4, 1693 before being again occupied by the French four months later. In 1698 the Director of the Company of Senegal, Andre Brue, restored the fortifications. But Gorée became English once again in the middle of the 18th century.
The excellent location of St. Louis caught the attention of English who occupied it three times for a few months in 1693, then during the Seven Years' War
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
of 1758 until it was taken by the Duc de Lauzun
Duc de Lauzun
The title of Duc de Lauzun was a French peerage created in 1692 for Antoine Nompar de Caumont under influence of Mary of Modena. All dukes were marshals of France or renowned generals.-Ducs de Lauzun :*Antoine Nompar de Caumont...
in 1779, lastly 1809 in 1816.
In 1783 the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
returned Senegal to France. The monopoly of gum acacia
Acacia
Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not...
is licensed to Senegal Company.
Appointed governor in 1785, Knight Boufflers focuses for two years to enhance the colony, while engaged in the smuggling of gum arabic and gold with signares.
In 1789 people of St. Louis
Saint-Louis, Senegal
Saint-Louis, or Ndar as it is called in Wolof, is the capital of Senegal's Saint-Louis Region. Located in the northwest of Senegal, near the mouth of the Senegal River, and 320 km north of Senegal's capital city Dakar, it has a population officially estimated at 176,000 in 2005. Saint-Louis...
write a List of Complaints. The same year the French were driven out of Fort St. Joseph in Galam and kingdom of Galam.
A trading economy
The Europeans were sometimes disappointed because they hoped to find more gold in West Africa, but when the development of plantationPlantation
A plantation is a long artificially established forest, farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale, often in distant markets rather than for local on-site consumption...
s in the Americas, mainly in the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
, in Brazil and in the south of the United States raised a great need for cheap labor, the area received more attention. The Papacy who had sometimes opposed to the slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
, did not condemn it explicitly to the end of the seventeenth century; in fact the Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
itself has an interest in the colonial system. Traffic of "ebony" is also an issue for warriors who traditionally reduces the vanquished to slavery, some people specialized in the slave trade – in the case of Dyula in West Africa – states and kingdoms also competed, as well as private traders who became much richer in the triangular trade
Triangular trade
Triangular trade, or triangle trade, is a historical term indicating among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come...
, although some shipments sometimes resulted in real financial disaster. Politico-military instability in the region was compounded by the slave trade.
The Black Code
Code Noir
The Code noir was a decree originally passed by France's King Louis XIV in 1685. The Code Noir defined the conditions of slavery in the French colonial empire, restricted the activities of free Negroes, forbade the exercise of any religion other than Roman Catholicism , and ordered...
, enacted in 1685, regulated the trafficking of slaves in the American colonies.
In Senegal, trading posts were established in Gorée
Gorée
Île de Gorée Île de Gorée Île de Gorée (i.e. "Gorée Island"; is one of the 19 communes d'arrondissement (i.e. "commune of arrondissement") of the city of Dakar, Senegal. It is a island located at sea from the main harbor of Dakar ....
, St. Louis
Saint-Louis, Senegal
Saint-Louis, or Ndar as it is called in Wolof, is the capital of Senegal's Saint-Louis Region. Located in the northwest of Senegal, near the mouth of the Senegal River, and 320 km north of Senegal's capital city Dakar, it has a population officially estimated at 176,000 in 2005. Saint-Louis...
, Rufisque
Rufisque
Rufisque is a city in the Dakar region of western Senegal, at the base of the Cap-Vert Peninsula. It has a population of 179,797 . In the past it was an important port city in its own right, but is now a suburb of Dakar....
, Portudal
Saly
Saly is a seaside resort area on the Petite Côte of Senegal, south of Dakar. It is the top tourist destination in all of West Africa.-History:...
and Joal and the upper valley of the Senegal River
Sénégal River
The Sénégal River is a long river in West Africa that forms the border between Senegal and Mauritania.The Sénégal's headwaters are the Semefé and Bafing rivers which both originate in Guinea; they form a small part of the Guinean-Malian border before coming together at Bafoulabé in Mali...
, including Fort St. Joseph Galam was in the eighteenth century a French engine of trafficking in Senegambia.
In parallel, a mestizo society develops in St. Louis and Gorée.
Slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
was abolished by the National Convention
National Convention
During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the constitutional and legislative assembly which sat from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 . It held executive power in France during the first years of the French First Republic...
in 1794, then reinstated by Bonaparte in 1802. Abolished in the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
in 1833, in France it was finally abolished in the Second Republic
French Second Republic
The French Second Republic was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire. It officially adopted the motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité...
in 1848, under the leadership of Victor Schoelcher
Victor Schoelcher
Victor Schoelcher was a French abolitionist writer in the 19th century and the main spokesman for a group from Paris who worked for the abolition of slavery, and formed an abolition society in 1834...
.
The progressive weakening of the colony
In 1815 The Congress of Vienna condemned slavery. But this does not change much economically for the Africans.After the departure of Governor Schmaltz (he had taken office at the end of the wreck of the Medusa), Roger Baron particularly encourages the development of the peanut
Peanut
The peanut, or groundnut , is a species in the legume or "bean" family , so it is not a nut. The peanut was probably first cultivated in the valleys of Peru. It is an annual herbaceous plant growing tall...
, "the earth pistachio", whose monoculture
Monoculture
Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area. It is also known as a way of farming practice of growing large stands of a single species. It is widely used in modern industrial agriculture and its implementation has allowed for large harvests from...
would be long because of the severe economic backwardness of Senegal. Despite the ferocity of the Baron, the company is a failure.
The colonization of the Casamance
Casamance
Casamance is the area of Senegal south of The Gambia including the Casamance River. It consists of Basse Casamance and Haute Casamance...
also continued. The island of Carabane
Carabane
Carabane, also known as Karabane, is an island and a village located in the extreme south-west of Senegal, in the mouth of the Casamance River. This relatively recent geological formation consists of a shoal and alluvium to which soil is added by accumulation in the branches and roots of the...
, acquired by France in 1836, was profoundly transformed between 1849 and 1857 by the resident Emmanuel Bertrand Bocandé, Nantes
Nantes
Nantes is a city in western France, located on the Loire River, from the Atlantic coast. The city is the 6th largest in France, while its metropolitan area ranks 8th with over 800,000 inhabitants....
businessman.
Modern Colonialism
Various European powers – Portugal, the Netherlands, and England – competed for trade in the area from the 15th century onward, until in 1677, France ended up in possession of what had become a minor slave trade departure point—the infamous island of GoréeGorée
Île de Gorée Île de Gorée Île de Gorée (i.e. "Gorée Island"; is one of the 19 communes d'arrondissement (i.e. "commune of arrondissement") of the city of Dakar, Senegal. It is a island located at sea from the main harbor of Dakar ....
next to modern Dakar
Dakar
Dakar is the capital city and largest city of Senegal. It is located on the Cap-Vert Peninsula on the Atlantic coast and is the westernmost city on the African mainland...
. In 1758 the French settlement was captured by a British expedition
Capture of Senegal
The Capture of Senegal took place in 1758 when a British military expedition landed and captured the French settlement of Saint-Louis, Senegal during the Seven Years War.-Background:...
as part of the Seven Years' War
Great Britain in the Seven Years War
The Kingdom of Great Britain was one of the major participants in the Seven Years' War which lasted between 1756 and 1763. Britain emerged from the war as the world's leading colonial power having gained a number of new territories at the Treaty of Paris in 1763 and established itself as the...
, but was later returned to France. It was only in the 1850s that the French, under the governor, Louis Faidherbe
Louis Faidherbe
Louis Léon César Faidherbe was a French general and colonial administrator. He created the Senegalese Tirailleurs when he was governor of Senegal.- Background :...
, began to expand their foothold onto the Senegalese mainland, at the expense of the native kingdoms.
Independence
French Sudan
French Sudan was a colony in French West Africa that had two separate periods of existence, first from 1890 to 1899, then from 1920 to 1960, when the territory became the independent nation of Mali.-Colonial establishment:...
merged to form the Mali Federation
Mali Federation
The Mali Federation was a country in West Africa. It was formed by a union between Senegal and the Sudanese Republic...
, which became fully independent on 20 June 1960, as a result of the independence and the transfer of power agreement signed with France on 4 April 1960. Due to internal political difficulties, the Federation broke up on 20 August 1960. Senegal and Soudan (renamed the Republic of Mali
Mali
Mali , officially the Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in Western Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Its size is just over 1,240,000 km² with...
) proclaimed independence. Léopold Senghor, internationally known poet, politician, and statesman, was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960.
The 1960s and early 70s saw the continued and persistent violationg of Senegal's borders by the Portugese military from Portuguese Guinea
Portuguese Guinea
Portuguese Guinea was the name for what is today Guinea-Bissau from 1446 to September 10, 1974.-History:...
. In response, Senegal petitioned the United Nations Security Council
United Nations Security Council
The United Nations Security Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of...
in in 1963
United Nations Security Council Resolution 178
United Nations Security Council Resolution 178, adopted unanimously on April 24, 1963, after hearing of violations of Senegalese territory by Portuguese military forces from Portuguese Guinea, the Council deplored the incident at Bouniak as well as any incursion by the Portuguese and requested that...
, 1965
United Nations Security Council Resolution 204
United Nations Security Council Resolution 204, adopted unanimously on May 19, 1965, after a complaint by Senegal against Portugal, the Council deplored incursions by the Portuguese Armed Forces into Senegalese territory and requested that they take whatever measures necessary to assure Senegal's...
, 1969
United Nations Security Council Resolution 204
United Nations Security Council Resolution 204, adopted unanimously on May 19, 1965, after a complaint by Senegal against Portugal, the Council deplored incursions by the Portuguese Armed Forces into Senegalese territory and requested that they take whatever measures necessary to assure Senegal's...
(in response to shelling by Portugese artillery), 1971
United Nations Security Council Resolution 294
United Nations Security Council Resolution 294, adopted on July 15, 1971, disturbed by the longstanding Portuguese violations of Senegalese territory and the recent laying of mines inside that nation which was giving shelter to independentist guerrillas of PAIGC, during the Portuguese Colonial War...
and finally in 1972
United Nations Security Council Resolution 321
United Nations Security Council Resolution 321, adopted on October 23, 1972, after reaffirming previous resolutions, the Council expressed its concern that Portugal persistently refused to comply with them. The Council attacked the latest cross-border action by the Portuguese army against...
.
After the breakup of the Mali Federation, President Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia
Mamadou Dia
Mamadou Dia was a Senegalese politician who served as the first Prime Minister of Senegal from 1957 until 1962, when he was forced to resign and was subsequently imprisoned amidst allegations that he was planning to stage a military coup to overthrow President Léopold Sédar Senghor.- Biography...
governed together under a parliamentary system. In December 1962, their political rivalry led to an attempted coup by Prime Minister Dia. The coup was put down without bloodshed and Dia was arrested and imprisoned. Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President’s power.
Senghor was considerably more tolerant of opposition than most African regimes became in the 1960s. Nonetheless, political activity was somewhat restricted for a time. Senghor's party, the Senegalese Progressive Union (now the Socialist Party of Senegal
Socialist Party of Senegal
The Socialist Party of Senegal is a political party in Senegal. It was the ruling party in Senegal from independence in 1960 until 2000. Ousmane Tanor Dieng has been the First Secretary of the party since 1996...
, was the only legally permitted party until 1973.
In 1980, President Senghor retired from politics, and handed power over to his handpicked successor, Abdou Diouf
Abdou Diouf
Abdou Diouf was the second President of Senegal, serving from 1981 to 2000. Diouf is notable both for coming to power by peaceful succession, and leaving willingly after losing the 2000 presidential election to Abdoulaye Wade...
, in 1981.
1980–2006
Senegal joined with The GambiaThe Gambia
The Republic of The Gambia, commonly referred to as The Gambia, or Gambia , is a country in West Africa. Gambia is the smallest country on mainland Africa, surrounded by Senegal except for a short coastline on the Atlantic Ocean in the west....
to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia
Sénégambia Confederation
Senegambia, officially the Senegambia Confederation, was a loose confederation between the West African countries of Senegal and its neighbour the Gambia, which is almost completely surrounded by Senegal. The confederation came into existence on 1 February 1982 following an agreement between the...
on 1 February 1982. However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was never carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a southern separatist group in the Casamance
Casamance
Casamance is the area of Senegal south of The Gambia including the Casamance River. It consists of Basse Casamance and Haute Casamance...
region has clashed sporadically with government forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history of participating in international peacekeeping.
Abdou Diouf was president between 1981 and 2000. He encouraged broader political participation, reduced government involvement in the economy, and widened Senegal's diplomatic engagements, particularly with other developing nations. Domestic politics on occasion spilled over into street violence, border tensions, and a violent separatist movement in the southern region of the Casamance
Casamance
Casamance is the area of Senegal south of The Gambia including the Casamance River. It consists of Basse Casamance and Haute Casamance...
. Nevertheless, Senegal's commitment to democracy and human rights has strengthened over time. Diouf served four terms as President. In the presidential election of 2000, he was defeated in a free and fair election by opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade
Abdoulaye Wade
Abdoulaye Wade is the third and current President of Senegal, in office since 2000. He is also the Secretary-General of the Senegalese Democratic Party and has led the party since it was founded in 1974...
. Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power, and its first from one political party to another.
On 30 December 2004 President Abdoulaye Wade
Abdoulaye Wade
Abdoulaye Wade is the third and current President of Senegal, in office since 2000. He is also the Secretary-General of the Senegalese Democratic Party and has led the party since it was founded in 1974...
announced that he would sign a peace treaty with two separatist factions of the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance
Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance
The Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance is the main separatist movement in the Casamance region of Senegal, founded in 1982. It was supported by Guinea-Bissau President João Bernardo Vieira until he was overthrown in 1999. It relies mainly on the Diola ethnic group...
(MFDC) in the Casamance
Casamance
Casamance is the area of Senegal south of The Gambia including the Casamance River. It consists of Basse Casamance and Haute Casamance...
region. This will end West Africa's longest-running civil conflict. As of late 2006, it seemed the peace treaty was holding, as both factions and the Senegalese military appeared to honor the treaty. With recognized prospects for peace, refugees began returning home from neighboring Guinea-Bissau
Guinea-Bissau
The Republic of Guinea-Bissau is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Senegal to the north, and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west....
. However, at the beginning of 2007, refugees began fleeing again, as the sight of Senegalese troops rekindled fears of a new outbreak of violence between the separatists and the government.
See also
- History of AfricaHistory of AfricaThe history of Africa begins with the prehistory of Africa and the emergence of Homo sapiens in East Africa, continuing into the present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states. Agriculture began about 10,000 BCE and metallurgy in about 4000 BCE. The history of early...
- History of West AfricaHistory of West AfricaThe partial history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods:#Its prehistory, in which the first human settlers arrived, agriculture developed, and contact made with the Mediterranean civilizations to the north....
- Government of Senegal
- Prime Minister of SenegalPrime Minister of SenegalThe Prime Minister of Senegal is the head of government of Senegal. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of Senegal, who is directly elected for a five year term. The Prime Minister, in turn, appoints the Senegalese cabinet, after consultation with the President.This is a list of the...
- List of Presidents of Senegal
- Politics of SenegalPolitics of SenegalPolitics in Senegal takes place within the framework of a semi-presidential, democratic republic. The President of Senegal is the head of state and the Prime Minister of Senegal the head of government. However, executive power in Senegal is concentrated in the president's hands...
Primary Sources
- Michel AdansonMichel AdansonMichel Adanson was a French naturalist of Scottish descent.Adanson was born at Aix-en-Provence. His family moved to Paris on 1730. After leaving the College Sainte Barbe he was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Reaumur and Bernard de Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes. At the end of...
, Histoire naturelle du Sénégal. Coquillages. Avec la relation abrégée d’un voyage fait en ce pays pendant les années 1749, 50, 51, 52 et 53, Paris, 1757, réédité partiellement sous le titre Voyage au Sénégal, présenté et annoté par Denis Reynaud et Jean Schmidt, Publications de l'Université de Saint-Etienne, 1996. - Stanislas, chevalier de BoufflersStanislas de BoufflersStanislas Jean, chevalier de Boufflers was a French statesman and writer.-Biography:He was born near Nancy, Meurthe-et-Moselle, the son of Louis Franois, marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie Catherine de Beauveau Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski, and the boy was brought up at...
, Lettres d’Afrique à Madame de Sabran, préface, notes et dossier de François Bessire, s. l. , Babel, 1998, 453 pages (coll. Les Épistolaires) - Marie Brantôme, Le Galant exil du marquis de Boufflers, 1786
- Jean Baptiste Léonard Durand, Voyage au Sénégal 1785–1786, Paris, Agasse, 1802.
- Georges Hardy, La mise en valeur du Sénégal de 1817 à 1854, Paris, Larose, 1921, XXXIV + 376 pages (Thèse de Lettres)
- André Charles, marquis de La Jaille, Voyage au Sénégal pendant les années 1784 et 1785, avec des notes jusqu’à l’an X par P. Labarthe, Paris, Denter,1802.
- Saugnier, Relation des voyages de Saugnier à la côte d’Afrique, au Maroc, au Sénégal, à Gorée, à Galam, publiée par Laborde, Paris, Lamy, 1799.
- René Claude Geoffroy de Villeneuve, L’Afrique ou Histoire, mœurs, usages et coutumes des Africains : le Sénégal, orné de 44 planches exécutées la plupart d’après des dessins originaux inédits faits sur les lieux, Paris, Nepveu,1814.
Secondary Sources
Ailsa Auchnie, "The commandement indigène" in Senegal. 1919–1947, Londres, SOAS, 1983, 405 pages (Thèse) H. Oludare Idowu, The Conseil General in Senegal, 1879–1920, Ibadan, University of Ibadan, 1970 (Thèse) Conley Barrows Leland, Général Faidherbe, the Maurel and Prom Company, and French Expansion in Senegal, University of California, Los Angeles, 1974, XXI-t.1, pp. 1–519 ; t.2, pages 520–976, (thèse) David Wallace Robinson Jr, Faidherbe, Senegal and Islam, New York, Columbia University, 1965, 104 pages (thèse) Rodolphe Alexandre, La Révolte des tirailleurs sénégalais à Cayenne, 24–25 février 1946, 1995, 160 pages ISBN 2-7384-3330-8 Jean-Luc Angrand, Céleste ou le temps des signares, Éditions Anne Pépin, 2006 Boubacar Barry, La Sénégambie du XVe au XIXe siècle. Traite négrière, Islam et conquête coloniale, Paris, L'Harmattan, 1991 (rééd.), 544 pages ISBN 2-85802-670-X Boubacar Barry, Le Royaume du Waalo : le Sénégal avant la Conquête, Karthala, 2000 (rééd.), 420 pages ISBN 2-86537-141-7 Abdoulaye BathilyAbdoulaye Bathily
Abdoulaye Bathily is a Senegalese politician and the Secretary-General of the Democratic League/Movement for the Labour Party .-Biography:Bathily was born in Tiyabu in Bakel Department...
, Les Portes de l'or : le royaume de Galam (Sénégal) de l'ère musulmane au temps des négriers (VIIIe-XVIIIe siècles), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1989. Claire Bernard, Les Aménagements du bassin fleuve Sénégal pendant la colonisation française (1850–1960), ANRT, 1996, ISBN 2-284-00077-0 Germaine Françoise Bocandé, L’implantation militaire française dans la région du Cap-Vert : causes, problèmes et conséquences des origines à 1900, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1980, 112 pages (Mémoire de Maîtrise) Jean Boulègue, Le Grand Jolof : XIIIe-XVIe siècles, les Anciens royaumes Wolof, t. 1, Karthala, 1987, 207 pages Paul Bouteiller, Le Chevalier de Boufflers et le Sénégal de son temps (1785–1788), Lettres du Monde, Paris, 1995. Bruno A. Chavane, Villages de l'ancien Tekrour : recherches archéologiques dans la moyenne vallée du fleuve Sénégal, Karthala-CRA, 2000 (rééd.) Sékéné Mody Cissoko, Le Khasso face à l’empire Toucouleur et à la France dans le Haut- Sénégal 1854–1890, Paris, L'Harmattan
Harmattan
The Harmattan is a dry and dusty West African trade wind. It blows south from the Sahara into the Gulf of Guinea between the end of November and the middle of March...
, 1988, 351 pages ISBN 2-7384-0133-3 Catherine Clément
Catherine Clément
Catherine Clément is a prominent French philosopher, novelist, feminist, and literary critic. She received a degree in philosophy from the prestigious Ecole Normale Supérieure, and studied under such luminaries as Claude Lévi-Strauss and Jacques Lacan, working in the fields of anthropology and...
, Afrique esclave, Agnès Vienot, 1999, 200 pages ISBN 2-911606-36-1 Cyr Descamps, Contribution à la préhistoire de l’Ouest-sénégalais, Paris, Université de Paris, 1972, 345 pages (Thèse de 3e cycle publiée en 1979, Dakar, Travaux et Documents Faculté des Lettres : 286 pages Falilou Diallo, Histoire du Sénégal : de la conférence de Brazzaville à la fondation du bloc démocratique sénégalais : 1944–1948, Paris, Université de Paris I, 1983, 318 pages (Thèse de 3rd cycle) Papa Momar Diop, Les administrateurs coloniaux au Sénégal. 1900–1914, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1985, 107 pages (Mémoire de Maîtrise) Mamadou Diouf
Mamadou Diouf
For the Poland-based Senegalese musician, see Mamadou Diouf Mamadou Diouf is a professor of Western African history at Columbia University, where he has also serves as director of the Institute of African Studies at SIPA and has been instrumental in its recent reorganization. Diouf holds a Ph.D....
, Le Kajoor au XIXe, Karthala, 1989 Mamadou Diouf, Le Sénégal sous Abdou Diouf, Karthala, 1990 Mamadou Diouf, Une histoire du Sénégal : le modèle islamo-wolof et ses périphéries, Paris, Maisonneuve & Larose, 2001, 250 pages ISBN 2-7068-1503-5 Babacar Fall, Le Travail forcé en Afrique Occidentale Française (1900–1946), Karthala, 2000, 336 pages ISBN 2-86537-372-X Denys Ferrando-Durfort, Lat Dior le résistant, Paris : Chiron, 1989. – 45 pages ISBN 2-7027-0403-4 Jean Girard, L'Or du Bambouk : du royaume de Gabou à la Casamance une dynamique de civilisation ouest-africaine, Genève, Georg, 1992, 347 pages Bernard Grosbellet, Le Moniteur du Sénégal et dépendances comme sources de l’histoire du Sénégal pendant le premier gouvernement de Faidherbe (1856–1861), Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1967, 113 pages (Diplôme d’Etudes Supérieures) Gerti Hesseling, Histoire politique du Sénégal : institutions, droit et société (traduction Catherine Miginiac), Karthala, 2000, 437 pages ISBN 2-86537-118-2 Abdoulaye Ly, La Compagnie du Sénégal, Karthala, 2000, 448 pages ISBN 2-86537-406-8 Mahamadou Maiga, Le Bassin du fleuve Sénégal – De la traite négrière au développement, Paris, L’Harmattan, 1995, 330 pages ISBN 2-7384-3093-7 Laurence Marfaing, Évolution du commerce au Sénégal : 1820–1930, Paris, L’Harmattan, 1991, 320 pages ISBN 2-7384-1195-9 Saliou Mbaye, Le Conseil privé du Sénégal de 1819 à 1854, Paris, Université de Paris, 1974, 431 pages (Thèse de l’École des Chartes) Djibril Tamsir Niane
Djibril Tamsir Niane
Djibril Tamsir Niane is a historian, playwright, and short story writer, born in Conakry, Guinea. His secondary education was in Senegal and his degree from the University of Bordeaux. He is an honorary professor of Howard University and the University of Tokyo...
, Soundjata ou l'épopée Mandingue, Présence africaine
Présence Africaine
Présence africaine is a panafrican quarterly cultural, political, and literary magazine, published in Paris and founded by Alioune Diop in 1947. In 1949, Présence africaine expanded to include a publishing house and a bookstore on the rue des Écoles in the Latin Quarter of Paris...
, 2000 (rééd.) 160 pages ISBN 2-7087-0078-2 Jean-Pierre Phan, Le Front Populaire au Sénégal (1936–1938), Paris, Université de Paris I, 1974, 176 pages (Mémoire de Maîtrise) Christian Roche, Histoire de la Casamance : Conquête et résistance 1850–1920, Karthala, 2000, 408 pages ISBN 2-86537-125-5 Christian Roche, Le Sénégal à la conquête de son indépendance, 1939–1960. Chronique de la vie politique et syndicale, de l’Empire français à l’Indépendance, Paris, Karthala, 2001, 286 pages Yves-Jean Saint-Martin, Une source de l’histoire coloniale du Sénégal. Les rapports de situation politique (1874–1891), Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1964, 147 pages (Dipôme d’Etudes Supérieures) Yves-Jean Saint-Martin, La formation territoriale de la colonie du Sénégal sous le Second Empire 1850–1871, Nantes, Université de Nantes, 1980, 2 vol. 1096 pages (Thèse d’État) Yves-Jean Saint-Martin, Le Sénégal sous le Second Empire, Karthala, 2000, 680 pages ISBN 2-86537-201-4 H. Y. Sanchez-Calzadilla, A l’origine de l’expansion française, la commission des comptoirs du Sénégal, Paris, Université de Paris I, 1973 (Mémoire de Maîtrise) Alain Sinou, Comptoirs et villes coloniales du Sénégal : Saint-Louis, Gorée, Dakar, Karthala, 1999, 344 pages ISBN 2-86537-393-2 Charles Uyisenga, La participation de la colonie du Sénégal à l’effort de guerre 1914–1918, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1978, 216 pages (Mémoire de Maîtrise) Nicole Vaget Grangeat, Le Chevalier de Boufflers et son temps, étude d'un échec, Paris, Nizet, 1976 Baïla Wane, Le Conseil colonial du Sénégal, 1920–1946, Paris, Université de Paris VII, 1978, 20 pages (Diplôme d’Études Approfondies).
External links
- VIIe Colloque euroafricain Aline Robert – Les sources écrites européennes du XVe au XIXe s : un apport complémentaire pour la connaissance du passé africain
- Uniformes des tirailleurs sénégalais