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History of Portugal (1777–1834)
Encyclopedia
The history of Portugal
from the beginning of Queen Maria I's
reign in 1777, to the end of the Liberal Wars
in 1834, spans a complex historic period in which several important political and military events led to the end of the absolutist regime and to the installation of a constitutional monarchy
in the country.
In 1807, Napoleon ordered the invasion of Portugal and subsequently the Royal Family migrated to Brazil
. This would be one of the causes for the declaration of Brazilian independence by Peter I of Brazil
in 1822, following a liberal revolution in Portugal.
The liberal period was stormy and short as Prince Michael of Portugal (Peter's brother) supported an absolutist revolution endeavoring to restore all power to the monarchy. Peter would eventually return to Portugal and fight and defeat his brother in the Liberal Wars
in which liberalism
was completely installed and Portugal became a constitutional monarchy.
The death of King Joseph in 1777 forced the accession of Infanta Maria Francisca
, his eldest daughter, to the throne of Portugal; she succeeded her father as the first Queen regnant
of the 650-year-old country, which was still recovering from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake
. Queen Maria and her husband, the Infante D. Pedro, lived on the sidelines of politics, but were clearly unsympathetic to her father's former Prime Minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo
, the Marquis of Pombal, who had been the de facto ruler of the Kingdom for the past 27 years. During her father's last few years, she had been the Marquis' fiercest detractor; once in power, she eagerly dismissed him and then exiled him to Pombal.
But the Queen maintained many of the Marquis' other ministers, restored many of the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and released many of Pombal's political prisoners. The economy was reorganized and Pombalinan monopolies were abandoned. However, international conditions favored the economic situation in Portugal; the balance of trade was positive, helped by wine exports and a decrease of English imports. The period was, while tainted by political instability, a time of cultural renovation, marked by the completion of the Palace at Queluz
, the beginnings of the Ajuda Palace
, the São Carlos Theatre
, the Estrela Basilica
and the immense Convent of Santa Clara in Vila do Conde.
In 1789, the French Revolution
caused upheaval in Europe. The Portuguese reaction was to land forces in Catalonia
, and with a small garrison of Spanish
attacked the French
in the Pyrenees
in 1794 (Rossilhão campaign). The battle did not go well, and by 1795, Spain had privately sued for peace, signed an alliance and aligned its external politics against England
. Even as Portugal was politically divided between continuing its old alliance with Britain, its people were also split. The French Revolution, as seen by intellectuals and progressives, was romanticized: Bocage, and the partido francês believed the French could usher in a liberal revolution. To traditionalists, the French were a threat, to a nobility returning to prominence, and they were very willing to fight them externally or internally.
It was at about this time that Queen Maria, who suffering from religious mania and melancholia
, began to show signs of mental illness. When she was incapable of handling state affairs (after 1799), her son, Infante John of Braganza
, began to use the title of Prince-Regent
. But, the adversaries of France, did not look to John, but rather his wife D. Carlota Joaquina to support the traditionalists, who at one point attempted a coup against the Prince.
, Portugal's traditional ally England and the demands of the merchant classes who wanted peace and were prospering economically between the two powers. Meanwhile, Spain a former ally had signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso
, was under pressure from France to coerce Portugal, even if it meant invasion. Although Manuel de Godoy was initially hesitant about invading Portugal, due to the Royal Families' relations in either country, the French remained anxious to break the Anglo-Portuguese alliance
in order to close Portuguese ports to British shipping.
demanding that Portugal:
If Portugal failed to accomplish the five provisions of this ultimatum, it would be invaded by Spain, supported by 15,000 French soldiers. The English, could not promise any effective, even as the Prince John
appealed to Hookham Frere
, who arrived in November 1800. In February, the terms were delivered to the Prince-Regent, but, although a negotiator was sent to Madrid, war was declared. At the time, Portugal had a poorly-trained army, with less than 8000 cavalry and 46000 infantry troops. Its military commander, João Carlos de Bragança e Ligne (2nd Duke of Lafões
), who contracted Prussia
n General, von Goltz, had barely raised 2000 horse and 16000 troops. Spanish Prime Minister, and Commander-in-Chief, Manuel de Godoy
had some 30,000 troops, and the French, under General Charles Leclerc
(Napoleon's brother-in-law), who would arrive in Spain too late to assist Godoy, could provide additional troops.
On May 20, Godoy finally entered Portugal; it was a precursor of the Peninsular War
that would engulf the Iberian Peninsula
. The Spanish army quickly penetrated the Alentejo, in southern Portugal, and occupied Olivenza
, Juromenha
, Arronches
, Portalegre, Castelo de Vide, Barbacena
and Ouguela without resistance, while in Campo Maior
and Elvas there were more pitched conflicts. Finally in Elvas, Godoy celebrating his generalship in the conflict, plucked two oranges from a tree and immediately sent them to the Queen Maria Luisa
of Spain, mother of Carlota Joaquina and supposedly his lover, with the message:
This act, gave origin to the name War of the Oranges.The conflict would quickly end by negotiations, at the Treaty of Badajoz
on June 6, when the defeated and demoralized Portuguese were forced to accept the tenants of the 1801 ultimatum. As part of the peace, Portugal recovered all of the strongholds previously conquered by the Spanish, with the exception of Olivenza, other territories on the eastern margin of the Guadiana
, and the prohibition of contraband near the borders of the two countries. The treaty was ratified by the Prince-Regent on 14 June, while the King of Spain promulgated the treaty on 21 June. Yet, the Treaty was costly: in addition to the five points, Portugal was required to pay indemnities of 25 million francs and surrender lands north of Brazil to France. This treaty was initially rejected by Napoleon, who wanted the partition of Portugal, but accepted once he concluded peace with England at Amiens
.
ns, he once again looked to the problem of English resistance, who had broke the peace in 1803 to challenge the Continental system
imposed by the French. Once again, Portuguese ports were ordered closed to British shipping, but after a tentative of neutrality, the Portuguese reluctantly succumbed to French demands and declared war on England. But time was up: Napoleon had realized that Portugal impeded his desire for reform in Europe.
On 27 October 1807, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau
which would partition Portugal. In this pact, Northern Lusitania
, a territory between the Minho
and Douro
rivers would be a governing principality of the sovereign of the extinct Kingdom of Etruria
(then Maria Luisa, daughter of Charles IV of Spain
). The Algarve and all Portuguese territory located south of the Tagus
would be governed by Manuel de Godoy
, who would be compensated for his role in bringing the Spanish onside with France. The rest of Portugal, the area between the Douro and the Tagus, a strategic region because of its ports, would be administered by the central government in France until general peace. As for its colonial possessions, including Brazil, they would be divided between Spain and France.
By the end of the year, a French battalion, commanded by General Jean-Andoche Junot
, entered Portugal. Ironically, their arrival was preceded by the newspaper O Monitor, which was presented to the Prince-Regent by the English ambassador, informing him of Napoleon's plan to conquer Portugal.
On 27 November 1807, the Prince-Regent, Queen and the entire Royal Family boarded ships concentrated on the Tagus, accompanied by many rich merchants, the administration, judges and servants, on fifteen ships and escorted by English ships. Approximately 10,000 people, including the entire governmental apparatus, joined the Royal Family as they moved to Brazil: the country had recently been elevated to Kingdom of Brazil
, a de facto colonial possession of Portugal, establishing the capital of the Portuguese Empire in Rio de Janeiro
.
General Jean-Andoche Junot
and his troops had entered Spain on 18 October 1807 and had crossed the peninsula
to reach the Portuguese border on 20 November. Junot encountered no resistance and reached Abrantes
by 24 November, Santarém
on 28 November, and the Portuguese capital
at the end of the month, arriving a day after the Court
had fled to Brazil. Before the Prince-Regent departed, he left orders with the Regency Junta
to greet the French in peace. Once he arrived, Junot promoted himself as a reformer, in Portugal to liberate the oppressed, promising progress, the construction of roads and canals, efficient administration, clean finances, assistance and schools for the poor. But, Junot set about removing the vestiges of the Portuguese monarchy, declaring that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign in Portugal, suspending the Council of Regency, the Portuguese militia suppressed, officers billeted in the richest houses and the treasury plundered for the continuing French reparations. Meanwhile 50,000 Spanish and French troops roamed the countryside arresting, killing, plundering and raping.
By 1808, as Junot was busy redesigning Portuguese society, Napoleon decided to revise his alliance with Spain, forced the abdication of Charles IV of Spain, and his son, and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte
as King. A popular uprising in Spain immediately spread to Junot's forces, which were accompanied by Spanish troops. It further instigated a popular uprising by the Portuguese that was brutally put-down, after minor successes.
The following year, an English force commanded by Arthur Wellesley
(future Duke of Wellington) disembarked in Galiza with the intent of supporting the Spanish, but later advanced on Oporto and disembarked at Figueira da Foz on 1 August. Quickly the English advanced on the French, defeating them at the Battle of Roliça
(17 August) and later the Battle of Vimeiro
(21 August). A two-day armistice was held as negotiations proceeded, and the belligerents formally signed the Convention of Sintra
(30 August), without Portuguese representation. As part of the accord, the English transported the French troops to France, with the product of sacks made in Portugal. The Convention benefited both sides: Junot's armies, incapable of communicating with France, could make a safe getaway; and the Anglo-Portuguese forces gained control over Lisbon. The Portguese populace was left to avenge itself on francophile
compatriots for their brutality and depredations.
As Napoleon began dealing with Spanish in earnest, he sent Marshall Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult
to re-occupy Portugal. As word spread of the abdication of the Spanish Royal family, many of Spaniards revolted, gaining support from the English stationed in Portugal. Under the command of John Moore
, English forces crossed the northern Portuguese border but were defeated at A Coruña
by Marshal Soult, and were forced to retreat in the middle of January. The French immediately occupied northern Portugal and advanced on Oporto by 24 March.
Unlike the first invasion, there was a popular revolt against French occupation by farmers, merchants and the poor, that almost border on zeal. Many of the citizen soldiers and farmers fought against the French aggression, going so far as to see tactical retreats as a betrayal or treason by the Portuguese officers.
But, Soult occupied Chaves on 12 March, a defense of Braga was unsuccessful and the French cavalry forced entry into Oporto by 29 March. Soult forces encountered a popular resistance in Oporto, that included militia and local residents whom barricaded the streets. But, Pinto de Fonseca recovered Chaves and ultimately, it was Wellesley, again, who expelled the French from the north of the country. He was aided by William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford
and supported by a stronger Portuguese contingent, trained, equipped and command by British officers. The Anglo-Portuguese forces defeated Soult at the Battle of Douro, re-conquering the city of Oporto on 29 May, and forcing the French retreat to Galicia. Wellesley intended to pursue the French, but with French forces crossing from the Spanish Extremadura
, he moved his base to Abrantes. From here his forces then marched up the Tagus valley, entered Spain and won the victory at Talavera, after which he was made Duke of Wellington. He could not penetrate further, owing to Soult's forces joining Victor
, to bar the way to Madrid, and so withdrew to Torres Vedras
to plan for the defense against a third invasion by the French.
The third invasion, the last effort of the Peninsular War
on Portuguese soil, was commanded by Marshall André Massena
, and divided into three parts under Jean Reynier
, Claude-Victor Perrin and Jean-Andoche Junot
, and comprised 62,000 men and 84 canon. Entering by way of Beira
in August, they quickly defeated the defenders in the Fort of Almeida in August, then marched in the direction of Lisbon. Against the wishes of his council, Messena attacked the Anglo-Portuguese forces on 26 September in Buçaco
, losing 4500 troops. Yet, Wellsely
's forces withdrew in front of the oncoming French, until his troops entered the prepared positions in Torres Vedras
.
But, the French were impeded along the Lines of Torres Vedras
, a system of 152 fortifications north of Lisbon, planned by Wellington, supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Fletcher constructed by Portuguese laborers, manned by 40,000 Portuguese troops and members of the local population. Marshal Massena and his forces reached the lines by 14 October, but were unable to penetrate the defenses, and he was forced to retreat in April 1811. Supplies were running low, and Massena sent a request to Bonaparte for new instructions, but was compelled to withdraw before the instructions arrived, and he retreated to Santarém
. Although Napoleon finally sent Soult, it was too late for Massena, who could not hold Santarém and withdrew towards Coimbra
by March 6. Successively, the French were defeated in several smaller battles: the Battle of Sabugal
, Fuentes de Onoro
, Battle of Condeixa, Battle of Casal Novo
, and the Battle of Foz d'Arunce, in addition to Michel Ney
's rear-guard action at the Battle of Pombal
. With winter quickly approaching, his forces starving, they were again defeated at the Battle of Redinha
and with Anglo-Portuguese forces in pursuit, Massena crossed the border into Spain; the War would continue until March 1814, but not on Portuguese territory.
A series of battles in Spain followed, until a final victory was reached in Toulouse
on April 10, 1814, putting a end to the Peninsular War. However, in numerous coastal, interior and border towns there were bodies bayoneted and left on the ground; several frontier towns were pillaged and ransacked for treasure or vandalized by retreating troops (both English and French); reprisal killings were common in the local populations for sympathizers (the total number of casualties in the war reached 100,000 by one account); while famine and social deprivation was common.
Meanwhile, in the Kingdom of Brazil, Portugal was successful in capturing French Guiana
and Uruguay
. Furthermore, the instability in Spain and the abdication of the king, resulted in declarations of independence in the Spanish colonies of America
, which in turn was responsible for a tense political climate in Brazil.
Between 1808 and 1821, Portugal was both an English protectorate
and a colony of Brazil, as the Crown
remained in Rio de Janeiro
. The moving of the Portuguese capital to Rio de Janeiro
had accentuated the economic, institutional and social crises in mainland Portugal, which was administered by English commercial and military interests, under William Beresford's rule, in the absence of the monarch. The aftermath of the War
, influences from both American and French Revolutions, a discontent for absolutism, and a general indifference shown by the Portuguese Regency for the plight of its people, strengthened liberal ideals
.
At the end of the Peninsular War
, the government of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves returned French Guiana
to France on 30 May 1814, and was given an indemnity of two million franc
s. Brazil's new importance aggravated the situation in continental Portugal: politically it became the Portuguese capital (shedding the pretext of colony), and economically, the former colony was now able to trade directly with other European powers (28 January 1808). But, even after 1807, the limitations and subordinations inherent in Brazil's colonial status were being chipped-away: the prohibition on transformative industries was rescinded, incentives for the creation of factories, the importation of English machinery, the establishment of Commerce Commissions, exchanges and money-houses, the formation of the Bank of Brazil, insurance companies, shipping construction, road building, the formation and construction of public schools and the military academies. This damaged Portugal's commercial interests and exaggerated social conditions, while benefiting the United Kingdom (as the country was governed by William Beresford
in the absence of the Cortes).
A report was sent on 2 June 1820, from the Regency to John VI, stating:
Its neighbor Spain, during its Napoleonic resistance had approved a liberal Constitution, when King Ferdinand VII was in-exile, but quickly it was abrogated on his return, and he reigned as absolute monarch. But, the Spanish model also served as an example for the Portuguese: a popular uprising in the provinces against absolutism, forced the Spanish monarch to reinstate the 1820 Constitutional monarchy.
The events in Spain were not lost on a small group of Portuense politically like-minded bourgeoisie
; two years earlier, Manuel Fernandes Tomás, José Ferreira Borges, José da Silva Carvalho and João Ferreira Viana, had founded the Sinédrio, a liberal
clandestine group whom debated the political evolution of Spain and Portugal, and that would influence subsequent events. The Sinédrio's members were a mix of merchants, property-owners, the military and noblemen, and whose liberalism was not based on economic circumstances but international literature and philosophies consumed during university or in the masonic
lodges. The common people were rural, almost totally illiterate and lived in a culture of tradition and religion, guided by the clergy. The difference between the idealogues, the doctrinairism of the liberal movement and dogma of religion would bring the two groups into conflict eventually. But, for now, the liberal intellectuals would influence soldiers in the Northern garrisons on 24 August 1820, beginning in Oporto, to proclaim a revolution against the absolute monarchy of Portugal; a colonel read out the "peoples" declaration:
The Regency in Lisbon attempted to gather forces to oppose the revolt, but on 15 September they too joined the movement.
Quickly, the administration of William Beresford was replaced by a Provisional Junta, and the General Extraordinary and Constituent Cortes of the Portuguese Nation were summoned, on 1 January 1821, whose deputies were filled from indirect election to draft a written Constitution
. The roles of the constituent assembly were filled with doctrinaires or diplomats, many were merchants or agrarian burghers, University-educated representatives were usually lawyers, but mostly ideological romantics, that would later come to be referred to as Vintistas, for the audacious and ideological radicalism. Press and book censorship
and the Inquisition
were lifted, and an amnesty to those involved in anti-liberal movements was ordered. On 26 April 1821, John VI departed for Lisbon, arriving on 3 July of the same year, and communicated to the Cortes the establishment of a Regency in Brazil in the name of his heir-apparent, Prince Peter. The deputies did not recognize the King's authority to designate Regents, nor supported the Bragança Agreement, that Prince Peter should take the Crown if Brazil came to be independent.
Talk of separatism had dominated the economic and intellectual circles of Brazil. With a population of 3 .5 million, all of it Portuguese and economically prosperous, the opinion had become whether Brazil should return to being a colony of Portugal, but whether the reverse should be the case. While most Portuguese-born believed in one united empire, most local politicians and natives aspired for some form of independence. Everything indicates that, irrelevant of the evolution Portuguese politics, Brazil would have proclaimed independence after the return of King John VI to Portugal. But, its separation arose from the conflict between the Regency of Prince Peter and Portuguese Cortes.
In September 1821, the Portuguese Cortes, with a handful of the Brazilian delegates present, voted to abolish the Kingdom of Brazil and the royal agencies in Rio de Janeiro
, thus subordinating all provinces of Brazil directly to Lisbon
. Troops were sent to Brazil to muzzle resistance, and local units were placed under Portuguese command. On 29 September, the Cortes ordered the return of Prince Peter to Europe (in order to initiate a voyage of study in Spain, France and England), but governmental junta in São Paulo
, as well as the Senate Chamber of Rio de Janeiro implored the Prince to remain. He was moved by petitions from Brazilian towns and fears that his departure, and the dismantling of the central government, would trigger separatist movements.
Peter formed a new government headed by José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva
, a former royal official and professor of science at the University of Coimbra, was a formative figure in Brazilian nationalism
, indeed, the "Patriarch of Independence". Following Prince Peter's decision to defy the Cortes, Portuguese troops rioted then concentrated in the area of Mount Castello, which was soon surrounded by thousands of armed Brazilians. Peter "dismissed" the Portuguese commanding general, General Jorge Avilez, and ordered him to remove his soldiers across the bay to Niterói
, where they would await transportation to Portugal. Blood was also shed in Recife, Province of Pernambuco
, when the Portuguese garrison was forced to depart in November 1821. In mid-February 1822, Brazilians in Bahia
revolted against the Portuguese forces there, but were driven into the countryside, where they began guerrilla operations, signaling that the struggle in the north would not be without loss of life and property.
Seeking to secure support throughout the country, Peter began a series of initiatives to strengthen his position, even as the Portuguese Cortes ridiculed and diminished his importance. In Minas Gerais
, where there were no Portuguese garrisons stationed, some doubts lingered, especially from the junta of Ouro Preto
. But, with only a few companions and no ceremony or pomp, Peter plunged into Minas Gerais on horseback in late March 1822, receiving enthusiastic welcomes and allegiance everywhere. On 13 May, in Rio de Janeiro
, Peter was proclaimed the "Perpetual Defender of Brazil" by the São Paulo
legislative assembly and he took the opportunity to called for a Constituent Assembly. To deepen his base of support, he joined the freemasons, who, led by José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva
, were pressing for parliamentary government and independence. More confident, in early August he called on the Brazilian deputies in Lisbon to return, decreed that Portuguese forces in Brazil should be treated as enemies, and issued a manifesto to "friendly nations", that read like a declaration of independence. Seeking to duplicate his triumph in Minas Gerais, Peter rode to São Paulo
in August to ensure his support there.
But, returning from an excursion to Santos, Peter received messages from his wife and Andrade e Silva that the Portuguese Cortes had declared his government traitorous, and were dispatching more troops. Peter then had to choose between returning to Portugal in disgrace, or breaking the last ties to Portugal; in a famous scene in front of the Ipiranga River
, on 7 September 1822, he tore the Portuguese white and blue insignia from his uniform, drew his sword, and swore: "By my blood, by my honor, and by God: I will make Brazil free." With this oath, that was repeated by the assembled, he announced: "Brazilians, from this day forward our motto will be...Independence or Death"
had no pretensions to the throne, until his older bother Joseph, Prince of Beira, died from smallpox
(at the age of 27). John lived for hunting and had little interest in public affairs. However, four years later he became Prince Regent
because of Queen Maria I's mental illness, and in 1816, he became King John VI, after the Queen's death while the Royal Family was residing in Rio de Janeiro. In 1821 John VI was forced to return to a country economically and politically unstable, to preside over a recently installed constitutional monarchy. But, there were deep divisions between the returning Royal Court and the Portuguese Cortes that governed the nation. While the upper-class free-thinking Vintistas governed, the new "modern era" was in name only: the condition of the poor prevailed, still pro-monarchist and ultra-religious, but without the power to influence their condition.
The situation in continental Europe changed in 1823. Once again influenced by the events in Spain, where the anti-liberal Santa Aliança had restored the absolute monarchy, pro-monarchist forces gravitated towards the Queen Carlota Joaquina de Borbón. The Queen was very conservative, ambitious and violent, and at the same time despised her husband's politics, manners and nature. While in Brazil, she had attempted to obtain administration of Spanish dominions in Latin America
and was involved in obscure conspiracies regarding the independence of Brazil. The return of the King and Court had emboldened the clergy and nobles who were hostile to the Constitution and parliamentary government.
Prince Miguel, who shared her views, served as the Queen's instrument against the Revolution. On 27 May 1823, the Prince organized an insurgency against the liberal constitution; a garrison from Lisbon joined Miguel in Vila Franca de Xira
, and there absolutism
was proclaimed. The King accepted these facts, suspended the 1822 Constitution and promised the promulgation of a new law to guarantee "personal security, property and jobs". This revolt, was referred to as the Vilafrancada (vilɐfɾɐ̃ˈkaðɐ), for the events that occurred in Vila Franca. But, one of the objectives of the Queen and Miguel was the abdication of King John, who, although accepted absolutism, was loyal to the liberal Constitution. Ultimately, the King had accepted absolutism when a movement of army officers and citizens surrounded the Palace of Bemposta
to urge the King to renounce liberal ideals.
. This second attempt became known as the Abrilada (ɐβɾiˈlaðɐ), after the Portuguese
word for April . However, during the course of his actions, Miguel had offended the sensibilities of the British and French ambassadors, who managed to get King John VI to the British battleship Windsor Castle in Caxias
. There he was made aware of the situation, summoned Miguel, dismissed him from the post of commander-in-chief of the Army, and sent him into exile. On 14 May, John returned to the Palace of Bemposta
and re-established the liberal government. However, a new conspiracy was discovered on October 26 of the same year. Queen Carlota Joaquina accused the liberals of attempting to poison the King, while the others suspected her of having done it herself: this time, Queen Carlota Joaquina was exiled to Queluz
.
In his reign, John promoted the arts (mainly literature), commerce and agriculture, but being forced to return to Europe and following palatial conspiracies aggravated by the independence of Brazil transformed John into an unhappy man, and he died soon after the Abrilada in 1826. It was also at the end of his life, that he recognized the independence of Brazil (15 November 1825) and restored his son Peter's right to the Portuguese throne. Before his death, he named a Regency Junta headed by the Infanta Isabel Maria, to govern the country between his death and the acclamation of a future king.
The death of King John VI created a constitutional problem, as his rightful successor, Prince Peter, was the Emperor of Brazil. To absolutists, the proclamation of Brazilian independence, created a foreign nation, revoking Peter's citizenship and, therefore, his rights to the throne. Of course, King John had left his daughter Princess Isabel Maria as regent, expecting that Peter would return to Portugal and reunite Brazil with its former colonial power. Prince Miguel, was also, an undesirable option; had been exiled due to several attempts to overthrow his own father, and was supported by the extremist politics of the Queen, who most liberals and moderates feared. Peter accepted the throne of Portugal as King Peter IV, on 10 March 1826, after the regency considered him the legitimate heir to the throne and sent a delegation to offer him the Crown.
In Brazil, Peter faced other challenges in his new-born country; the people clearly did not wish to return to a colonial situation and subservience to the politics and economy of the much smaller Kingdom. The Brazilian constitution prohibited the Emperor from subsuming another crown, and this forced Peter to choose between Portugal or Brazil. Peter, a pragmatic politician, tried to find a solution that would reconcile the desires of the liberal, moderate and absolutists elements in the debate, and eventually chose to abdicate as king of Portugal (28 May 1826) in favour of his eldest daughter Princess Maria da Glória, who was seven years old at the time. However, the abdication was conditional: that Portugal should receive a new Constitution (1826 Charter), and his brother Miguel, exiled in Vienna
was to marry the Princess when she became of age. The Constitution was not popular with the absolutists (who wanted Prince Miguel to govern as an absolute monarch), but the liberal Vintistas also did not support the Charter (which was imposed by the King), whilst moderates slowly watched as a counter-revolution was building.
, becoming Peter's lieutenant and Regent (in order to replace their sister, the Princess Isabel Maria, who was ill). Over the next months, absolutist politicians, clergy and supporters of the Queen Carlota Joaquina, manipulated the events, eventually proclaiming Miguel King of Portugal and deposing Maria da Glória (who had not yet arrived in Portugal). They also annulled the Liberal Constitution, persecuted liberals and their supporters, and attempted to obtain international support for their regime. Thousands of liberal idealists were killed, arrested, or forced to flee to Spain
, England
, the Azores
and Brazil
. This usurpation was followed by demonstrations in support of absolutism and failed revolutions to reinstate liberalism.
Inevitably, this triggered the Liberal Wars
between the supporters of absolutism
, led by Miguel, and of liberalism
. Michael tried to obtain international approval, but failed due to English
pressures, although the United States and Mexico
did recognize his authority. Between 1828 and 1834, forces loyal to liberalism battled the power of Miguel's absolute monarchy. A liberal uprising in Oporto led by exiles Pedro de Sousa Holstein (later 1st Duke of Palmela
), João Carlos Saldanha de Oliveira Daun
(later 1st Duke of Saldanha
) and António José Severim de Noronha
(later Duke of Terceira
), was quickly defeated by Miguel's forces while similar revolts in the Azores and Madeira were similarly defeated (the liberal forces only held onto territory on Terceira).
But things began to change in 1830. In Brazil, a popular opposition to Peter's reign, in the aftermath the dismissal of his several ministers, in the amidst a growing economic crisis, forced the Emperor to abdicate his throne in Brazil in favour of his son, Peter II on 7 April 1831. He then returned to Europe, but found little support from England or France, to obtain the throne and, instead, collected arms, money and mercenaries to install his daughter on the throne. He then departed for Terceira
, in the Azores
, from where his government-in-exile organized an expeditionary force that disembarked in Mindelo
, not far from Oporto, on 8 July 1832.
With the backing of liberals from Spain and England, and substantial Anglo-French contingents, Peter landed near Oporto, which the Miguelist forces abandoned without combat. After fighting the inconclusive Battle of Ponte Ferreira
Oporto was besieged by Miguelite forces, which engaged in sporadic skirmishes. Throughout the year, most of the battles of the Civil War concentrated around Oporto, whose population had whole-heartedly supported Peter's cause. In June 1833, the liberals, still encircled at Oporto, sent out a force commanded by the Duke of Terceira
to Algarve, supported by a naval squadron commanded by Charles Napier
, using the alias Carlos de Ponza. The Duke of Terceira
landed in Faro
and marched north through Alentejo to conquer Lisbon on 24 July 1833. Meanwhile, Napier's squadron encountered the absolutist fleet near Cape Saint Vincent and decisively defeated it at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent
.
The liberals were able to occupy Lisbon, making it possible for Peter to repel the Miguelite siege in Oporto. A stalemate of nine months ensued. Towards the end of 1833, Maria da Glória was proclaimed Queen regnant
, and Peter was made regent
. His first act was to confiscate the property of all who had supported Michael. He also suppressed all religious orders and confiscated their property, an act that suspended friendly relations with the Papal States
for nearly eight years, until mid-1841. The liberals occupied Portugal's major cities, Lisbon and Oporto, where they commanded a sizable following among the middle classes.
Meanwhile, the absolutists controlled the rural areas, where they were supported by the aristocracy and a peasantry galvanized by the Church. But operations against the Miguelists recommenced in early 1834; they were defeated at the Battle of Asseiceira. The Miguelite army was still a force to be reckoned with (about 18,000 men), but on May 24, 1834, at Évora-Monte peace was declared under a convention by which Miguel formally consented to renounce all claims to the throne of Portugal, was guaranteed an annual pension, and was banished from Portugal, never to return. Peter restored the Constitutional Charter and died soon after, on 24 September 1834, while his daughter assumed the throne as Maria II of Portugal.
History of Portugal
The history of Portugal, a European and an Atlantic nation, dates back to the Early Middle Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it ascended to the status of a world power during Europe's "Age of Discovery" as it built up a vast empire including possessions in South America, Africa, Asia and...
from the beginning of Queen Maria I's
Maria I of Portugal
Maria I was Queen regnant of Portugal and the Algarves from 1777 until her death. Known as Maria the Pious , or Maria the Mad , she was the first undisputed Queen regnant of Portugal...
reign in 1777, to the end of the Liberal Wars
Liberal Wars
The Liberal Wars, also known as the Portuguese Civil War, the War of the Two Brothers, or Miguelite War, was a war between progressive constitutionalists and authoritarian absolutists in Portugal over royal succession that lasted from 1828 to 1834...
in 1834, spans a complex historic period in which several important political and military events led to the end of the absolutist regime and to the installation of a constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
in the country.
In 1807, Napoleon ordered the invasion of Portugal and subsequently the Royal Family migrated to Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
. This would be one of the causes for the declaration of Brazilian independence by Peter I of Brazil
Peter I of Brazil
Dom Pedro I of Brazil , nicknamed "the Liberator" and "the Soldier-King", was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil and also King of Portugal as Pedro IV, having reigned for eight years in Brazil and two months in Portugal.-Birth:Pedro was born on 12 October 1798, around...
in 1822, following a liberal revolution in Portugal.
The liberal period was stormy and short as Prince Michael of Portugal (Peter's brother) supported an absolutist revolution endeavoring to restore all power to the monarchy. Peter would eventually return to Portugal and fight and defeat his brother in the Liberal Wars
Liberal Wars
The Liberal Wars, also known as the Portuguese Civil War, the War of the Two Brothers, or Miguelite War, was a war between progressive constitutionalists and authoritarian absolutists in Portugal over royal succession that lasted from 1828 to 1834...
in which liberalism
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
was completely installed and Portugal became a constitutional monarchy.
Queen Maria I
Maria I of Portugal
Maria I was Queen regnant of Portugal and the Algarves from 1777 until her death. Known as Maria the Pious , or Maria the Mad , she was the first undisputed Queen regnant of Portugal...
, his eldest daughter, to the throne of Portugal; she succeeded her father as the first Queen regnant
Queen regnant
A queen regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right, in contrast to a queen consort, who is the wife of a reigning king. An empress regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right over an empire....
of the 650-year-old country, which was still recovering from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake
1755 Lisbon earthquake
The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon Earthquake, was a megathrust earthquake that took place on Saturday 1 November 1755, at around 9:40 in the morning. The earthquake was followed by fires and a tsunami, which almost totally destroyed Lisbon in the Kingdom of Portugal, and...
. Queen Maria and her husband, the Infante D. Pedro, lived on the sidelines of politics, but were clearly unsympathetic to her father's former Prime Minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo
Sebastião de Melo, Marquis of Pombal
Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Count of Oeiras, 1st Marquess of Pombal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Count of Oeiras, 1st Marquess of Pombal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Count of Oeiras, 1st Marquess of Pombal ((Marquês de Pombal, ; 13 May 1699–8 May 1782) was an 18th...
, the Marquis of Pombal, who had been the de facto ruler of the Kingdom for the past 27 years. During her father's last few years, she had been the Marquis' fiercest detractor; once in power, she eagerly dismissed him and then exiled him to Pombal.
But the Queen maintained many of the Marquis' other ministers, restored many of the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and released many of Pombal's political prisoners. The economy was reorganized and Pombalinan monopolies were abandoned. However, international conditions favored the economic situation in Portugal; the balance of trade was positive, helped by wine exports and a decrease of English imports. The period was, while tainted by political instability, a time of cultural renovation, marked by the completion of the Palace at Queluz
Queluz National Palace
The Queluz National Palace is a Portuguese 18th-century palace located at Queluz, a freguesia of the modern-day Sintra Municipality, in the Lisbon District. One of the last great Rococo buildings to be designed in Europe, the palace was conceived as a summer retreat for Dom Pedro of Braganza,...
, the beginnings of the Ajuda Palace
Ajuda National Palace
The Ajuda National Palace is a neoclassical monument in the civil parish of Ajuda in the city of Lisbon, centralPortugal. Built on the site of a temporary wooden building constructed to house the Royal family after the 1755 earthquake and tsunami, it was originally begun by architect Manuel...
, the São Carlos Theatre
Teatro Nacional de São Carlos
The Teatro Nacional de São Carlos is an opera house in Lisbon, Portugal. It was opened on July 30, 1793 by Queen Maria I as a replacement for the Tejo Opera House, which was destroyed in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake...
, the Estrela Basilica
Estrela Basilica
The Estrela Basilica is a basilica in Lisbon, Portugal, built by order of Queen Mary I of Portugal, as a fulfilled promise for giving birth to a son...
and the immense Convent of Santa Clara in Vila do Conde.
In 1789, the French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
caused upheaval in Europe. The Portuguese reaction was to land forces in Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
, and with a small garrison of Spanish
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
attacked the French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
in the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
in 1794 (Rossilhão campaign). The battle did not go well, and by 1795, Spain had privately sued for peace, signed an alliance and aligned its external politics against England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
. Even as Portugal was politically divided between continuing its old alliance with Britain, its people were also split. The French Revolution, as seen by intellectuals and progressives, was romanticized: Bocage, and the partido francês believed the French could usher in a liberal revolution. To traditionalists, the French were a threat, to a nobility returning to prominence, and they were very willing to fight them externally or internally.
It was at about this time that Queen Maria, who suffering from religious mania and melancholia
Melancholia
Melancholia , also lugubriousness, from the Latin lugere, to mourn; moroseness, from the Latin morosus, self-willed, fastidious habit; wistfulness, from old English wist: intent, or saturnine, , in contemporary usage, is a mood disorder of non-specific depression,...
, began to show signs of mental illness. When she was incapable of handling state affairs (after 1799), her son, Infante John of Braganza
John VI of Portugal
John VI John VI John VI (full name: João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael; (13 May 1767 – 10 March 1826) was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (later changed to just King of Portugal and the Algarves, after Brazil was recognized...
, began to use the title of Prince-Regent
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
. But, the adversaries of France, did not look to John, but rather his wife D. Carlota Joaquina to support the traditionalists, who at one point attempted a coup against the Prince.
Continental blockade
John VI's regency was a complex political period when Portugal attempted to remain neutral in light of combative intransigence of its neighbors and forces within the country that favored liberal or traditional politics. Between 1795 and 1801, it was a struggle to maintain the peace in the face of the French Continental blockadeContinental System
The Continental System or Continental Blockade was the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the Napoleonic Wars. It was a large-scale embargo against British trade, which began on November 21, 1806...
, Portugal's traditional ally England and the demands of the merchant classes who wanted peace and were prospering economically between the two powers. Meanwhile, Spain a former ally had signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso
Second Treaty of San Ildefonso
The Second Treaty of San Ildefonso was signed on August 19, 1796 between the Spanish Empire and the First French Republic. Based on the terms of the agreement, France and Spain would become allies and combine their forces against the British Empire.-See also:...
, was under pressure from France to coerce Portugal, even if it meant invasion. Although Manuel de Godoy was initially hesitant about invading Portugal, due to the Royal Families' relations in either country, the French remained anxious to break the Anglo-Portuguese alliance
Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, ratified at the Treaty of Windsor in 1386, between England and Portugal is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the world which is still in force — with the earliest treaty dating back to the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373.This alliance, which goes back to the...
in order to close Portuguese ports to British shipping.
War of the Oranges
On the 29 January 1801, an ultimatum from Spain and France forced Portugal to decided between France or England, even as the government had tried to negotiate favorable conditions with the powers, rather than abrogate the Treaty of Windsor (1386). The French, ultimately, sent a five-point statement to LisbonLisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
demanding that Portugal:
- abandon its traditional alliance with EnglandEnglandEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
and close its ports to English shipping; - open its ports to FrenchFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and SpanishSpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
shipping; - surrender one or more of its provinces, equal to one fourth part of her total area, as a guarantee for the recovery of TrinidadTrinidadTrinidad is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. It is the southernmost island in the Caribbean and lies just off the northeastern coast of Venezuela. With an area of it is also the fifth largest in...
, Port Mahon (MinorcaMinorcaMin Orca or Menorca is one of the Balearic Islands located in the Mediterranean Sea belonging to Spain. It takes its name from being smaller than the nearby island of Majorca....
) and MaltaMaltaMalta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
; - pay a war indemnity to France and Spain;
- review border limits with Spain.
If Portugal failed to accomplish the five provisions of this ultimatum, it would be invaded by Spain, supported by 15,000 French soldiers. The English, could not promise any effective, even as the Prince John
John VI of Portugal
John VI John VI John VI (full name: João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael; (13 May 1767 – 10 March 1826) was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (later changed to just King of Portugal and the Algarves, after Brazil was recognized...
appealed to Hookham Frere
John Hookham Frere
John Hookham Frere PC was an English diplomat and author.Frere was born in London. His father, John Frere, the member of a Suffolk family, had been educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and would have been senior wrangler in 1763 but for the competition of William Paley; his mother, Jane,...
, who arrived in November 1800. In February, the terms were delivered to the Prince-Regent, but, although a negotiator was sent to Madrid, war was declared. At the time, Portugal had a poorly-trained army, with less than 8000 cavalry and 46000 infantry troops. Its military commander, João Carlos de Bragança e Ligne (2nd Duke of Lafões
Duke of Lafões
Duke of Lafões was a Portuguese title of nobility created under the decree of February 17, 1718, of King John V of Portugal and granted to his nephew, Pedro Henrique de Bragança, son of the Infante Miguel de Bragança, an illegitimate son of King Peter II of Portugal and Anne Armande Pastre de...
), who contracted Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
n General, von Goltz, had barely raised 2000 horse and 16000 troops. Spanish Prime Minister, and Commander-in-Chief, Manuel de Godoy
Manuel de Godoy
Don Manuel Francisco Domingo de Godoy y Álvarez de Faria, de los Ríos y Sánchez-Zarzosa, also Manuel de Godoy y Álvarez de Faria de los Ríos Sánchez Zarzosa , was Prime Minister of Spain from 1792 to 1797 and from 1801 to 1808...
had some 30,000 troops, and the French, under General Charles Leclerc
Charles Leclerc
Charles Victoire Emmanuel Leclerc was a French Army general and husband to Pauline Bonaparte, sister to Napoleon Bonaparte.-To 1801:...
(Napoleon's brother-in-law), who would arrive in Spain too late to assist Godoy, could provide additional troops.
On May 20, Godoy finally entered Portugal; it was a precursor of the Peninsular War
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
that would engulf the Iberian Peninsula
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
. The Spanish army quickly penetrated the Alentejo, in southern Portugal, and occupied Olivenza
Olivenza
Olivenza or Olivença is a town in the autonomous community of Extremadura, situated on a disputed section of the border between Portugal and Spain...
, Juromenha
Juromenha
Juromenha is a town in southeastern Portugal, near the border with Spain....
, Arronches
Arronches
Arronches is a municipality in Portugal with a total area of 314.8 km² and a total population of 3,278 inhabitants.The municipality is composed of 3 parishes, and is located in Portalegre District....
, Portalegre, Castelo de Vide, Barbacena
Barbacena
Barbacena is a city and municipality in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. As of 2006, the municipality had 124,601 inhabitants. The total area of the municipality is 788 km²....
and Ouguela without resistance, while in Campo Maior
Campo Maior
Campo Maior , is a municipality in the Portalegre District, Alentejo Region, Portugal.The municipality has an area of 247,26 km² and a population of 8359 . It is divided into 3 parishes . It is bordered by Spain on the North and East, by Elvas Municipality on the Southeast, and by Arronches...
and Elvas there were more pitched conflicts. Finally in Elvas, Godoy celebrating his generalship in the conflict, plucked two oranges from a tree and immediately sent them to the Queen Maria Luisa
Maria Luisa of Parma
Maria Luisa of Parma was Queen consort of Spain from 1788 to 1808 as the wife of King Charles IV of Spain. She was the youngest daughter of Duke Philip of Parma and his wife, Louise-Élisabeth of France, the eldest daughter of King Louis XV.She was christened Luisa Maria Teresa Ana, but was known...
of Spain, mother of Carlota Joaquina and supposedly his lover, with the message:
This act, gave origin to the name War of the Oranges.The conflict would quickly end by negotiations, at the Treaty of Badajoz
Treaty of Badajoz (1801)
The Treaty of Badajoz was signed in Badajoz on 6 June 1801 between John VI of Portugal and representatives from the Spanish Empire. Based on the terms of the accord, Portugal agreed to cede Olivenza . Moreover, Portugal was required to close all ports to the British...
on June 6, when the defeated and demoralized Portuguese were forced to accept the tenants of the 1801 ultimatum. As part of the peace, Portugal recovered all of the strongholds previously conquered by the Spanish, with the exception of Olivenza, other territories on the eastern margin of the Guadiana
Guadiana
The Guadiana , or Odiana, is an international river located on the Portuguese–Spanish border, separating Extremadura and Andalucia from Alentejo and Algarve...
, and the prohibition of contraband near the borders of the two countries. The treaty was ratified by the Prince-Regent on 14 June, while the King of Spain promulgated the treaty on 21 June. Yet, the Treaty was costly: in addition to the five points, Portugal was required to pay indemnities of 25 million francs and surrender lands north of Brazil to France. This treaty was initially rejected by Napoleon, who wanted the partition of Portugal, but accepted once he concluded peace with England at Amiens
Amiens
Amiens is a city and commune in northern France, north of Paris and south-west of Lille. It is the capital of the Somme department in Picardy...
.
Napoleonic invasions
But, in 1806, after Napoleon's victory over the PrussiaPrussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
ns, he once again looked to the problem of English resistance, who had broke the peace in 1803 to challenge the Continental system
Continental System
The Continental System or Continental Blockade was the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the Napoleonic Wars. It was a large-scale embargo against British trade, which began on November 21, 1806...
imposed by the French. Once again, Portuguese ports were ordered closed to British shipping, but after a tentative of neutrality, the Portuguese reluctantly succumbed to French demands and declared war on England. But time was up: Napoleon had realized that Portugal impeded his desire for reform in Europe.
On 27 October 1807, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau
Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807)
The Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed on 27 October 1807 in Fontainebleau between Charles IV of Spain and Napoleon I of France. The accord divided Portugal and all Portuguese dominions between the signatories. Individuals such as M. Izquierdo, councilor of Charles IV, and Don Manuel de Godoy were...
which would partition Portugal. In this pact, Northern Lusitania
Kingdom of Northern Lusitania
The Kingdom of Northern Lusitania was a kingdom proposed by Napoleon in 1807 for the Monarch of Etruria, Charles II of Parma, located in the North of Portugal....
, a territory between the Minho
Minho River
The Minho or Miño is the longest river in Galicia, Spain, with an extension of 340 km.Both names come from Latin Minius...
and Douro
Douro
The Douro or Duero is one of the major rivers of the Iberian Peninsula, flowing from its source near Duruelo de la Sierra in Soria Province across northern-central Spain and Portugal to its outlet at Porto...
rivers would be a governing principality of the sovereign of the extinct Kingdom of Etruria
Kingdom of Etruria
The Kingdom of Etruria was a kingdom comprising the larger part of Tuscany which existed between 1801 and 1807. It took its name from Etruria, the old Roman name for the land of the Etruscans.It was created by the Treaty of Aranjuez, signed on 21 March 1801...
(then Maria Luisa, daughter of Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV was King of Spain from 14 December 1788 until his abdication on 19 March 1808.-Early life:...
). The Algarve and all Portuguese territory located south of the Tagus
Tagus
The Tagus is the longest river on the Iberian Peninsula. It is long, in Spain, along the border between Portugal and Spain and in Portugal, where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean at Lisbon. It drains an area of . The Tagus is highly utilized for most of its course...
would be governed by Manuel de Godoy
Manuel de Godoy
Don Manuel Francisco Domingo de Godoy y Álvarez de Faria, de los Ríos y Sánchez-Zarzosa, also Manuel de Godoy y Álvarez de Faria de los Ríos Sánchez Zarzosa , was Prime Minister of Spain from 1792 to 1797 and from 1801 to 1808...
, who would be compensated for his role in bringing the Spanish onside with France. The rest of Portugal, the area between the Douro and the Tagus, a strategic region because of its ports, would be administered by the central government in France until general peace. As for its colonial possessions, including Brazil, they would be divided between Spain and France.
By the end of the year, a French battalion, commanded by General Jean-Andoche Junot
Jean-Andoche Junot
Jean-Andoche Junot, 1st Duke of Abrantès was a French general during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.-Early life:...
, entered Portugal. Ironically, their arrival was preceded by the newspaper O Monitor, which was presented to the Prince-Regent by the English ambassador, informing him of Napoleon's plan to conquer Portugal.
On 27 November 1807, the Prince-Regent, Queen and the entire Royal Family boarded ships concentrated on the Tagus, accompanied by many rich merchants, the administration, judges and servants, on fifteen ships and escorted by English ships. Approximately 10,000 people, including the entire governmental apparatus, joined the Royal Family as they moved to Brazil: the country had recently been elevated to Kingdom of Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
, a de facto colonial possession of Portugal, establishing the capital of the Portuguese Empire in Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
.
First invasion
Jean-Andoche Junot
Jean-Andoche Junot, 1st Duke of Abrantès was a French general during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.-Early life:...
and his troops had entered Spain on 18 October 1807 and had crossed the peninsula
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
to reach the Portuguese border on 20 November. Junot encountered no resistance and reached Abrantes
Abrantes
Abrantes is a municipality in Portugal, with a population of 41,560 inhabitants, located on the southern margin of the Tagus River.-History:...
by 24 November, Santarém
Santarém, Portugal
Santarém is a city in the Santarém Municipality in Portugal. The city itself has a population of 28,760 and the entire municipality has 64,124 inhabitants.It is the capital of Santarém District....
on 28 November, and the Portuguese capital
Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
at the end of the month, arriving a day after the Court
Royal court
Royal court, as distinguished from a court of law, may refer to:* The Royal Court , Timbaland's production company*Court , the household and entourage of a monarch or other ruler, the princely court...
had fled to Brazil. Before the Prince-Regent departed, he left orders with the Regency Junta
Junta (Peninsular War)
In the Napoleonic era, junta was the name chosen by several local administrations formed in Spain during the Peninsular War as a patriotic alternative to the official administration toppled by the French invaders...
to greet the French in peace. Once he arrived, Junot promoted himself as a reformer, in Portugal to liberate the oppressed, promising progress, the construction of roads and canals, efficient administration, clean finances, assistance and schools for the poor. But, Junot set about removing the vestiges of the Portuguese monarchy, declaring that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign in Portugal, suspending the Council of Regency, the Portuguese militia suppressed, officers billeted in the richest houses and the treasury plundered for the continuing French reparations. Meanwhile 50,000 Spanish and French troops roamed the countryside arresting, killing, plundering and raping.
By 1808, as Junot was busy redesigning Portuguese society, Napoleon decided to revise his alliance with Spain, forced the abdication of Charles IV of Spain, and his son, and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte was the elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of Naples and Sicily , and later King of Spain...
as King. A popular uprising in Spain immediately spread to Junot's forces, which were accompanied by Spanish troops. It further instigated a popular uprising by the Portuguese that was brutally put-down, after minor successes.
The following year, an English force commanded by Arthur Wellesley
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS , was an Irish-born British soldier and statesman, and one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century...
(future Duke of Wellington) disembarked in Galiza with the intent of supporting the Spanish, but later advanced on Oporto and disembarked at Figueira da Foz on 1 August. Quickly the English advanced on the French, defeating them at the Battle of Roliça
Battle of Roliça
In the Battle of Roliça an Anglo-Portuguese army under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated an outnumbered French army under General Henri Delaborde, near the village of Roliça in Portugal. The French retired in good order...
(17 August) and later the Battle of Vimeiro
Battle of Vimeiro
In the Battle of Vimeiro the British under General Arthur Wellesley defeated the French under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot near the village of Vimeiro , near Lisbon, Portugal during the Peninsular War...
(21 August). A two-day armistice was held as negotiations proceeded, and the belligerents formally signed the Convention of Sintra
Convention of Sintra
The Convention of Cintra was an agreement signed on August 30, 1808 during the Peninsular War. By the agreement, the defeated French were allowed to evacuate their troops from Portugal without further conflict...
(30 August), without Portuguese representation. As part of the accord, the English transported the French troops to France, with the product of sacks made in Portugal. The Convention benefited both sides: Junot's armies, incapable of communicating with France, could make a safe getaway; and the Anglo-Portuguese forces gained control over Lisbon. The Portguese populace was left to avenge itself on francophile
Francophile
Is a person with a positive predisposition or interest toward the government, culture, history, or people of France. This could include France itself and its history, the French language, French cuisine, literature, etc...
compatriots for their brutality and depredations.
Second invasion
Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult
Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, 1st Duke of Dalmatia , the Hand of Iron, was a French general and statesman, named Marshal of the Empire in 1804. He was one of only six officers in French history to receive the distinction of Marshal General of France...
to re-occupy Portugal. As word spread of the abdication of the Spanish Royal family, many of Spaniards revolted, gaining support from the English stationed in Portugal. Under the command of John Moore
John Moore (British soldier)
Lieutenant-General Sir John Moore, KB was a British soldier and General. He is best known for his military training reforms and for his death at the Battle of Corunna, in which his force was defeated but gained a tactical advantage over a French army under Marshal Soult during the Peninsular...
, English forces crossed the northern Portuguese border but were defeated at A Coruña
A Coruña
A Coruña or La Coruña is a city and municipality of Galicia, Spain. It is the second-largest city in the autonomous community and seventeenth overall in the country...
by Marshal Soult, and were forced to retreat in the middle of January. The French immediately occupied northern Portugal and advanced on Oporto by 24 March.
Unlike the first invasion, there was a popular revolt against French occupation by farmers, merchants and the poor, that almost border on zeal. Many of the citizen soldiers and farmers fought against the French aggression, going so far as to see tactical retreats as a betrayal or treason by the Portuguese officers.
But, Soult occupied Chaves on 12 March, a defense of Braga was unsuccessful and the French cavalry forced entry into Oporto by 29 March. Soult forces encountered a popular resistance in Oporto, that included militia and local residents whom barricaded the streets. But, Pinto de Fonseca recovered Chaves and ultimately, it was Wellesley, again, who expelled the French from the north of the country. He was aided by William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford
William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford
General William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, 1st Marquis of Campo Maior, GCB, GCH, GCTE, PC , was a British soldier and politician...
and supported by a stronger Portuguese contingent, trained, equipped and command by British officers. The Anglo-Portuguese forces defeated Soult at the Battle of Douro, re-conquering the city of Oporto on 29 May, and forcing the French retreat to Galicia. Wellesley intended to pursue the French, but with French forces crossing from the Spanish Extremadura
Extremadura
Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Its component provinces are Cáceres and Badajoz. It is bordered by Portugal to the west...
, he moved his base to Abrantes. From here his forces then marched up the Tagus valley, entered Spain and won the victory at Talavera, after which he was made Duke of Wellington. He could not penetrate further, owing to Soult's forces joining Victor
Claude Victor-Perrin, duc de Belluno
Claude Victor-Perrin, First Duc de Belluno was a French soldier and military commander during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars...
, to bar the way to Madrid, and so withdrew to Torres Vedras
Torres Vedras
Torres Vedras is a city and a municipality in the district of Lisbon, Portugal, about 50 km north of Lisbon. It belongs to the Oeste subregion and the Centro region.The municipality covers an area of 405.89 km² distributed over 20 freguesias...
to plan for the defense against a third invasion by the French.
Third invasion
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
on Portuguese soil, was commanded by Marshall André Massena
André Masséna
André Masséna 1st Duc de Rivoli, 1st Prince d'Essling was a French military commander during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars....
, and divided into three parts under Jean Reynier
Jean Reynier
Jean Louis Ebénézer Reynier rose in rank to become a French army general officer during the French Revolutionary Wars. He led a division under Napoleon Bonaparte in the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria...
, Claude-Victor Perrin and Jean-Andoche Junot
Jean-Andoche Junot
Jean-Andoche Junot, 1st Duke of Abrantès was a French general during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.-Early life:...
, and comprised 62,000 men and 84 canon. Entering by way of Beira
Beira, Portugal
Beira was one of the six traditional provinces or "comarcas" of Portugal.-Administrative history:The medieval province of Beira was divided in 1832 into* Beira Alta Province* Beira Baixa ProvinceBeira Litoral...
in August, they quickly defeated the defenders in the Fort of Almeida in August, then marched in the direction of Lisbon. Against the wishes of his council, Messena attacked the Anglo-Portuguese forces on 26 September in Buçaco
Battle of Buçaco
The Battle of Bussaco resulted in the defeat of French forces by Lord Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese Army, in Portugal during the Peninsular War....
, losing 4500 troops. Yet, Wellsely
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS , was an Irish-born British soldier and statesman, and one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century...
's forces withdrew in front of the oncoming French, until his troops entered the prepared positions in Torres Vedras
Torres Vedras
Torres Vedras is a city and a municipality in the district of Lisbon, Portugal, about 50 km north of Lisbon. It belongs to the Oeste subregion and the Centro region.The municipality covers an area of 405.89 km² distributed over 20 freguesias...
.
But, the French were impeded along the Lines of Torres Vedras
Lines of Torres Vedras
The Lines of Torres Vedras were lines of forts built in secrecy to defend Lisbon during the Peninsular War. Named after the nearby town of Torres Vedras, they were ordered by Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellington, constructed by Sir Richard Fletcher, 1st Baronet and his Portuguese workers between...
, a system of 152 fortifications north of Lisbon, planned by Wellington, supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Fletcher constructed by Portuguese laborers, manned by 40,000 Portuguese troops and members of the local population. Marshal Massena and his forces reached the lines by 14 October, but were unable to penetrate the defenses, and he was forced to retreat in April 1811. Supplies were running low, and Massena sent a request to Bonaparte for new instructions, but was compelled to withdraw before the instructions arrived, and he retreated to Santarém
Santarém, Portugal
Santarém is a city in the Santarém Municipality in Portugal. The city itself has a population of 28,760 and the entire municipality has 64,124 inhabitants.It is the capital of Santarém District....
. Although Napoleon finally sent Soult, it was too late for Massena, who could not hold Santarém and withdrew towards Coimbra
Coimbra
Coimbra is a city in the municipality of Coimbra in Portugal. Although it served as the nation's capital during the High Middle Ages, it is better-known for its university, the University of Coimbra, which is one of the oldest in Europe and the oldest academic institution in the...
by March 6. Successively, the French were defeated in several smaller battles: the Battle of Sabugal
Battle of Sabugal
The Battle of Sabugal was an engagement of the Peninsular War which took place on 3 April 1811 between Anglo-Portuguese forces under Arthur Wellesley and French troops under the command of Marshal André Masséna...
, Fuentes de Onoro
Fuentes de Oñoro
Fuentes de Oñoro is a village and municipality in the province of Salamanca, western Spain, part of the autonomous community of Castile-Leon. It is located 124 kilometres from the provincial capital city of Salamanca and has a population of 1436 people....
, Battle of Condeixa, Battle of Casal Novo
Battle of Casal Novo
The Battle of Casal Novo was a rear-guard action fought on March 14, 1811, during Massena's retreat from Portugal. During this retreat the French rear-guard, under command of Michel Ney, performed admirably in a series of sharp rear-guard actions...
, and the Battle of Foz d'Arunce, in addition to Michel Ney
Michel Ney
Michel Ney , 1st Duc d'Elchingen, 1st Prince de la Moskowa was a French soldier and military commander during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original 18 Marshals of France created by Napoleon I...
's rear-guard action at the Battle of Pombal
Battle of Pombal
The Battle of Pombal was a sharp skirmish during Marshal Masséna's retreat from the Lines of Torres Vedras, the first in a series of lauded rearguard actions fought by Michel Ney...
. With winter quickly approaching, his forces starving, they were again defeated at the Battle of Redinha
Battle of Redinha
The Battle of Redinha was a rearguard action which took place on March 12, 1811, during Masséna's retreat from Portugal, by a French division under Marshal Ney against a considerably larger Anglo-Portuguese force under Wellington. Challenging the Allies with only one or two divisions, Ney's 7,000...
and with Anglo-Portuguese forces in pursuit, Massena crossed the border into Spain; the War would continue until March 1814, but not on Portuguese territory.
A series of battles in Spain followed, until a final victory was reached in Toulouse
Toulouse
Toulouse is a city in the Haute-Garonne department in southwestern FranceIt lies on the banks of the River Garonne, 590 km away from Paris and half-way between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea...
on April 10, 1814, putting a end to the Peninsular War. However, in numerous coastal, interior and border towns there were bodies bayoneted and left on the ground; several frontier towns were pillaged and ransacked for treasure or vandalized by retreating troops (both English and French); reprisal killings were common in the local populations for sympathizers (the total number of casualties in the war reached 100,000 by one account); while famine and social deprivation was common.
Meanwhile, in the Kingdom of Brazil, Portugal was successful in capturing French Guiana
French Guiana
French Guiana is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department located on the northern Atlantic coast of South America. It has borders with two nations, Brazil to the east and south, and Suriname to the west...
and Uruguay
Uruguay
Uruguay ,officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; ) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to some 3.5 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area...
. Furthermore, the instability in Spain and the abdication of the king, resulted in declarations of independence in the Spanish colonies of America
Americas
The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...
, which in turn was responsible for a tense political climate in Brazil.
Liberal Revolution
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
and a colony of Brazil, as the Crown
Imperial crown
An Imperial Crown is a crown used for the coronation of emperors.- Imperial Crowns with Mitre :-Legal usage:Throughout the Commonwealth Realms, The Crown is an abstract concept which represents the legal authority for the existence of any government...
remained in Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
. The moving of the Portuguese capital to Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
had accentuated the economic, institutional and social crises in mainland Portugal, which was administered by English commercial and military interests, under William Beresford's rule, in the absence of the monarch. The aftermath of the War
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
, influences from both American and French Revolutions, a discontent for absolutism, and a general indifference shown by the Portuguese Regency for the plight of its people, strengthened liberal ideals
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
.
At the end of the Peninsular War
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
, the government of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves returned French Guiana
French Guiana
French Guiana is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department located on the northern Atlantic coast of South America. It has borders with two nations, Brazil to the east and south, and Suriname to the west...
to France on 30 May 1814, and was given an indemnity of two million franc
Franc
The franc is the name of several currency units, most notably the Swiss franc, still a major world currency today due to the prominence of Swiss financial institutions and the former currency of France, the French franc until the Euro was adopted in 1999...
s. Brazil's new importance aggravated the situation in continental Portugal: politically it became the Portuguese capital (shedding the pretext of colony), and economically, the former colony was now able to trade directly with other European powers (28 January 1808). But, even after 1807, the limitations and subordinations inherent in Brazil's colonial status were being chipped-away: the prohibition on transformative industries was rescinded, incentives for the creation of factories, the importation of English machinery, the establishment of Commerce Commissions, exchanges and money-houses, the formation of the Bank of Brazil, insurance companies, shipping construction, road building, the formation and construction of public schools and the military academies. This damaged Portugal's commercial interests and exaggerated social conditions, while benefiting the United Kingdom (as the country was governed by William Beresford
William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford
General William Carr Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford, 1st Marquis of Campo Maior, GCB, GCH, GCTE, PC , was a British soldier and politician...
in the absence of the Cortes).
1820 Revolution
- "Portugal has arrived at a crisis in which, it will suffer a revolution of fortunes, of order, an anarchy, and other ills that it will bring a complete reduction of public credit...".
Its neighbor Spain, during its Napoleonic resistance had approved a liberal Constitution, when King Ferdinand VII was in-exile, but quickly it was abrogated on his return, and he reigned as absolute monarch. But, the Spanish model also served as an example for the Portuguese: a popular uprising in the provinces against absolutism, forced the Spanish monarch to reinstate the 1820 Constitutional monarchy.
The events in Spain were not lost on a small group of Portuense politically like-minded bourgeoisie
Bourgeoisie
In sociology and political science, bourgeoisie describes a range of groups across history. In the Western world, between the late 18th century and the present day, the bourgeoisie is a social class "characterized by their ownership of capital and their related culture." A member of the...
; two years earlier, Manuel Fernandes Tomás, José Ferreira Borges, José da Silva Carvalho and João Ferreira Viana, had founded the Sinédrio, a liberal
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
clandestine group whom debated the political evolution of Spain and Portugal, and that would influence subsequent events. The Sinédrio's members were a mix of merchants, property-owners, the military and noblemen, and whose liberalism was not based on economic circumstances but international literature and philosophies consumed during university or in the masonic
Masonry
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, limestone; concrete block, glass block, stucco, and...
lodges. The common people were rural, almost totally illiterate and lived in a culture of tradition and religion, guided by the clergy. The difference between the idealogues, the doctrinairism of the liberal movement and dogma of religion would bring the two groups into conflict eventually. But, for now, the liberal intellectuals would influence soldiers in the Northern garrisons on 24 August 1820, beginning in Oporto, to proclaim a revolution against the absolute monarchy of Portugal; a colonel read out the "peoples" declaration:
- "Lets join our brothers-in-arms to organize a provisional government that will call on the Cortes to draw-up a Constitution, whose absence is the origin of all our ills."
The Regency in Lisbon attempted to gather forces to oppose the revolt, but on 15 September they too joined the movement.
Quickly, the administration of William Beresford was replaced by a Provisional Junta, and the General Extraordinary and Constituent Cortes of the Portuguese Nation were summoned, on 1 January 1821, whose deputies were filled from indirect election to draft a written Constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
. The roles of the constituent assembly were filled with doctrinaires or diplomats, many were merchants or agrarian burghers, University-educated representatives were usually lawyers, but mostly ideological romantics, that would later come to be referred to as Vintistas, for the audacious and ideological radicalism. Press and book censorship
Censorship
thumb|[[Book burning]] following the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 coup]] that installed the [[Military government of Chile |Pinochet regime]] in Chile...
and the Inquisition
Inquisition
The Inquisition, Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis , was the "fight against heretics" by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy...
were lifted, and an amnesty to those involved in anti-liberal movements was ordered. On 26 April 1821, John VI departed for Lisbon, arriving on 3 July of the same year, and communicated to the Cortes the establishment of a Regency in Brazil in the name of his heir-apparent, Prince Peter. The deputies did not recognize the King's authority to designate Regents, nor supported the Bragança Agreement, that Prince Peter should take the Crown if Brazil came to be independent.
Empire of Brazil
In September 1821, the Portuguese Cortes, with a handful of the Brazilian delegates present, voted to abolish the Kingdom of Brazil and the royal agencies in Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
, thus subordinating all provinces of Brazil directly to Lisbon
Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
. Troops were sent to Brazil to muzzle resistance, and local units were placed under Portuguese command. On 29 September, the Cortes ordered the return of Prince Peter to Europe (in order to initiate a voyage of study in Spain, France and England), but governmental junta in São Paulo
São Paulo
São Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, the largest city in the southern hemisphere and South America, and the world's seventh largest city by population. The metropolis is anchor to the São Paulo metropolitan area, ranked as the second-most populous metropolitan area in the Americas and among...
, as well as the Senate Chamber of Rio de Janeiro implored the Prince to remain. He was moved by petitions from Brazilian towns and fears that his departure, and the dismantling of the central government, would trigger separatist movements.
Peter formed a new government headed by José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva
José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva
José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva , was a Brazilian statesman, naturalist, professor and poet, born in Santos, São Paulo, then part of the Portuguese Empire. He was one of the most important mentors of Brazilian independence, and his actions were decisive for the success of Emperor Pedro I...
, a former royal official and professor of science at the University of Coimbra, was a formative figure in Brazilian nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
, indeed, the "Patriarch of Independence". Following Prince Peter's decision to defy the Cortes, Portuguese troops rioted then concentrated in the area of Mount Castello, which was soon surrounded by thousands of armed Brazilians. Peter "dismissed" the Portuguese commanding general, General Jorge Avilez, and ordered him to remove his soldiers across the bay to Niterói
Niterói
Niterói is a municipality in the state of Rio de Janeiro, southeast region of Brazil. It has an estimated population of 487,327 inhabitants and an area of ², being the sixth most populous city in the state and the highest Human Development Index. Integrates the Metropolitan Region of Rio de...
, where they would await transportation to Portugal. Blood was also shed in Recife, Province of Pernambuco
Pernambuco
Pernambuco is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. To the north are the states of Paraíba and Ceará, to the west is Piauí, to the south are Alagoas and Bahia, and to the east is the Atlantic Ocean. There are about of beaches, some of the most beautiful in the...
, when the Portuguese garrison was forced to depart in November 1821. In mid-February 1822, Brazilians in Bahia
Bahia
Bahia is one of the 26 states of Brazil, and is located in the northeastern part of the country on the Atlantic coast. It is the fourth most populous Brazilian state after São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, and the fifth-largest in size...
revolted against the Portuguese forces there, but were driven into the countryside, where they began guerrilla operations, signaling that the struggle in the north would not be without loss of life and property.
Seeking to secure support throughout the country, Peter began a series of initiatives to strengthen his position, even as the Portuguese Cortes ridiculed and diminished his importance. In Minas Gerais
Minas Gerais
Minas Gerais is one of the 26 states of Brazil, of which it is the second most populous, the third richest, and the fourth largest in area. Minas Gerais is the Brazilian state with the largest number of Presidents of Brazil, the current one, Dilma Rousseff, being one of them. The capital is the...
, where there were no Portuguese garrisons stationed, some doubts lingered, especially from the junta of Ouro Preto
Ouro Preto
-History:Founded at the end of the 17th century, Ouro Preto was originally called Vila Rica, or "rich village," the focal point of the gold rush and Brazil's golden age in the 18th century under Portuguese rule....
. But, with only a few companions and no ceremony or pomp, Peter plunged into Minas Gerais on horseback in late March 1822, receiving enthusiastic welcomes and allegiance everywhere. On 13 May, in Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
, Peter was proclaimed the "Perpetual Defender of Brazil" by the São Paulo
São Paulo
São Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, the largest city in the southern hemisphere and South America, and the world's seventh largest city by population. The metropolis is anchor to the São Paulo metropolitan area, ranked as the second-most populous metropolitan area in the Americas and among...
legislative assembly and he took the opportunity to called for a Constituent Assembly. To deepen his base of support, he joined the freemasons, who, led by José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva
José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva
José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva , was a Brazilian statesman, naturalist, professor and poet, born in Santos, São Paulo, then part of the Portuguese Empire. He was one of the most important mentors of Brazilian independence, and his actions were decisive for the success of Emperor Pedro I...
, were pressing for parliamentary government and independence. More confident, in early August he called on the Brazilian deputies in Lisbon to return, decreed that Portuguese forces in Brazil should be treated as enemies, and issued a manifesto to "friendly nations", that read like a declaration of independence. Seeking to duplicate his triumph in Minas Gerais, Peter rode to São Paulo
São Paulo (state)
São Paulo is a state in Brazil. It is the major industrial and economic powerhouse of the Brazilian economy. Named after Saint Paul, São Paulo has the largest population, industrial complex, and economic production in the country. It is the richest state in Brazil...
in August to ensure his support there.
But, returning from an excursion to Santos, Peter received messages from his wife and Andrade e Silva that the Portuguese Cortes had declared his government traitorous, and were dispatching more troops. Peter then had to choose between returning to Portugal in disgrace, or breaking the last ties to Portugal; in a famous scene in front of the Ipiranga River
Ipiranga Brook
The Ipiranga Brook is a river of São Paulo state in southeastern Brazil, historically known for has been the place where Dom Pedro I declared the independence of Brazil from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Its name came from the Tupi words: "Y", which means water or river,...
, on 7 September 1822, he tore the Portuguese white and blue insignia from his uniform, drew his sword, and swore: "By my blood, by my honor, and by God: I will make Brazil free." With this oath, that was repeated by the assembled, he announced: "Brazilians, from this day forward our motto will be...Independence or Death"
Absolutism
Until the age of 21, John VIJohn VI of Portugal
John VI John VI John VI (full name: João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael; (13 May 1767 – 10 March 1826) was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (later changed to just King of Portugal and the Algarves, after Brazil was recognized...
had no pretensions to the throne, until his older bother Joseph, Prince of Beira, died from smallpox
Smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
(at the age of 27). John lived for hunting and had little interest in public affairs. However, four years later he became Prince Regent
Prince Regent
A prince regent is a prince who rules a monarchy as regent instead of a monarch, e.g., due to the Sovereign's incapacity or absence ....
because of Queen Maria I's mental illness, and in 1816, he became King John VI, after the Queen's death while the Royal Family was residing in Rio de Janeiro. In 1821 John VI was forced to return to a country economically and politically unstable, to preside over a recently installed constitutional monarchy. But, there were deep divisions between the returning Royal Court and the Portuguese Cortes that governed the nation. While the upper-class free-thinking Vintistas governed, the new "modern era" was in name only: the condition of the poor prevailed, still pro-monarchist and ultra-religious, but without the power to influence their condition.
Vilafrancada
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
and was involved in obscure conspiracies regarding the independence of Brazil. The return of the King and Court had emboldened the clergy and nobles who were hostile to the Constitution and parliamentary government.
Prince Miguel, who shared her views, served as the Queen's instrument against the Revolution. On 27 May 1823, the Prince organized an insurgency against the liberal constitution; a garrison from Lisbon joined Miguel in Vila Franca de Xira
Vila Franca de Xira
Vila Franca de Xira is a municipality in Portugal with a total area of 317.7 km² and a total population of 133,224 inhabitants. Situated on the west bank of the Tagus River, just 32 km north-east of the Portuguese capital Lisbon, Vila Franca de Xira is said to have been founded by French...
, and there absolutism
Absolutism (European history)
Absolutism or The Age of Absolutism is a historiographical term used to describe a form of monarchical power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites...
was proclaimed. The King accepted these facts, suspended the 1822 Constitution and promised the promulgation of a new law to guarantee "personal security, property and jobs". This revolt, was referred to as the Vilafrancada (vilɐfɾɐ̃ˈkaðɐ), for the events that occurred in Vila Franca. But, one of the objectives of the Queen and Miguel was the abdication of King John, who, although accepted absolutism, was loyal to the liberal Constitution. Ultimately, the King had accepted absolutism when a movement of army officers and citizens surrounded the Palace of Bemposta
Bemposta Palace
The Bemposta Palace , also known as the Paço da Rainha , is a neoclassical palace originally ordered built by the Dowager-Queen Catherine of Braganza after returning to Lisbon, in the area of Bemposta, now the civil parish of Pena...
to urge the King to renounce liberal ideals.
Abrilada
In Portugal, as in Spain, the adversaries of constitutionalism were divided into two currents: a radical and a more moderate group. King John, depended on the moderate faction; the ministers he selected after the Vilafrancada oscillated between conciliatory paternal absolutism and a timid conservative liberalism. Queen Carlota Joaquina was the principal supporter of the radical absolutists, that favored absolutism without concessions and the repression of the new ideas filtering in from Europe. She gave no quarter: in 1823, the police revealed a planned conspiracy led by her and Prince Miguel (who had been promoted to the post of commander-in-chief of the Army following the events of the Vilafrancada) to force the King to abdicate. Then, on 30 April, Miguel, using the pretext that the King's life was in danger, imprisoned numerous ministers and important figures of the kingdom, while keeping his father incommunicado in the Bemposta PalaceBemposta Palace
The Bemposta Palace , also known as the Paço da Rainha , is a neoclassical palace originally ordered built by the Dowager-Queen Catherine of Braganza after returning to Lisbon, in the area of Bemposta, now the civil parish of Pena...
. This second attempt became known as the Abrilada (ɐβɾiˈlaðɐ), after the Portuguese
Portuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
word for April . However, during the course of his actions, Miguel had offended the sensibilities of the British and French ambassadors, who managed to get King John VI to the British battleship Windsor Castle in Caxias
Caxias, Oeiras
- From pre-history to Rome :The area was developed alongside the Ribeira de Barcarena, through four stations classified by the Archaeological Chart of the Municipality: during the Paleolíthic, near the Quinta do Jardim, in the immediate surroundings of Laveiras and at the beach near the São...
. There he was made aware of the situation, summoned Miguel, dismissed him from the post of commander-in-chief of the Army, and sent him into exile. On 14 May, John returned to the Palace of Bemposta
Bemposta Palace
The Bemposta Palace , also known as the Paço da Rainha , is a neoclassical palace originally ordered built by the Dowager-Queen Catherine of Braganza after returning to Lisbon, in the area of Bemposta, now the civil parish of Pena...
and re-established the liberal government. However, a new conspiracy was discovered on October 26 of the same year. Queen Carlota Joaquina accused the liberals of attempting to poison the King, while the others suspected her of having done it herself: this time, Queen Carlota Joaquina was exiled to Queluz
Queluz National Palace
The Queluz National Palace is a Portuguese 18th-century palace located at Queluz, a freguesia of the modern-day Sintra Municipality, in the Lisbon District. One of the last great Rococo buildings to be designed in Europe, the palace was conceived as a summer retreat for Dom Pedro of Braganza,...
.
In his reign, John promoted the arts (mainly literature), commerce and agriculture, but being forced to return to Europe and following palatial conspiracies aggravated by the independence of Brazil transformed John into an unhappy man, and he died soon after the Abrilada in 1826. It was also at the end of his life, that he recognized the independence of Brazil (15 November 1825) and restored his son Peter's right to the Portuguese throne. Before his death, he named a Regency Junta headed by the Infanta Isabel Maria, to govern the country between his death and the acclamation of a future king.
To Civil War
In Brazil, Peter faced other challenges in his new-born country; the people clearly did not wish to return to a colonial situation and subservience to the politics and economy of the much smaller Kingdom. The Brazilian constitution prohibited the Emperor from subsuming another crown, and this forced Peter to choose between Portugal or Brazil. Peter, a pragmatic politician, tried to find a solution that would reconcile the desires of the liberal, moderate and absolutists elements in the debate, and eventually chose to abdicate as king of Portugal (28 May 1826) in favour of his eldest daughter Princess Maria da Glória, who was seven years old at the time. However, the abdication was conditional: that Portugal should receive a new Constitution (1826 Charter), and his brother Miguel, exiled in Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
was to marry the Princess when she became of age. The Constitution was not popular with the absolutists (who wanted Prince Miguel to govern as an absolute monarch), but the liberal Vintistas also did not support the Charter (which was imposed by the King), whilst moderates slowly watched as a counter-revolution was building.
Usurpation
In 1828, Prince Miguel returned from AustriaAustria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, becoming Peter's lieutenant and Regent (in order to replace their sister, the Princess Isabel Maria, who was ill). Over the next months, absolutist politicians, clergy and supporters of the Queen Carlota Joaquina, manipulated the events, eventually proclaiming Miguel King of Portugal and deposing Maria da Glória (who had not yet arrived in Portugal). They also annulled the Liberal Constitution, persecuted liberals and their supporters, and attempted to obtain international support for their regime. Thousands of liberal idealists were killed, arrested, or forced to flee to Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, the Azores
Azores
The Archipelago of the Azores is composed of nine volcanic islands situated in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, and is located about west from Lisbon and about east from the east coast of North America. The islands, and their economic exclusion zone, form the Autonomous Region of the...
and Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
. This usurpation was followed by demonstrations in support of absolutism and failed revolutions to reinstate liberalism.
Inevitably, this triggered the Liberal Wars
Liberal Wars
The Liberal Wars, also known as the Portuguese Civil War, the War of the Two Brothers, or Miguelite War, was a war between progressive constitutionalists and authoritarian absolutists in Portugal over royal succession that lasted from 1828 to 1834...
between the supporters of absolutism
Absolutism (European history)
Absolutism or The Age of Absolutism is a historiographical term used to describe a form of monarchical power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures, or social elites...
, led by Miguel, and of liberalism
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
. Michael tried to obtain international approval, but failed due to English
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
pressures, although the United States and Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
did recognize his authority. Between 1828 and 1834, forces loyal to liberalism battled the power of Miguel's absolute monarchy. A liberal uprising in Oporto led by exiles Pedro de Sousa Holstein (later 1st Duke of Palmela
Duke of Palmela
The Duke of Palmela is a Portuguese title granted by royal decree of Queen Maria II of Portugal, dated from October 18, 1850, to Dom Pedro de Sousa Holstein , a Portuguese politician during the first half of the 19th Century...
), João Carlos Saldanha de Oliveira Daun
João Carlos Saldanha de Oliveira Daun, 1st Duke of Saldanha
Dom João Carlos Gregório Domingos Vicente Francisco de Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, , 1st Count , 1st Marquis and 1st Duke of Saldanha ; , was a Portuguese marshal and statesman, a grandson of Pombal, born at Azinhaga. He studied at Coimbra, served against the French, and was made a prisoner in 1810...
(later 1st Duke of Saldanha
Duke of Saldanha
Duke of Saldanha is a Portuguese title granted by royal decree of Queen Maria II of Portugal, dated from November 4, 1846, to João Carlos Saldanha de Oliveira Daun , also known as Marshal Saldanha, leader of the liberal armies, during the Liberal Wars in Portugal.Queen Maria II of Portugal has...
) and António José Severim de Noronha
António Severim de Noronha
Dom António José de Sousa Manoel e Meneses Severim de Noronha , 7th Count of Vila Flor, 1st Marquis of Vila Flor and 1st Duke of Terceira, was a Portuguese military officer, statesman and a leader of the Constitutionalist side in the Liberal Wars, as well as a Prime Minister of Portugal.He was born...
(later Duke of Terceira
Duke of Terceira
The title duke of Terceira, de juro e herdade was created by decree of King Pedro IV of Portugal, on 8 November 1832...
), was quickly defeated by Miguel's forces while similar revolts in the Azores and Madeira were similarly defeated (the liberal forces only held onto territory on Terceira).
War of the Two Brothers
Terceira Island
Referred to as the “Ilha Lilás” , Terceira is an island in the Azores archipelago, in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the larger islands of the archipelago, with a population of 56,000 inhabitants in an area of approximately 396.75 km²...
, in the Azores
Azores
The Archipelago of the Azores is composed of nine volcanic islands situated in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, and is located about west from Lisbon and about east from the east coast of North America. The islands, and their economic exclusion zone, form the Autonomous Region of the...
, from where his government-in-exile organized an expeditionary force that disembarked in Mindelo
Mindelo
For the parish in Portugal, see Mindelo, PortugalMindelo , is a port city in the northern part of the island of São Vicente in Cape Verde. Mindelo is also the seat of the parish of Nossa Senhora da Luz, and this island's municipality...
, not far from Oporto, on 8 July 1832.
With the backing of liberals from Spain and England, and substantial Anglo-French contingents, Peter landed near Oporto, which the Miguelist forces abandoned without combat. After fighting the inconclusive Battle of Ponte Ferreira
Battle of Ponte Ferreira
The Battle of Ponte Ferreira, fought on 22–23 July 1832, was the first major battle of the Portuguese Civil War between the forces of Dom Pedro, ex-Emperor of Brazil and Regent for his daughter Maria da Glória, and the army of his brother Dom Miguel, who had usurped the throne of Portugal...
Oporto was besieged by Miguelite forces, which engaged in sporadic skirmishes. Throughout the year, most of the battles of the Civil War concentrated around Oporto, whose population had whole-heartedly supported Peter's cause. In June 1833, the liberals, still encircled at Oporto, sent out a force commanded by the Duke of Terceira
Duke of Terceira
The title duke of Terceira, de juro e herdade was created by decree of King Pedro IV of Portugal, on 8 November 1832...
to Algarve, supported by a naval squadron commanded by Charles Napier
Charles Napier (naval officer)
Admiral Sir Charles John Napier KCB GOTE RN was a Scottish naval officer whose sixty years in the Royal Navy included service in the Napoleonic Wars, Syrian War and the Crimean War, and a period commanding the Portuguese navy in the Liberal Wars...
, using the alias Carlos de Ponza. The Duke of Terceira
Duke of Terceira
The title duke of Terceira, de juro e herdade was created by decree of King Pedro IV of Portugal, on 8 November 1832...
landed in Faro
Faro, Portugal
Faro is the southernmost city in Portugal. It is located in the Faro Municipality in southern Portugal. The city proper has 41,934 inhabitants and the entire municipality has 58,305. It is the seat of the Faro District and capital of the Algarve region...
and marched north through Alentejo to conquer Lisbon on 24 July 1833. Meanwhile, Napier's squadron encountered the absolutist fleet near Cape Saint Vincent and decisively defeated it at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent
Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1833)
The fourth Battle of Cape St Vincent was fought on 5 July 1833 and was a decisive encounter in Portugal's Liberal Wars. A naval squadron commanded by the British officer Charles Napier, on behalf of Dom Pedro IV, regent for the rightful Queen Maria II, defeated the navy of the usurper Dom...
.
The liberals were able to occupy Lisbon, making it possible for Peter to repel the Miguelite siege in Oporto. A stalemate of nine months ensued. Towards the end of 1833, Maria da Glória was proclaimed Queen regnant
Queen regnant
A queen regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right, in contrast to a queen consort, who is the wife of a reigning king. An empress regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right over an empire....
, and Peter was made regent
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
. His first act was to confiscate the property of all who had supported Michael. He also suppressed all religious orders and confiscated their property, an act that suspended friendly relations with the Papal States
Papal States
The Papal State, State of the Church, or Pontifical States were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia .The Papal States comprised territories under...
for nearly eight years, until mid-1841. The liberals occupied Portugal's major cities, Lisbon and Oporto, where they commanded a sizable following among the middle classes.
Meanwhile, the absolutists controlled the rural areas, where they were supported by the aristocracy and a peasantry galvanized by the Church. But operations against the Miguelists recommenced in early 1834; they were defeated at the Battle of Asseiceira. The Miguelite army was still a force to be reckoned with (about 18,000 men), but on May 24, 1834, at Évora-Monte peace was declared under a convention by which Miguel formally consented to renounce all claims to the throne of Portugal, was guaranteed an annual pension, and was banished from Portugal, never to return. Peter restored the Constitutional Charter and died soon after, on 24 September 1834, while his daughter assumed the throne as Maria II of Portugal.
See also
- Kingdom of Northern LusitaniaKingdom of Northern LusitaniaThe Kingdom of Northern Lusitania was a kingdom proposed by Napoleon in 1807 for the Monarch of Etruria, Charles II of Parma, located in the North of Portugal....
, proposed by Napoleon - Timeline of Portuguese historyTimeline of Portuguese historyThis is a historical timeline of Portugal.*Timeline of Iberian prehistory*Pre-Roman Iberia *Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia *Germanic Kingdoms...
- Fourth Dynasty: Bragança (17th to 20th century)Timeline of Portuguese history (Fourth Dynasty)-17th Century:*1640, December 1: a small group of conspirators storms the Palace in Lisbon and deposes the Spanish Governor, the Duchess of Mantua. The Duke of Bragança, head of the senior family of the Portuguese nobility , accepts the throne as Dom João IV of Portugal, despite deep personal...
- Fourth Dynasty: Bragança (17th to 20th century)
External links
- War of the Oranges
- Peninsular campaign
- Titles of European Rulers
- The British community of 19 century Bahia, Brazil
- Portugal under British Protection, 1808–1814
- The 1820 revolution
- José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva
- Queen Carlota Joaquina
- Vilafrancada
- Liberalism versus Reaction: Portugal 1814–1851
- Portugal Chronology, World History Database
- Map of Revolutionary Europe 1806–1808
- List of ships of war lying in the Tagus in 1806
- Wellington's dispatches from the Peninsular War and Waterloo: 1808–1815
- Peninsular War
- List of Peninsular War British officers who died
- The British Army in Portugal and Spain: Its Order-of-Battle
