Glyndwr Rising
Encyclopedia
The Glyndŵr Rising, Welsh Revolt or Last War of Independence was an uprising of the Welsh, led by Owain Glyndŵr
, against England
. It was the last major manifestation of a Welsh independence movement before the incorporation of Wales into England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542.
had launched a bold plan to consolidate his hold on his Kingdom and break the power of the magnates who constantly threatened his authority. As part of this plan, Richard began to shift his power base from the southeast and London towards the establishment of a new Principality around the County of Cheshire
and systematically built up his power in nearby Wales. Wales was ruled through a patchwork of semi-autonomous feudal states, Bishoprics, shires, and territory under direct Royal rule. Richard eliminated his rivals and took their land or gave it to his favourites. As he did so, he raised an entire class of Welsh people to fill the new posts created in his new fiefdom
s. For these people, the final years of the reign of Richard II were full of opportunities. In contrast, to his English magnates, it was a further sign that Richard was dangerously out of control.
In 1399, the exiled Henry Bolingbroke
, heir to the Duchy of Lancaster
, returned to reclaim his lands. Henry raised an army and marched to meet the King. Richard hurried back from Ireland
to deal with Henry Bolingbroke. They met in Wales, at Conwy Castle
, to discuss the restitution of Henry's lands. Whatever was intended, the meeting ended when Richard was arrested, deposed and imprisoned, first at Chester, then at Pontefract Castle
in West Yorkshire
. Parliament quickly made Henry Bolingbroke Regent
and then King. Richard died under mysterious circumstances in Pontefract Castle
, shortly after the failed Epiphany Rising
of English Nobles, but his death was not generally known for some time. In Wales, people like Owain Glyndŵr
were asked for the first time in their life to decide their loyalties. The Welsh were traditionally supporters of King Richard, who had succeeded his father, Edward, the Black Prince
, as Prince of Wales
. With Richard removed, the opportunities for advancement for Welsh people were suddenly severely limited. Many Welsh people seem to have been uncertain where this left them and their future.
For some time, supporters of the deposed king remained at large. On 10 January 1400 serious civil disorder broke out in the English border city of Chester. This was in reaction to the public execution of Piers Legh, captain of Richard II's archers, who had been apprehended disguised as a monk. An atmosphere of disorder was building along the Anglo-Welsh border.
's English neighbour. Successive holders of the title Baron Grey de Ruthyn
of Dyffryn Clwyd were English
landowners in Wales with a reputation for being anti-Welsh. Glyndŵr had been engaged in a long-running land dispute with them. In 1399, he appealed to Parliament to resolve the issue and under King Richard the court found for him, he won. Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn
— a good friend of the new king — used his influence to have that decision overturned. Owain Glyndŵr appealed. It was rejected without a hearing even being granted. Furthermore, de Grey deliberately withheld a Royal Summons for Glyndŵr to join the new King’s Scottish campaign. Technically, as a tenant-in-chief to the English King, Glyndŵr was obliged to provide troops, as he had done in the past. By not responding to the hidden summons he unwittingly committed treason
. King Henry declared Glyndŵr a traitor, his estates forfeit. He urged de Grey to deal with Glyndŵr. De Grey broke personal assurances and used force, his intent clear, and left Owain Glyndŵr with no recourse other than flight, seemingly confirming his guilt, then open revolt.
was attacked and almost destroyed. Denbigh
, Rhuddlan
, Flint
, Hawarden
, and Holt
followed quickly afterward. On 22 September the town of Oswestry
was so badly damaged by Owain's raid that it had to be re-chartered. By the 24th Owain was moving south attacking Powis Castle
and sacking Welshpool
. Simultaneously, the Tudor brothers from Anglesey
launched a guerrilla war
against the English. The Tudors were a prominent Anglesey family who were closely associated with King Richard. Gwilym ap Tudur and Rhys ap Tudur
had been Captains of Welsh archers in Richard's campaigns in Ireland. They quickly swore allegiance to their cousin, Owain Glyndŵr.
King Henry IV, on his way north to invade Scotland, turned his army around and by 26 September he was in Shrewsbury
ready to invade Wales. In a lightning campaign, Henry led his army around North Wales. He was harassed constantly by bad weather and the attacks of Welsh guerrillas. By 15 October, he was back in Shrewsbury Castle
with little to show for his efforts.
In 1401, the revolt began to spread. The whole of northern and central Wales went over to Owain. Multiple attacks were recorded on English towns, castles, and manors
throughout the North. Even in the south in Brecon
and Gwent reports began to come in of banditry and lawlessness by groups calling themselves the Plant Owain – the Children of Owain. King Henry appointed Henry Percy – the famous ‘Hotspur’, legendary warrior son of the powerful Earl of Northumberland
– to bring the country to order. Hotspur issued an amnesty in March which applied to all rebels with the exception of Owain and his cousins, Rhys ap Tudur
and Gwilym ap Tudur, sons of Tudur ap Gronw of Penmynydd (forefather of King Henry VII of England
). Most of the country was mightily relieved and agreed to pay all the usual taxes, but the Tudors knew that they needed a bargaining chip if they were to lift the dire threat hanging over them. They decided to capture Edward I
’s great castle at Conwy
. Although the Conwy Castle
garrison amounted to just fifteen men-at-arms and sixty archers
, it was well stocked and easily reinforced from the sea; and in any case, the Tudors only had forty men. They needed a cunning plan. On Good Friday
, which also happened to be 1 April – All Fool’s Day – all but five of the garrison were in the little church in the town when a carpenter appeared at the castle gate, who, according to Adam of Usk
’s Chronicon, ‘feigned to come for his accustomed work’. Once inside, the Welsh carpenter attacked the two guards and threw open the gate to allow entry to the rebels. Although Hotspur arrived from Denbigh
with 120 men-at-arms and 300 archers, he knew it would take a great deal more to get inside so formidable a fortress and, forced to negotiate, he finally gave the Tudors their pardon.
Owain also scored his first major victory in the field in mid-June, at Mynydd Hyddgen on Pumlumon. Owain and his army of four hundred were camped at the bottom of the Hyddgen Valley when fifteen hundred English and Flemish
settlers from Pembrokeshire
(little England beyond Wales), charged down on them. Owain rallied his army and fought back, killing 200 and making prisoners of the rest. The situation was sufficiently serious for the King to assemble another punitive expedition
. This time he attacked through central Wales. From Shrewsbury
and Hereford Castle
, Henry IV's forces drove through Powys
toward the Strata Florida Abbey
. The Cistercian house was known to be sympathetic towards Owain and Henry intended to remind them of their loyalties and prevent the revolt from spreading any further south. After terrible weather and constant harassment by Owain's forces he reached Strata Florida
. Henry was in no mood to be merciful. After a two-day drinking session, his army partially destroyed the abbey
and executed monk
s suspected of pro-Owain loyalties. However, he failed to engage Owain's forces in any large numbers. Owain's forces harassed him and engaged in hit-and-run tactics on his supply chain but refused to fight in the open. Henry's army was forced to retreat. As he did so the weather turned. The army was nearly washed away in floods and Henry, sleeping in his armour, almost died when his tent was blown down. Wet, starving and dejected, they returned to Hereford Castle with nothing to claim for their efforts. The year came to end with the Battle of Tuthill
, an inconclusive battle fought during Owain's siege of Caernarfon Castle
in November 1401.
The English saw that if the revolt prospered it would inevitably attract disaffected supporters of the deposed King Richard. They were concerned about the potential for disaffection in Cheshire
and were increasingly worried about the news from North Wales. Hotspur complained that he was not receiving sufficient support from the King and that the repressive policy of Henry was only encouraging revolt. He argued that negotiation and compromise could persuade Owain to end his revolt. In fact, as early as 1401, Hotspur may have been in secret negotiations with Owain and other leaders of the revolt to attempt to negotiate a settlement. The core Lancastrian supporters would have none of this. They struck back with anti-Welsh legislation designed to establish English dominance in Wales. The laws actually codified common practices that had been at work in Wales and along the Welsh Marches
for many years. The laws included prohibiting any Welshman from buying land in England, from holding any senior public office in Wales, from bearing arms, from holding any castle or defending any house, no Welsh child was to be educated or apprenticed to any trade, no Englishman could be convicted in any suit brought by a Welshman, Welshmen were to be severely penalised when marrying an Englishwoman, any Englishman marrying a Welshwoman was disenfranchised and all public assembly was forbidden. These laws sent a message to any of those who were wavering that the English viewed all the Welsh with equal suspicion. Many Welshmen who had tried to further their careers in English service now felt pushed into the rebellion as the middle ground between Owain and Henry disappeared.
In the same year, 1402, Owain captured his arch enemy, Reynald or Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn
in an ambush in January at Ruthin
. He was to hold him for a year until he received a substantial ransom from King Henry. Paying back this debt effectively ruined de Grey financially. In June 1402 Owain's forces encountered an army led by Sir Edmund Mortimer
, the uncle of the Earl of March
, at Bryn Glas
in central Wales. Mortimer
's army was badly defeated and Mortimer was captured. It is reported that the Welsh women following Owain’s army, killed the wounded English soldiers and mutilated the bodies of the dead, supposedly in revenge for plundering and rape by the English soldiery the previous year. Glyndŵr offered to release Mortimer for a large ransom but, in sharp contrast to his attitude to de Grey, Henry IV refused to pay. Mortimer could be said to have had a greater claim to the English throne than himself so his speedy release was not an option. In response, Sir Edmund negotiated an alliance with Owain and married one of Owain's daughters, Catrin
.
It is also in 1402, that mention of the French
and Bretons
helping Owain were first heard. The French were certainly hoping to use Wales as they had used Scotland as a base from which to fight the English. French privateers began to attack English ships in the Irish Sea
and provide weapons to the Welsh. French and Breton
freebooters were also active in Owain's attacks.
1403 marks the year when the revolt became truly national in Wales. Owain struck out to the west and the south. Recreating Llywelyn the Great
's campaign in the west, Owain marched down the Tywi Valley. Village after village rose to join him. English manors
and castles fell or their inhabitants surrendered. Finally, Carmarthen
, one of the main English power-bases in the west, fell and was occupied by Owain. Owain then turned around and attacked Glamorgan
and Gwent. Abergavenny Castle
was attacked and the walled town burned. Owain pushed on down the valley of the River Usk
to the coast, burning Usk
and taking Cardiff Castle
and Newport Castle
. Royal officials report that Welsh students at Oxford University were leaving their studies for Owain and Welsh labourers and craftsmen were abandoning their employers in England and returning to Wales in droves. Owain could also draw on the seasoned troops from the English campaigns in France and Scotland. Hundreds of Welsh archers
and experienced men-at-arms left English service to join the rebellion.
In the north of Wales, Owain's supporters launched a further attack on Caernarfon Castle
(this time with French support) and almost captured it. In response, Henry of Monmouth
(son of Henry IV and the future Henry V) attacked and burned Owain's homes at Glyndyfrdwy
and Sycharth
. Hotspur defected to Owain, raised his standard in revolt in Cheshire
, a bastion of support for King Richard II, and challenged his cousin Henry's right to the throne. Henry of Monmouth, then only 16, turned to the north to meet Hotspur. On 21 July, Henry arrived in Shrewsbury
just before Hotspur, forcing the rebel army to camp outside the town. Henry forced the battle
before the Earl of Northumberland had also managed to reach Shrewsbury. Thus, Henry was able to fight before the full strength of the rebels was present and on ground of his own choosing. The battle lasted all day, Henry was badly wounded in the face by an arrow but continued to fight alongside his men. When the cry went out that Hotspur had fallen, the rebels' resistance began to falter and crumble. By the end of the day, Hotspur was dead and his rebellion was over. Over 300 knight
s had died and up to 20,000 men were killed or injured.
In 1404, Owain captured and garrisoned the great western castles of Harlech
and Aberystwyth
. Anxious to demonstrate his seriousness as a ruler, he held Court at Harlech
and appointed the devious and brilliant Gruffydd Young
as his Chancellor. Soon afterwards he called his first Parliament (or more properly a or "gathering") of all Wales at Machynlleth
where he was crowned Prince of Wales
and announced his national programme. He declared his vision of an independent Welsh state with a parliament and separate Welsh church. There would be two national universities
(one in the south and one in the north) and return to the traditional law
of Hywel Dda
. Senior churchmen and important members of society flowed to his banner. English resistance was reduced to a few isolated castles, walled towns, and fortified manor houses.
and Mersey
including most of Cheshire
, Shropshire
, and Herefordshire
. The Mortimer
Lords of March would take all of southern and western England and Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester
, would take the north of England. Most historians have dismissed the Indenture as a flight of fantasy. However, it must be remembered that in early 1404 things looked very positive for Owain. Local English communities in Shropshire
, Herefordshire
and Montgomeryshire
had ceased active resistance and were making their own treaties with the rebels. It was rumoured that old allies of Richard II were sending money and arms to the Welsh and the Cistercians and Franciscan
s were funneling funds to support the rebellion. Furthermore, the Percy rebellion was still viable; even after the defeat of the Percy Archbishop Scrope in May. In fact the Percy rebellion was not to end until 1408 when the Sheriff of Yorkshire defeated Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland at Bramham Moor. Thus, far from a flight of fantasy, Owain was capitalising on the political situation to make the best deal he possibly could.
Things were improving on the international front too. Although negotiations with the Scots
and the Lords of Ireland
were unsuccessful, Owain had reasons to hope that the French and Bretons might be more welcoming. Quickly Owain dispatched Gruffydd Young
and his brother-in-law, John Hanmer, to France to negotiate a treaty
with the French. The result was a formal treaty that promised French aid to Owain and the Welsh. The immediate effect seems to have been that joint Welsh and Franco-Breton forces attacked and laid siege to Kidwelly Castle
. The Welsh could also count on semi-official fraternal aid from their fellow Celts in the then independent Brittany
and Scotland
. Scots and French privateers were operating around Wales throughout Owain’s war. Scots ships had raided English settlements on the Llyn Peninsula in 1400 and 1401. In 1403 a Breton squadron defeated the English in the Channel and devastated Jersey
, Guernsey
and Plymouth
while the French made a landing on the Isle of Wight
. By 1404 they were raiding the coast of England, with Welsh troops on board, setting fire to Dartmouth
and devastating the coasts of Devon
.
1405 was the "Year of the French" in Wales. On the continent the French pressed the English as the French army invaded English Aquitaine
. Simultaneously, the French landed in force at Milford Haven
in west Wales. They had left Brest
in July with more than twenty-eight hundred knight
s and men-at-arms led by Jean de Rieux, Breton lord and Marshal of France
. Unfortunately, they had not been provided with sufficient fresh water and many warhorses had died. They did though bring modern siege
equipment. Joined by Owain's forces they marched inland and took the town of Haverfordwest
but failed to take the castle. They then moved on and retook Carmarthen
and laid siege to Tenby
. What happened next is something of a mystery. The Franco-Welsh force marched right across South Wales (according to local tradition) and invaded England. They marched through Herefordshire
and on into Worcestershire
. They met the English army west of Great Witley
, just ten miles from Worcester
, with Henry IV's army arrayed on Abberley
Hill facing south towards Owains army facing north on the defensive Iron Age
hill fort of Woodbury Hill, still known locally as Owain's Hill. The armies took up battle positions daily and viewed each other from a mile without any major action for eight days. Neither initiated battle. Then, for reasons that have never been clear, both sides withdrew. Henry's strategy was to prolong the stand off and weaken and intimidate the Welsh army. The Welsh and French army cut off from resupply withdrew at nightfall back through Wales.
More French were to arrive as the year went on but the high-point of French involvement had passed. The main theory why both sides withdrew from their positions and headed homewards is as follows. The English force on home ground, well supplied and inside England, were able to lay 'siege' to their opponents by surrounding them, thereby preventing vital supplies of food and drink reaching the "invading" Franco-Welsh army. This, slowly but surely, weakened both the body and spiritual resolve of the Welshmen in continuing the struggle isolated so deep into their enemy's territory. It is fascinating to postulate what the result of a full and decisive battle here may have been at this stage.
By 1406, most French forces had withdrawn after politics shifted in Paris toward the peace party. Even Owain's so-called "Pennal
Letter", in which he promised Charles VI of France
and Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to shift the allegiance of the Welsh Church from Rome
to Avignon
, produced no effect. The moment had passed.
There were other signs the revolt was encountering problems. Early in the year Owain’s forces suffered defeats at Grosmont
and Usk
at the Battle of Pwll Melyn
. Although it is very difficult to understand what happened at these two battles, it appears that Henry of Monmouth or possibly Sir John Talbot defeated substantial Welsh raiding parties led by Rhys Gethin
(“Swarthy Rhys”) and Owain’s eldest son, Gruffudd ab Owain Glyndŵr
. The exact date and order of these battles is subject to dispute. However, they may have resulted in the death of Rhys Gethin at Grosmont and Owain's brother, Tudur, at Usk
and the capture of Gruffudd. Gruffudd was sent to the Tower of London
and after six years died in prison. King Henry also showed that the English were engaged in more and more ruthless tactics. Adam of Usk
says that after the Battle of Pwll Melyn
near Usk
, King Henry had three hundred prisoners beheaded in front of Usk Castle. John ap Hywel, Abbot of the nearby Llantarnam
Cistercian monastery
, was killed during the Battle of Usk as he ministered to the dying and wounded on both sides. More serious for the rebellion, English forces landed in Anglesey from Ireland. Over the next year they would gradually push the Welsh back until the resistance in Anglesey formally ended toward the end of 1406.
At the same time, the English were adopting a different strategy. Rather than focusing on punitive expeditions favoured by his father, the young Henry of Monmouth adopted a strategy of economic blockade. Using the castles that remained in English control he gradually began to retake Wales while cutting off trade and the supply of weapons. By 1407 this strategy was beginning to bear fruit. In March, 1,000 men from all over Flintshire
appeared before the Chief Justitiar of the county and agreed to pay a communal fine for their adherence to Glyndŵr. Gradually the same pattern was repeated throughout the country. In July the Earl of Arundel’s north-east Lordship around Oswestry
and Clun
submitted. One by one the Lordships began to surrender. By midsummer, Owain’s castle at Aberystwyth
was under siege. That autumn Aberystwyth Castle
surrendered. In 1409 it was the turn of Harlech Castle
. Last minute desperate envoys were sent to the French for help. There was no response. Gruffydd Young
was sent to Scotland
to attempt to coordinate action but nothing was to come of that either. Harlech Castle
fell in 1409. Edmund Mortimer
died in the final battle and Owain’s wife Margaret along with two of his daughters (including Catrin) and three of his Mortimer granddaughters were taken prisoner and incarcerated in the Tower of London
. They were all to die in the Tower before 1415.
Owain remained free but now he was a hunted guerilla leader. The revolt continued to splutter on. In 1410, Owain readied his supporters for a last raid deep into Shropshire
. Many of his most loyal commanders were present. It may have been a last desperate suicide
raid. Whatever was intended, the raid went terribly wrong and many of the leading figures still at large were captured. Rhys Ddu ("Black Rhys") of Cardigan
, one of Owain’s most faithful commanders, was captured and taken to London for execution. A chronicle of the time states that Rhys Ddu was: "…laid on a hurdle and so drawn forth to Tyburn
through the City and was there hanged and let down again. His head was smitten off and his body quartered and sent to four towns and his head set on London Bridge
." Philip Scudamore and Rhys ap Tudur
were also beheaded and their heads displayed at Shrewsbury
and Chester
(no doubt to discourage any further thoughts of rebellion).
In 1412, Owain captured, and later ransomed, a leading Welsh
supporter of King Henry's, Dafydd Gam
("Crooked David"), in an ambush in Brecon
. These were the last flashes of the revolt. This was the last time that Owain was seen alive by his enemies. As late as 1414, there were rumours that the Herefordshire
based Lollard leader, Sir John Oldcastle
, was communicating with Owain and reinforcements were sent to the major castles in the north and south. Outlaws and bandits left over from the rebellion were still active in Snowdonia
.
But by then things were changing. King Henry IV died in 1413 and his son King Henry V began to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to the Welsh. Royal Pardons were offered to the major leaders of the revolt and other opponents of his father's regime. In a symbolic and pious gesture, the body of deposed King Richard II was interred in Westminster Abbey
. In 1415 Henry V offered a Pardon to Owain, as he prepared for war with France. There is evidence that the new King Henry V was in negotiations with Owain's son, Maredudd ab Owain Glyndŵr
, but nothing was to come of it. In 1416 Maredudd was himself offered a Pardon but refused. Perhaps his father Owain was still alive and he was unwilling to accept it while he lived. He finally accepted a Royal Pardon in 1421, suggesting that Owain Glyndŵr was finally dead. There is some evidence to suggest, in the poetry of the Welsh Bard
Llawdden
for example, that a few diehards continued to fight on even after 1421 under the leadership of Owain's son-in-law Phylib ap Rhys.
The Annals of Owain Glyndwr (Panton MS. 22) finish in the year 1422. The last entry regarding the prince reads:
or family in Wales, English or Welsh, had not been affected in some way. The cost in loss of life, physical destruction, and ruined lives was enormous. Wales, already a poor country on the border of England, was further impoverished by pillage, economic blockade and communal fines. Reports by travellers talk of ruined castles, such as Montgomery Castle
and Abbeys such as Strata Florida Abbey
and Abbeycwmhir
. Grass grew in the market squares of many towns such as Oswestry
and Welsh commerce had almost ground to a halt. Land that had previously been productive was now empty wasteland with no tenants to work the land. As late as 1492, a Royal Official in lowland Glamorgan
was still citing the devastation caused by the revolt as the reason why he was unable to deliver promised revenues to the King.
Many prominent families were ruined. In 1411, John Hanmer pleaded poverty as the reason why he could not pay the fines imposed on him. The Tudors no longer lorded it over Anglesey
and northwest Wales as they had done throughout the late 14th century. The family seemed finished until the third Tudor brother, Maredudd, went to London
and established a new destiny for the family. Others eventually surrendered and made peace with the new order. The redoubtable Henry Dwn who with the French and Bretons had laid siege to Kidwelly Castle
in 1403 and 1404 made his peace and accepted a fine. Somehow he avoided paying a penny. For many years after his surrender and despite official proscriptions, he sheltered rebels on the run, levied fines on 200 individuals that had not supported him, rode around the county with his retinue, and even plotted the murder of the King’s justice. Nevertheless, his grandson fought alongside Henry V in 1415 at the Battle of Agincourt
. Others could not fit into the new order. An unknown number of Owain’s supporters went into exile. Henry Gwyn ("White Henry") — heir to the substantial Lordship of Llansteffan
— left Wales forever and was to die in the service of Charles VI of France
facing his old comrades at the Battle of Agincourt
. Gruffydd Young
was another permanent exile. By 1415 he was in Paris. He was to live another 20 years being first Bishop of Ross in Scotland
and later of Hippo
in North Africa
.
Owain Glyndwr
Owain Glyndŵr , or Owain Glyn Dŵr, anglicised by William Shakespeare as Owen Glendower , was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales...
, against England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
. It was the last major manifestation of a Welsh independence movement before the incorporation of Wales into England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542.
The Fall of Richard II
In the last decade of the 14th century, Richard II of EnglandRichard II of England
Richard II was King of England, a member of the House of Plantagenet and the last of its main-line kings. He ruled from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. Richard was a son of Edward, the Black Prince, and was born during the reign of his grandfather, Edward III...
had launched a bold plan to consolidate his hold on his Kingdom and break the power of the magnates who constantly threatened his authority. As part of this plan, Richard began to shift his power base from the southeast and London towards the establishment of a new Principality around the County of Cheshire
Cheshire
Cheshire is a ceremonial county in North West England. Cheshire's county town is the city of Chester, although its largest town is Warrington. Other major towns include Widnes, Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Runcorn, Macclesfield, Winsford, Northwich, and Wilmslow...
and systematically built up his power in nearby Wales. Wales was ruled through a patchwork of semi-autonomous feudal states, Bishoprics, shires, and territory under direct Royal rule. Richard eliminated his rivals and took their land or gave it to his favourites. As he did so, he raised an entire class of Welsh people to fill the new posts created in his new fiefdom
Fiefdom
A fee was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable lands granted under one of several varieties of feudal tenure by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the...
s. For these people, the final years of the reign of Richard II were full of opportunities. In contrast, to his English magnates, it was a further sign that Richard was dangerously out of control.
In 1399, the exiled Henry Bolingbroke
Henry IV of England
Henry IV was King of England and Lord of Ireland . He was the ninth King of England of the House of Plantagenet and also asserted his grandfather's claim to the title King of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry Bolingbroke...
, heir to the Duchy of Lancaster
Duchy of Lancaster
The Duchy of Lancaster is one of the two royal duchies in England, the other being the Duchy of Cornwall. It is held in trust for the Sovereign, and is used to provide income for the use of the British monarch...
, returned to reclaim his lands. Henry raised an army and marched to meet the King. Richard hurried back from Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
to deal with Henry Bolingbroke. They met in Wales, at Conwy Castle
Conwy Castle
Conwy Castle is a castle in Conwy, on the north coast of Wales.It was built between 1283 and 1289 during King Edward I's second campaign in North Wales....
, to discuss the restitution of Henry's lands. Whatever was intended, the meeting ended when Richard was arrested, deposed and imprisoned, first at Chester, then at Pontefract Castle
Pontefract Castle
Pontefract Castle is a castle in the town of Pontefract, in the City of Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England. It was the site of the demise of Richard II of England, and later the place of a series of famous sieges during the English Civil War-History:...
in West Yorkshire
Yorkshire
Yorkshire is a historic county of northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its great size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been increasingly undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to periodic reform...
. Parliament quickly made Henry Bolingbroke Regent
Regent
A regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
and then King. Richard died under mysterious circumstances in Pontefract Castle
Pontefract Castle
Pontefract Castle is a castle in the town of Pontefract, in the City of Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England. It was the site of the demise of Richard II of England, and later the place of a series of famous sieges during the English Civil War-History:...
, shortly after the failed Epiphany Rising
Epiphany Rising
The Epiphany Rising was a failed rebellion against Henry IV of England in January 1400.-Background:After the murder of Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester in 1397, Richard II rewarded those who had supported him against Gloucester and the Lords Appellant with a plethora of new titles.Upon...
of English Nobles, but his death was not generally known for some time. In Wales, people like Owain Glyndŵr
Owain Glyndwr
Owain Glyndŵr , or Owain Glyn Dŵr, anglicised by William Shakespeare as Owen Glendower , was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales...
were asked for the first time in their life to decide their loyalties. The Welsh were traditionally supporters of King Richard, who had succeeded his father, Edward, the Black Prince
Edward, the Black Prince
Edward of Woodstock, Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, Prince of Aquitaine, KG was the eldest son of King Edward III of England and his wife Philippa of Hainault as well as father to King Richard II of England....
, as Prince of Wales
Prince of Wales
Prince of Wales is a title traditionally granted to the heir apparent to the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the 15 other independent Commonwealth realms...
. With Richard removed, the opportunities for advancement for Welsh people were suddenly severely limited. Many Welsh people seem to have been uncertain where this left them and their future.
For some time, supporters of the deposed king remained at large. On 10 January 1400 serious civil disorder broke out in the English border city of Chester. This was in reaction to the public execution of Piers Legh, captain of Richard II's archers, who had been apprehended disguised as a monk. An atmosphere of disorder was building along the Anglo-Welsh border.
The dispute between Owain Glyndŵr and de Grey
The revolt began as an argument with Owain GlyndŵrOwain Glyndwr
Owain Glyndŵr , or Owain Glyn Dŵr, anglicised by William Shakespeare as Owen Glendower , was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales...
's English neighbour. Successive holders of the title Baron Grey de Ruthyn
Baron Grey de Ruthyn
The title of Baron Grey de Ruthyn was created in the Peerage of England by writ of summons in 1324 for Roger Grey, a son of John Grey, 2nd Baron Grey of Wilton. It has been abeyant since 1963...
of Dyffryn Clwyd were English
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
landowners in Wales with a reputation for being anti-Welsh. Glyndŵr had been engaged in a long-running land dispute with them. In 1399, he appealed to Parliament to resolve the issue and under King Richard the court found for him, he won. Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn
Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn
Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn , a powerful Welsh marcher lord, succeeded to the title on his father Reginald's death in July 1388.- Lineage :...
— a good friend of the new king — used his influence to have that decision overturned. Owain Glyndŵr appealed. It was rejected without a hearing even being granted. Furthermore, de Grey deliberately withheld a Royal Summons for Glyndŵr to join the new King’s Scottish campaign. Technically, as a tenant-in-chief to the English King, Glyndŵr was obliged to provide troops, as he had done in the past. By not responding to the hidden summons he unwittingly committed treason
Treason
In law, treason is the crime that covers some of the more extreme acts against one's sovereign or nation. Historically, treason also covered the murder of specific social superiors, such as the murder of a husband by his wife. Treason against the king was known as high treason and treason against a...
. King Henry declared Glyndŵr a traitor, his estates forfeit. He urged de Grey to deal with Glyndŵr. De Grey broke personal assurances and used force, his intent clear, and left Owain Glyndŵr with no recourse other than flight, seemingly confirming his guilt, then open revolt.
The Welsh Revolt, 1400–15
On 16 September 1400, Owain acted, and was proclaimed Prince of Wales by a small band of followers which included his eldest son, his brothers-in-law, and the Dean of St Asaph. This was a revolutionary statement in itself. Owain’s men quickly spread through north-east Wales. By 19 September, the De Grey stronghold of Ruthin CastleRuthin Castle
Ruthin Castle is a medieval castle fortification in Wales, near the town of Ruthin in the Vale of Clwyd. It was constructed during the late 13th century by Dafydd, the brother of Prince Llywelyn II, on a red sandstone ridge overlooking the valley....
was attacked and almost destroyed. Denbigh
Denbigh
Denbigh is a market town and community in Denbighshire, Wales. Before 1888, it was the county town of Denbighshire. Denbigh lies 8 miles to the north west of Ruthin and to the south of St Asaph. It is about 13 miles from the seaside resort of Rhyl. The town grew around the glove-making industry...
, Rhuddlan
Rhuddlan
Rhuddlan is a town and community in the county of Denbighshire , in north Wales. It is situated to the south of the coastal town of Rhyl and overlooks the River Clwyd. The town gave its name to the Welsh district of Rhuddlan from 1974 to 1996...
, Flint
Flint, Flintshire
Flint is a town in Flintshire, North Wales, lying on the estuary of the River Dee. It was the county town of the historic county of Flintshire and today is the third largest town in Flintshire. According to the 2001 Census the population of the community of Flint was 12,804...
, Hawarden
Hawarden
Hawarden is a village in Flintshire, North Wales. Hawarden forms part of the Deeside conurbation on the Welsh/English border. At the 2001 Census, the population of Hawarden Ward was 1,858...
, and Holt
Holt
- Natural world :* Holt, an otter den* Holt, an occasional name for a fox den* Holt, an area of woodland, e.g. a grove or copse, especially as a place-name in Great Britain, Scandinavia, Iceland, and Germany...
followed quickly afterward. On 22 September the town of Oswestry
Oswestry
Oswestry is a town and civil parish in Shropshire, England, close to the Welsh border. It is at the junction of the A5, A483, and A495 roads....
was so badly damaged by Owain's raid that it had to be re-chartered. By the 24th Owain was moving south attacking Powis Castle
Powis Castle
Powis Castle is a medieval castle, fortress and grand country mansion located near the town of Welshpool, in Powys, Mid Wales.The residence of the Earl of Powis, the castle is known for its extensive, attractive formal gardens, terraces, parkland, deerpark and landscaped estate...
and sacking Welshpool
Welshpool
Welshpool is a town in Powys, Wales, or ancient county Montgomeryshire, from the Wales-England border. The town is low-lying on the River Severn; the Welsh language name Y Trallwng literally meaning 'the marshy or sinking land'...
. Simultaneously, the Tudor brothers from Anglesey
Anglesey
Anglesey , also known by its Welsh name Ynys Môn , is an island and, as Isle of Anglesey, a county off the north west coast of Wales...
launched a guerrilla war
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
against the English. The Tudors were a prominent Anglesey family who were closely associated with King Richard. Gwilym ap Tudur and Rhys ap Tudur
Rhys ap Tudur
Rhys ap Tudur was a Welsh nobleman and a key figure in the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr. A descendant of Ednyfed Fychan, he was escheator and sheriff of Anglesey before the revolt, and served as esquire of Richard II in the 1390s. He held the offices of sheriff and escheator of Anglesey as well as the...
had been Captains of Welsh archers in Richard's campaigns in Ireland. They quickly swore allegiance to their cousin, Owain Glyndŵr.
King Henry IV, on his way north to invade Scotland, turned his army around and by 26 September he was in Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, in the West Midlands region of England. Lying on the River Severn, it is a civil parish home to some 70,000 inhabitants, and is the primary settlement and headquarters of Shropshire Council...
ready to invade Wales. In a lightning campaign, Henry led his army around North Wales. He was harassed constantly by bad weather and the attacks of Welsh guerrillas. By 15 October, he was back in Shrewsbury Castle
Shrewsbury Castle
Shrewsbury Castle is a red sandstone castle in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England. It stands on a hill in the neck of the meander of the River Severn on which the town originally developed. The castle is situated directly above Shrewsbury railway station....
with little to show for his efforts.
Manorialism
Manorialism, an essential element of feudal society, was the organizing principle of rural economy that originated in the villa system of the Late Roman Empire, was widely practiced in medieval western and parts of central Europe, and was slowly replaced by the advent of a money-based market...
throughout the North. Even in the south in Brecon
Brecon
Brecon is a long-established market town and community in southern Powys, Mid Wales, with a population of 7,901. It was the county town of the historic county of Brecknockshire; although its role as such was eclipsed with the formation of Powys, it remains an important local centre...
and Gwent reports began to come in of banditry and lawlessness by groups calling themselves the Plant Owain – the Children of Owain. King Henry appointed Henry Percy – the famous ‘Hotspur’, legendary warrior son of the powerful Earl of Northumberland
Earl of Northumberland
The title of Earl of Northumberland was created several times in the Peerages of England and Great Britain, succeeding the title Earl of Northumbria. Its most famous holders were the House of Percy , who were the most powerful noble family in Northern England for much of the Middle Ages...
– to bring the country to order. Hotspur issued an amnesty in March which applied to all rebels with the exception of Owain and his cousins, Rhys ap Tudur
Rhys ap Tudur
Rhys ap Tudur was a Welsh nobleman and a key figure in the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr. A descendant of Ednyfed Fychan, he was escheator and sheriff of Anglesey before the revolt, and served as esquire of Richard II in the 1390s. He held the offices of sheriff and escheator of Anglesey as well as the...
and Gwilym ap Tudur, sons of Tudur ap Gronw of Penmynydd (forefather of King Henry VII of England
Henry VII of England
Henry VII was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor....
). Most of the country was mightily relieved and agreed to pay all the usual taxes, but the Tudors knew that they needed a bargaining chip if they were to lift the dire threat hanging over them. They decided to capture Edward I
Edward I of England
Edward I , also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. The first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons...
’s great castle at Conwy
Conwy
Conwy is a walled market town and community in Conwy County Borough on the north coast of Wales. The town, which faces Deganwy across the River Conwy, formerly lay in Gwynedd and prior to that in Caernarfonshire. Conwy has a population of 14,208...
. Although the Conwy Castle
Conwy Castle
Conwy Castle is a castle in Conwy, on the north coast of Wales.It was built between 1283 and 1289 during King Edward I's second campaign in North Wales....
garrison amounted to just fifteen men-at-arms and sixty archers
Archery
Archery is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat; in modern times, however, its main use is that of a recreational activity...
, it was well stocked and easily reinforced from the sea; and in any case, the Tudors only had forty men. They needed a cunning plan. On Good Friday
Good Friday
Good Friday , is a religious holiday observed primarily by Christians commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. The holiday is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, and may coincide with the Jewish observance of...
, which also happened to be 1 April – All Fool’s Day – all but five of the garrison were in the little church in the town when a carpenter appeared at the castle gate, who, according to Adam of Usk
Adam of Usk
Adam of Usk was a Welsh priest, canonist, and late medieval historian and chronicler.- Patronage :Born at Usk in what is now Monmouthshire, southeast Wales, Adam received the patronage of Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, who inherited the Lordship of Usk through his wife Philippa...
’s Chronicon, ‘feigned to come for his accustomed work’. Once inside, the Welsh carpenter attacked the two guards and threw open the gate to allow entry to the rebels. Although Hotspur arrived from Denbigh
Denbigh
Denbigh is a market town and community in Denbighshire, Wales. Before 1888, it was the county town of Denbighshire. Denbigh lies 8 miles to the north west of Ruthin and to the south of St Asaph. It is about 13 miles from the seaside resort of Rhyl. The town grew around the glove-making industry...
with 120 men-at-arms and 300 archers, he knew it would take a great deal more to get inside so formidable a fortress and, forced to negotiate, he finally gave the Tudors their pardon.
Owain also scored his first major victory in the field in mid-June, at Mynydd Hyddgen on Pumlumon. Owain and his army of four hundred were camped at the bottom of the Hyddgen Valley when fifteen hundred English and Flemish
Flemish people
The Flemings or Flemish are the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Belgium, where they are mostly found in the northern region of Flanders. They are one of two principal cultural-linguistic groups in Belgium, the other being the French-speaking Walloons...
settlers from Pembrokeshire
Pembrokeshire
Pembrokeshire is a county in the south west of Wales. It borders Carmarthenshire to the east and Ceredigion to the north east. The county town is Haverfordwest where Pembrokeshire County Council is headquartered....
(little England beyond Wales), charged down on them. Owain rallied his army and fought back, killing 200 and making prisoners of the rest. The situation was sufficiently serious for the King to assemble another punitive expedition
Punitive expedition
A punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a state or any group of persons outside the borders of the punishing state. It is usually undertaken in response to perceived disobedient or morally wrong behavior, but may be also be a covered revenge...
. This time he attacked through central Wales. From Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, in the West Midlands region of England. Lying on the River Severn, it is a civil parish home to some 70,000 inhabitants, and is the primary settlement and headquarters of Shropshire Council...
and Hereford Castle
Hereford Castle
Hereford Castle was a castle in the cathedral city of Hereford in Herefordshire, England.- Pre Norman Castle :It stood on a site to the south and east of the modern city overlooking the River Wye...
, Henry IV's forces drove through Powys
Powys
Powys is a local-government county and preserved county in Wales.-Geography:Powys covers the historic counties of Montgomeryshire and Radnorshire, most of Brecknockshire , and a small part of Denbighshire — an area of 5,179 km², making it the largest county in Wales by land area.It is...
toward the Strata Florida Abbey
Strata Florida Abbey
Strata Florida Abbey Flowers. Ystrad corrupts into Strata, while Fflur is the name of the nearby river. After the region around St. David's was firmly occupied by the Norman Marcher lordship of Pembroke by the early 12th century, with St...
. The Cistercian house was known to be sympathetic towards Owain and Henry intended to remind them of their loyalties and prevent the revolt from spreading any further south. After terrible weather and constant harassment by Owain's forces he reached Strata Florida
Strata Florida Abbey
Strata Florida Abbey Flowers. Ystrad corrupts into Strata, while Fflur is the name of the nearby river. After the region around St. David's was firmly occupied by the Norman Marcher lordship of Pembroke by the early 12th century, with St...
. Henry was in no mood to be merciful. After a two-day drinking session, his army partially destroyed the abbey
Abbey
An abbey is a Catholic monastery or convent, under the authority of an Abbot or an Abbess, who serves as the spiritual father or mother of the community.The term can also refer to an establishment which has long ceased to function as an abbey,...
and executed monk
Monk
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
s suspected of pro-Owain loyalties. However, he failed to engage Owain's forces in any large numbers. Owain's forces harassed him and engaged in hit-and-run tactics on his supply chain but refused to fight in the open. Henry's army was forced to retreat. As he did so the weather turned. The army was nearly washed away in floods and Henry, sleeping in his armour, almost died when his tent was blown down. Wet, starving and dejected, they returned to Hereford Castle with nothing to claim for their efforts. The year came to end with the Battle of Tuthill
Battle of Tuthill
The Battle of Tuthill took place at Caernarfon on 2 November 1401 during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr. Glyndŵr's success at the Battle of Mynydd Hyddgen the previous June had provided the revolt with fresh impetus, and the battle may be seen as indicative of his determination to foster revolt in...
, an inconclusive battle fought during Owain's siege of Caernarfon Castle
Caernarfon Castle
Caernarfon Castle is a medieval building in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. There was a motte-and-bailey castle in the town of Caernarfon from the late 11th century until 1283 when King Edward I of England began replacing it with the current stone structure...
in November 1401.
The English saw that if the revolt prospered it would inevitably attract disaffected supporters of the deposed King Richard. They were concerned about the potential for disaffection in Cheshire
Cheshire
Cheshire is a ceremonial county in North West England. Cheshire's county town is the city of Chester, although its largest town is Warrington. Other major towns include Widnes, Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Runcorn, Macclesfield, Winsford, Northwich, and Wilmslow...
and were increasingly worried about the news from North Wales. Hotspur complained that he was not receiving sufficient support from the King and that the repressive policy of Henry was only encouraging revolt. He argued that negotiation and compromise could persuade Owain to end his revolt. In fact, as early as 1401, Hotspur may have been in secret negotiations with Owain and other leaders of the revolt to attempt to negotiate a settlement. The core Lancastrian supporters would have none of this. They struck back with anti-Welsh legislation designed to establish English dominance in Wales. The laws actually codified common practices that had been at work in Wales and along the Welsh Marches
Welsh Marches
The Welsh Marches is a term which, in modern usage, denotes an imprecisely defined area along and around the border between England and Wales in the United Kingdom. The precise meaning of the term has varied at different periods...
for many years. The laws included prohibiting any Welshman from buying land in England, from holding any senior public office in Wales, from bearing arms, from holding any castle or defending any house, no Welsh child was to be educated or apprenticed to any trade, no Englishman could be convicted in any suit brought by a Welshman, Welshmen were to be severely penalised when marrying an Englishwoman, any Englishman marrying a Welshwoman was disenfranchised and all public assembly was forbidden. These laws sent a message to any of those who were wavering that the English viewed all the Welsh with equal suspicion. Many Welshmen who had tried to further their careers in English service now felt pushed into the rebellion as the middle ground between Owain and Henry disappeared.
In the same year, 1402, Owain captured his arch enemy, Reynald or Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn
Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn
Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn , a powerful Welsh marcher lord, succeeded to the title on his father Reginald's death in July 1388.- Lineage :...
in an ambush in January at Ruthin
Ruthin
Ruthin is a community and the county town of Denbighshire in north Wales. Located around a hill in the southern part of the Vale of Clwyd - the older part of the town, the castle and Saint Peter's Square are located on top of the hill, while many newer parts of the town are on the floodplain of...
. He was to hold him for a year until he received a substantial ransom from King Henry. Paying back this debt effectively ruined de Grey financially. In June 1402 Owain's forces encountered an army led by Sir Edmund Mortimer
Edmund Mortimer
-Members of the Marcher family of Mortimer:*Edmund Mortimer, 2nd Baron Wigmore*Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, and his second son*Edmund Mortimer, son of the 3rd Earl*Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March...
, the uncle of the Earl of March
Earl of March
The title The Earl of March has been created several times in the Peerage of Scotland and the Peerage of England. The title derived from the "marches" or boundaries between England and either Wales or Scotland , and was held by several great feudal families which owned lands in those border...
, at Bryn Glas
Battle of Bryn Glas
The Battle of Bryn Glas, was fought on 22 June 1402, near the towns of Knighton and Presteigne in Powys...
in central Wales. Mortimer
Mortimer
Mortimer is a popular English name, used both as a surname and a given name.- Norman origins :The origin of the name is almost certainly Norman, but the details are disputed....
's army was badly defeated and Mortimer was captured. It is reported that the Welsh women following Owain’s army, killed the wounded English soldiers and mutilated the bodies of the dead, supposedly in revenge for plundering and rape by the English soldiery the previous year. Glyndŵr offered to release Mortimer for a large ransom but, in sharp contrast to his attitude to de Grey, Henry IV refused to pay. Mortimer could be said to have had a greater claim to the English throne than himself so his speedy release was not an option. In response, Sir Edmund negotiated an alliance with Owain and married one of Owain's daughters, Catrin
Catrin ferch Owain Glyndwr
Catrin ferch Owain Glyndŵr was one of the daughters of Margaret Hanmer and Owain Glyndŵr.- Lineage :Glyndŵr, a prince of the old Welsh royal house of Powys Fadog of the Mathrafal line, led a major revolt in Wales between 1400 and c.1416, taking the title of "Prince of Wales".Little is known about...
.
It is also in 1402, that mention of the French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
and Bretons
Brittany
Brittany is a cultural and administrative region in the north-west of France. Previously a kingdom and then a duchy, Brittany was united to the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province. Brittany has also been referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain...
helping Owain were first heard. The French were certainly hoping to use Wales as they had used Scotland as a base from which to fight the English. French privateers began to attack English ships in the Irish Sea
Irish Sea
The Irish Sea separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is connected to the Celtic Sea in the south by St George's Channel, and to the Atlantic Ocean in the north by the North Channel. Anglesey is the largest island within the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man...
and provide weapons to the Welsh. French and Breton
Breton people
The Bretons are an ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France. They trace much of their heritage to groups of Brythonic speakers who emigrated from southwestern Great Britain in waves from the 3rd to 6th century into the Armorican peninsula, subsequently named Brittany after them.The...
freebooters were also active in Owain's attacks.
The Revolt Spreads
Llywelyn the Great
Llywelyn the Great , full name Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, was a Prince of Gwynedd in north Wales and eventually de facto ruler over most of Wales...
's campaign in the west, Owain marched down the Tywi Valley. Village after village rose to join him. English manors
Manorialism
Manorialism, an essential element of feudal society, was the organizing principle of rural economy that originated in the villa system of the Late Roman Empire, was widely practiced in medieval western and parts of central Europe, and was slowly replaced by the advent of a money-based market...
and castles fell or their inhabitants surrendered. Finally, Carmarthen
Carmarthen
Carmarthen is a community in, and the county town of, Carmarthenshire, Wales. It is sited on the River Towy north of its mouth at Carmarthen Bay. In 2001, the population was 14,648....
, one of the main English power-bases in the west, fell and was occupied by Owain. Owain then turned around and attacked Glamorgan
Glamorgan
Glamorgan or Glamorganshire is one of the thirteen historic counties and a former administrative county of Wales. It was originally an early medieval kingdom of varying boundaries known as Glywysing until taken over by the Normans as a lordship. Glamorgan is latterly represented by the three...
and Gwent. Abergavenny Castle
Abergavenny Castle
Abergavenny Castle is a castle in the market town of Abergavenny, Monmouthshire in south east Wales.- A naturally fortified site :The castle was sited above the River Usk overlooking the river valley and the confluence of the rivers Gavenny and Usk. The site would have been naturally defensible in...
was attacked and the walled town burned. Owain pushed on down the valley of the River Usk
River Usk
The River Usk rises on the northern slopes of the Black Mountain of mid-Wales, in the easternmost part of the Brecon Beacons National Park. Initially it flows north into Usk Reservoir, then east by Sennybridge to Brecon before turning southeast to flow by Talybont-on-Usk, Crickhowell and...
to the coast, burning Usk
Usk
Usk is a small town in Monmouthshire, Wales, situated 10 miles northeast of Newport.The River Usk flows through the town and is spanned by an ancient, arched stone bridge at the western entrance to the town. A castle above the town overlooks the ancient Anglo-Welsh border crossing - the river can...
and taking Cardiff Castle
Cardiff Castle
Cardiff Castle is a medieval castle and Victorian architecture Gothic revival mansion, transformed from a Norman keep erected over a Roman fort in the Castle Quarter of Cardiff, the capital of Wales. The Castle is a Grade I Listed Building.-The Roman fort:...
and Newport Castle
Newport Castle
Newport Castle is a castle ruin in the city of Newport, South Wales and is a Grade II* Listed building. It is the castle that gives Newport its original and real name in the Welsh language, Castell Newydd, shortened to Casnewydd...
. Royal officials report that Welsh students at Oxford University were leaving their studies for Owain and Welsh labourers and craftsmen were abandoning their employers in England and returning to Wales in droves. Owain could also draw on the seasoned troops from the English campaigns in France and Scotland. Hundreds of Welsh archers
Archery
Archery is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat; in modern times, however, its main use is that of a recreational activity...
and experienced men-at-arms left English service to join the rebellion.
In the north of Wales, Owain's supporters launched a further attack on Caernarfon Castle
Caernarfon Castle
Caernarfon Castle is a medieval building in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. There was a motte-and-bailey castle in the town of Caernarfon from the late 11th century until 1283 when King Edward I of England began replacing it with the current stone structure...
(this time with French support) and almost captured it. In response, Henry of Monmouth
Henry V of England
Henry V was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 35 in 1422. He was the second monarch belonging to the House of Lancaster....
(son of Henry IV and the future Henry V) attacked and burned Owain's homes at Glyndyfrdwy
Glyndyfrdwy
Glyndyfrdwy , or sometimes Glyn Dyfrdwy, is a village in the modern county of Denbighshire, Wales. It is situated on the A5 road half way between Corwen and Llangollen in the Dee Valley .-Owain Glyndwr:...
and Sycharth
Sycharth
Sycharth is a small hamlet in the community of Llangedwyn in Powys in eastern Wales near Llansilin, 7 miles west of Oswestry.- Location :Sycharth sits in the valley of the River Cynllaith, a tributary of the Afon Tanat...
. Hotspur defected to Owain, raised his standard in revolt in Cheshire
Cheshire
Cheshire is a ceremonial county in North West England. Cheshire's county town is the city of Chester, although its largest town is Warrington. Other major towns include Widnes, Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Runcorn, Macclesfield, Winsford, Northwich, and Wilmslow...
, a bastion of support for King Richard II, and challenged his cousin Henry's right to the throne. Henry of Monmouth, then only 16, turned to the north to meet Hotspur. On 21 July, Henry arrived in Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, in the West Midlands region of England. Lying on the River Severn, it is a civil parish home to some 70,000 inhabitants, and is the primary settlement and headquarters of Shropshire Council...
just before Hotspur, forcing the rebel army to camp outside the town. Henry forced the battle
Battle of Shrewsbury
The Battle of Shrewsbury was a battle fought on 21 July 1403, waged between an army led by the Lancastrian King, Henry IV, and a rebel army led by Henry "Hotspur" Percy from Northumberland....
before the Earl of Northumberland had also managed to reach Shrewsbury. Thus, Henry was able to fight before the full strength of the rebels was present and on ground of his own choosing. The battle lasted all day, Henry was badly wounded in the face by an arrow but continued to fight alongside his men. When the cry went out that Hotspur had fallen, the rebels' resistance began to falter and crumble. By the end of the day, Hotspur was dead and his rebellion was over. Over 300 knight
Knight
A knight was a member of a class of lower nobility in the High Middle Ages.By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior....
s had died and up to 20,000 men were killed or injured.
In 1404, Owain captured and garrisoned the great western castles of Harlech
Harlech Castle
Harlech Castle, located in Harlech, Gwynedd, Wales, is a concentric castle, constructed atop a cliff close to the Irish Sea. Architecturally, it is particularly notable for its massive gatehouse....
and Aberystwyth
Aberystwyth Castle
Aberystwyth Castle is an Edwardian fortress located in Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, Mid Wales that was built during the First Welsh War in the late 13th century. It was begun during Edward I's first Welsh campaign at the same time as work started at Flint, Rhuddlan and Builth...
. Anxious to demonstrate his seriousness as a ruler, he held Court at Harlech
Harlech
Harlech is a town and seaside resort in Gwynedd, within the historical boundaries of Merionethshire in northwest Wales. Lying on Tremadog Bay and within the Snowdonia National Park, it has a population of 1,952, of whom 59% speak Welsh...
and appointed the devious and brilliant Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young was a cleric and a close supporter of Owain Glyndwr during his Welsh rebellion against the English King Henry IV between 1400 and 1412.- Winning favour :...
as his Chancellor. Soon afterwards he called his first Parliament (or more properly a or "gathering") of all Wales at Machynlleth
Machynlleth
Machynlleth is a market town in Powys, Wales. It is in the Dyfi Valley at the intersection of the A487 and the A489 roads.Machynlleth was the seat of Owain Glyndŵr's Welsh Parliament in 1404, and as such claims to be the "ancient capital of Wales". However, it has never held any official...
where he was crowned Prince of Wales
Prince of Wales
Prince of Wales is a title traditionally granted to the heir apparent to the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the 15 other independent Commonwealth realms...
and announced his national programme. He declared his vision of an independent Welsh state with a parliament and separate Welsh church. There would be two national universities
University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
(one in the south and one in the north) and return to the traditional law
Welsh law
Welsh law was the system of law practised in Wales before the 16th century. According to tradition it was first codified by Hywel Dda during the period between 942 and 950 when he was king of most of Wales; as such it is usually called Cyfraith Hywel, the Law of Hywel, in Welsh...
of Hywel Dda
Hywel Dda
Hywel Dda , was the well-thought-of king of Deheubarth in south-west Wales, who eventually came to rule Wales from Prestatyn to Pembroke. As a descendant of Rhodri Mawr, through his father Cadell, Hywel was a member of the Dinefwr branch of the dynasty and is also named Hywel ap Cadell...
. Senior churchmen and important members of society flowed to his banner. English resistance was reduced to a few isolated castles, walled towns, and fortified manor houses.
Tripartite Indenture and the Year of the French
Owain demonstrated his new status by negotiating the "Tripartite Indenture" with Edmund Mortimer and the Earl of Northumberland. The Indenture agreed to divide England and Wales between the three of them. Wales would extend as far as the rivers SevernRiver Severn
The River Severn is the longest river in Great Britain, at about , but the second longest on the British Isles, behind the River Shannon. It rises at an altitude of on Plynlimon, Ceredigion near Llanidloes, Powys, in the Cambrian Mountains of mid Wales...
and Mersey
River Mersey
The River Mersey is a river in North West England. It is around long, stretching from Stockport, Greater Manchester, and ending at Liverpool Bay, Merseyside. For centuries, it formed part of the ancient county divide between Lancashire and Cheshire....
including most of Cheshire
Cheshire
Cheshire is a ceremonial county in North West England. Cheshire's county town is the city of Chester, although its largest town is Warrington. Other major towns include Widnes, Congleton, Crewe, Ellesmere Port, Runcorn, Macclesfield, Winsford, Northwich, and Wilmslow...
, Shropshire
Shropshire
Shropshire is a county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes, the county is a NUTS 3 region and is one of four counties or unitary districts that comprise the "Shropshire and Staffordshire" NUTS 2 region. It borders Wales to the west...
, and Herefordshire
Herefordshire
Herefordshire is a historic and ceremonial county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire" NUTS 2 region. It also forms a unitary district known as the...
. The Mortimer
Mortimer
Mortimer is a popular English name, used both as a surname and a given name.- Norman origins :The origin of the name is almost certainly Norman, but the details are disputed....
Lords of March would take all of southern and western England and Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester
Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester
Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, KG was an English medieval nobleman best known for taking part in the rebellion with his nephew Henry Percy, known as 'Harry Hotspur', and brother Northumberland .-Lineage:...
, would take the north of England. Most historians have dismissed the Indenture as a flight of fantasy. However, it must be remembered that in early 1404 things looked very positive for Owain. Local English communities in Shropshire
Shropshire
Shropshire is a county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes, the county is a NUTS 3 region and is one of four counties or unitary districts that comprise the "Shropshire and Staffordshire" NUTS 2 region. It borders Wales to the west...
, Herefordshire
Herefordshire
Herefordshire is a historic and ceremonial county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire" NUTS 2 region. It also forms a unitary district known as the...
and Montgomeryshire
Montgomeryshire
Montgomeryshire, also known as Maldwyn is one of thirteen historic counties and a former administrative county of Wales. Montgomeryshire is still used as a vice-county for wildlife recording...
had ceased active resistance and were making their own treaties with the rebels. It was rumoured that old allies of Richard II were sending money and arms to the Welsh and the Cistercians and Franciscan
Franciscan
Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. Besides Roman Catholic communities, there are also Old Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, ecumenical and Non-denominational Franciscan communities....
s were funneling funds to support the rebellion. Furthermore, the Percy rebellion was still viable; even after the defeat of the Percy Archbishop Scrope in May. In fact the Percy rebellion was not to end until 1408 when the Sheriff of Yorkshire defeated Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland at Bramham Moor. Thus, far from a flight of fantasy, Owain was capitalising on the political situation to make the best deal he possibly could.
Scottish people
The Scottish people , or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, incorporating neighbouring Britons to the south as well as invading Germanic peoples such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse.In modern use,...
and the Lords of Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
were unsuccessful, Owain had reasons to hope that the French and Bretons might be more welcoming. Quickly Owain dispatched Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young was a cleric and a close supporter of Owain Glyndwr during his Welsh rebellion against the English King Henry IV between 1400 and 1412.- Winning favour :...
and his brother-in-law, John Hanmer, to France to negotiate a treaty
Treaty
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or exchange of letters, among other terms...
with the French. The result was a formal treaty that promised French aid to Owain and the Welsh. The immediate effect seems to have been that joint Welsh and Franco-Breton forces attacked and laid siege to Kidwelly Castle
Kidwelly Castle
Kidwelly Castle is an Norman castle overlooking the river Gwendraeth and the town of Kidwelly, Carmarthenshire, Wales.The present remains of the castle include work from about 1200 to about 1476. Created as a defence against the Welsh, the castle fell to the Welsh several times in the twelfth...
. The Welsh could also count on semi-official fraternal aid from their fellow Celts in the then independent Brittany
Brittany
Brittany is a cultural and administrative region in the north-west of France. Previously a kingdom and then a duchy, Brittany was united to the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province. Brittany has also been referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain...
and Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
. Scots and French privateers were operating around Wales throughout Owain’s war. Scots ships had raided English settlements on the Llyn Peninsula in 1400 and 1401. In 1403 a Breton squadron defeated the English in the Channel and devastated Jersey
Jersey
Jersey, officially the Bailiwick of Jersey is a British Crown Dependency off the coast of Normandy, France. As well as the island of Jersey itself, the bailiwick includes two groups of small islands that are no longer permanently inhabited, the Minquiers and Écréhous, and the Pierres de Lecq and...
, Guernsey
Guernsey
Guernsey, officially the Bailiwick of Guernsey is a British Crown dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy.The Bailiwick, as a governing entity, embraces not only all 10 parishes on the Island of Guernsey, but also the islands of Herm, Jethou, Burhou, and Lihou and their islet...
and Plymouth
Plymouth
Plymouth is a city and unitary authority area on the coast of Devon, England, about south-west of London. It is built between the mouths of the rivers Plym to the east and Tamar to the west, where they join Plymouth Sound...
while the French made a landing on the Isle of Wight
Isle of Wight
The Isle of Wight is a county and the largest island of England, located in the English Channel, on average about 2–4 miles off the south coast of the county of Hampshire, separated from the mainland by a strait called the Solent...
. By 1404 they were raiding the coast of England, with Welsh troops on board, setting fire to Dartmouth
Dartmouth, Devon
Dartmouth is a town and civil parish in the English county of Devon. It is a tourist destination set on the banks of the estuary of the River Dart, which is a long narrow tidal ria that runs inland as far as Totnes...
and devastating the coasts of Devon
Devon
Devon is a large county in southwestern England. The county is sometimes referred to as Devonshire, although the term is rarely used inside the county itself as the county has never been officially "shired", it often indicates a traditional or historical context.The county shares borders with...
.
1405 was the "Year of the French" in Wales. On the continent the French pressed the English as the French army invaded English Aquitaine
Aquitaine
Aquitaine , archaic Guyenne/Guienne , is one of the 27 regions of France, in the south-western part of metropolitan France, along the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees mountain range on the border with Spain. It comprises the 5 departments of Dordogne, :Lot et Garonne, :Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Landes...
. Simultaneously, the French landed in force at Milford Haven
Milford Haven
Milford Haven is a town and community in Pembrokeshire, Wales. It is situated on the north side of the Milford Haven Waterway, a natural harbour used as a port since the Middle Ages. The town was founded in 1790 on the north side of the Waterway, from which it takes its name...
in west Wales. They had left Brest
Brest, France
Brest is a city in the Finistère department in Brittany in northwestern France. Located in a sheltered position not far from the western tip of the Breton peninsula, and the western extremity of metropolitan France, Brest is an important harbour and the second French military port after Toulon...
in July with more than twenty-eight hundred knight
Knight
A knight was a member of a class of lower nobility in the High Middle Ages.By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior....
s and men-at-arms led by Jean de Rieux, Breton lord and Marshal of France
Marshal of France
The Marshal of France is a military distinction in contemporary France, not a military rank. It is granted to generals for exceptional achievements...
. Unfortunately, they had not been provided with sufficient fresh water and many warhorses had died. They did though bring modern siege
Siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...
equipment. Joined by Owain's forces they marched inland and took the town of Haverfordwest
Haverfordwest
Haverfordwest is the county town of Pembrokeshire, Wales and serves as the County's principal commercial and administrative centre. Haverfordwest is the most populous urban area in Pembrokeshire, with a population of 13,367 in 2001; though its community boundaries make it the second most populous...
but failed to take the castle. They then moved on and retook Carmarthen
Carmarthen
Carmarthen is a community in, and the county town of, Carmarthenshire, Wales. It is sited on the River Towy north of its mouth at Carmarthen Bay. In 2001, the population was 14,648....
and laid siege to Tenby
Tenby
Tenby is a walled seaside town in Pembrokeshire, South West Wales, lying on Carmarthen Bay.Notable features of Tenby include of sandy beaches; the 13th century medieval town walls, including the Five Arches barbican gatehouse ; 15th century St...
. What happened next is something of a mystery. The Franco-Welsh force marched right across South Wales (according to local tradition) and invaded England. They marched through Herefordshire
Herefordshire
Herefordshire is a historic and ceremonial county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire" NUTS 2 region. It also forms a unitary district known as the...
and on into Worcestershire
Worcestershire
Worcestershire is a non-metropolitan county, established in antiquity, located in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Warwickshire" NUTS 2 region...
. They met the English army west of Great Witley
Great Witley
Great Witley is a village and civil parish in the Malvern Hills District in the northwest of the county of Worcestershire, England...
, just ten miles from Worcester
Worcester
The City of Worcester, commonly known as Worcester, , is a city and county town of Worcestershire in the West Midlands of England. Worcester is situated some southwest of Birmingham and north of Gloucester, and has an approximate population of 94,000 people. The River Severn runs through the...
, with Henry IV's army arrayed on Abberley
Abberley
Abberley is a picturesque village in north west Worcestershire, England. It is situated on the northern slopes of Abberley Hill , between the River Severn and River Teme. The village had a population of 830 in 2001.-Location:...
Hill facing south towards Owains army facing north on the defensive Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
hill fort of Woodbury Hill, still known locally as Owain's Hill. The armies took up battle positions daily and viewed each other from a mile without any major action for eight days. Neither initiated battle. Then, for reasons that have never been clear, both sides withdrew. Henry's strategy was to prolong the stand off and weaken and intimidate the Welsh army. The Welsh and French army cut off from resupply withdrew at nightfall back through Wales.
More French were to arrive as the year went on but the high-point of French involvement had passed. The main theory why both sides withdrew from their positions and headed homewards is as follows. The English force on home ground, well supplied and inside England, were able to lay 'siege' to their opponents by surrounding them, thereby preventing vital supplies of food and drink reaching the "invading" Franco-Welsh army. This, slowly but surely, weakened both the body and spiritual resolve of the Welshmen in continuing the struggle isolated so deep into their enemy's territory. It is fascinating to postulate what the result of a full and decisive battle here may have been at this stage.
The rebellion founders
Pennal
Pennal is a village on the A493 road in southern Gwynedd, Wales, on the north bank of the Afon Dyfi/River Dovey, near Machynlleth.It lies in the former county of Merionethshire/Sir Feirionnydd, and is within the Snowdonia National Park.-Roman Fort:...
Letter", in which he promised Charles VI of France
Charles VI of France
Charles VI , called the Beloved and the Mad , was the King of France from 1380 to 1422, as a member of the House of Valois. His bouts with madness, which seem to have begun in 1392, led to quarrels among the French royal family, which were exploited by the neighbouring powers of England and Burgundy...
and Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to shift the allegiance of the Welsh Church from Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
to Avignon
Avignon
Avignon is a French commune in southeastern France in the départment of the Vaucluse bordered by the left bank of the Rhône river. Of the 94,787 inhabitants of the city on 1 January 2010, 12 000 live in the ancient town centre surrounded by its medieval ramparts.Often referred to as the...
, produced no effect. The moment had passed.
There were other signs the revolt was encountering problems. Early in the year Owain’s forces suffered defeats at Grosmont
Grosmont, Monmouthshire
Grosmont is a village in Monmouthshire, Wales near Abergavenny.- History :Grosmont Castle is a major feature of the village and was the birthplace of Henry, 1st Duke of Lancaster. St...
and Usk
Usk
Usk is a small town in Monmouthshire, Wales, situated 10 miles northeast of Newport.The River Usk flows through the town and is spanned by an ancient, arched stone bridge at the western entrance to the town. A castle above the town overlooks the ancient Anglo-Welsh border crossing - the river can...
at the Battle of Pwll Melyn
Battle of Pwll Melyn
The Battle of Pwll Melyn, also known as the Battle of Usk, was part of the Welsh War of Independence against English rule that lasted from 1400 to 1415. This key battle in the Glyndŵr Rising occurred in the spring of 1405. The defeat of the Welsh rebels here was devastating and included the loss of...
. Although it is very difficult to understand what happened at these two battles, it appears that Henry of Monmouth or possibly Sir John Talbot defeated substantial Welsh raiding parties led by Rhys Gethin
Rhys Gethin
Rhys Gethin was a key figure in the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr. He was his standard bearer and a leading general. His name means "swarthy Rhys"....
(“Swarthy Rhys”) and Owain’s eldest son, Gruffudd ab Owain Glyndŵr
Gruffudd ab Owain Glyndwr
Gruffudd ab Owain Glyndŵr Gruffudd ab Owain Glyndŵr Gruffudd ab Owain Glyndŵr (c.1375-c.1412 was the eldest son of Margaret Hanmer and Owain Glyndŵr the disinherited Prince of the old Royal house of Powys Fadog who led a major revolt in Wales between 1400 and c.1416.- Early life :...
. The exact date and order of these battles is subject to dispute. However, they may have resulted in the death of Rhys Gethin at Grosmont and Owain's brother, Tudur, at Usk
Usk
Usk is a small town in Monmouthshire, Wales, situated 10 miles northeast of Newport.The River Usk flows through the town and is spanned by an ancient, arched stone bridge at the western entrance to the town. A castle above the town overlooks the ancient Anglo-Welsh border crossing - the river can...
and the capture of Gruffudd. Gruffudd was sent to the Tower of London
Tower of London
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space...
and after six years died in prison. King Henry also showed that the English were engaged in more and more ruthless tactics. Adam of Usk
Adam of Usk
Adam of Usk was a Welsh priest, canonist, and late medieval historian and chronicler.- Patronage :Born at Usk in what is now Monmouthshire, southeast Wales, Adam received the patronage of Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, who inherited the Lordship of Usk through his wife Philippa...
says that after the Battle of Pwll Melyn
Battle of Pwll Melyn
The Battle of Pwll Melyn, also known as the Battle of Usk, was part of the Welsh War of Independence against English rule that lasted from 1400 to 1415. This key battle in the Glyndŵr Rising occurred in the spring of 1405. The defeat of the Welsh rebels here was devastating and included the loss of...
near Usk
Usk
Usk is a small town in Monmouthshire, Wales, situated 10 miles northeast of Newport.The River Usk flows through the town and is spanned by an ancient, arched stone bridge at the western entrance to the town. A castle above the town overlooks the ancient Anglo-Welsh border crossing - the river can...
, King Henry had three hundred prisoners beheaded in front of Usk Castle. John ap Hywel, Abbot of the nearby Llantarnam
Llantarnam
Llantarnam is a community and suburb of Cwmbran in the county borough of Torfaen in southeast Wales.Llantarnam Abbey is a Cistercian abbey founded in 1179 as a daughter house of Strata Florida Abbey...
Cistercian monastery
Monastery
Monastery denotes the building, or complex of buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer as well as the domestic quarters and workplace of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone .Monasteries may vary greatly in size – a small dwelling accommodating only...
, was killed during the Battle of Usk as he ministered to the dying and wounded on both sides. More serious for the rebellion, English forces landed in Anglesey from Ireland. Over the next year they would gradually push the Welsh back until the resistance in Anglesey formally ended toward the end of 1406.
At the same time, the English were adopting a different strategy. Rather than focusing on punitive expeditions favoured by his father, the young Henry of Monmouth adopted a strategy of economic blockade. Using the castles that remained in English control he gradually began to retake Wales while cutting off trade and the supply of weapons. By 1407 this strategy was beginning to bear fruit. In March, 1,000 men from all over Flintshire
Flintshire
Flintshire is a county in north-east Wales. It borders Denbighshire, Wrexham and the English county of Cheshire. It is named after the historic county of Flintshire, which had notably different borders...
appeared before the Chief Justitiar of the county and agreed to pay a communal fine for their adherence to Glyndŵr. Gradually the same pattern was repeated throughout the country. In July the Earl of Arundel’s north-east Lordship around Oswestry
Oswestry
Oswestry is a town and civil parish in Shropshire, England, close to the Welsh border. It is at the junction of the A5, A483, and A495 roads....
and Clun
Clun
Clun is a small town in Shropshire, England. The town is located entirely in the Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The 2001 census recorded 642 people living in the town...
submitted. One by one the Lordships began to surrender. By midsummer, Owain’s castle at Aberystwyth
Aberystwyth
Aberystwyth is a historic market town, administrative centre and holiday resort within Ceredigion, Wales. Often colloquially known as Aber, it is located at the confluence of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol....
was under siege. That autumn Aberystwyth Castle
Aberystwyth Castle
Aberystwyth Castle is an Edwardian fortress located in Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, Mid Wales that was built during the First Welsh War in the late 13th century. It was begun during Edward I's first Welsh campaign at the same time as work started at Flint, Rhuddlan and Builth...
surrendered. In 1409 it was the turn of Harlech Castle
Harlech Castle
Harlech Castle, located in Harlech, Gwynedd, Wales, is a concentric castle, constructed atop a cliff close to the Irish Sea. Architecturally, it is particularly notable for its massive gatehouse....
. Last minute desperate envoys were sent to the French for help. There was no response. Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young was a cleric and a close supporter of Owain Glyndwr during his Welsh rebellion against the English King Henry IV between 1400 and 1412.- Winning favour :...
was sent to Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
to attempt to coordinate action but nothing was to come of that either. Harlech Castle
Harlech Castle
Harlech Castle, located in Harlech, Gwynedd, Wales, is a concentric castle, constructed atop a cliff close to the Irish Sea. Architecturally, it is particularly notable for its massive gatehouse....
fell in 1409. Edmund Mortimer
Edmund Mortimer
-Members of the Marcher family of Mortimer:*Edmund Mortimer, 2nd Baron Wigmore*Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, and his second son*Edmund Mortimer, son of the 3rd Earl*Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March...
died in the final battle and Owain’s wife Margaret along with two of his daughters (including Catrin) and three of his Mortimer granddaughters were taken prisoner and incarcerated in the Tower of London
Tower of London
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space...
. They were all to die in the Tower before 1415.
Owain remained free but now he was a hunted guerilla leader. The revolt continued to splutter on. In 1410, Owain readied his supporters for a last raid deep into Shropshire
Shropshire
Shropshire is a county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes, the county is a NUTS 3 region and is one of four counties or unitary districts that comprise the "Shropshire and Staffordshire" NUTS 2 region. It borders Wales to the west...
. Many of his most loyal commanders were present. It may have been a last desperate suicide
Suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Suicide is often committed out of despair or attributed to some underlying mental disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, alcoholism, or drug abuse...
raid. Whatever was intended, the raid went terribly wrong and many of the leading figures still at large were captured. Rhys Ddu ("Black Rhys") of Cardigan
Cardigan, Ceredigion
Cardigan is a town in the county of Ceredigion in Mid Wales. It lies on the estuary of the River Teifi at the point where Ceredigion meets Pembrokeshire. It was the county town of the pre-1974 county of Cardiganshire. It is the second largest town in Ceredigion. The town's population was 4,203...
, one of Owain’s most faithful commanders, was captured and taken to London for execution. A chronicle of the time states that Rhys Ddu was: "…laid on a hurdle and so drawn forth to Tyburn
Tyburn
Tyburn is a former village just outside the then boundaries of London that was best known as a place of public execution.Tyburn may also refer to:* Tyburn , river and historical water source in London...
through the City and was there hanged and let down again. His head was smitten off and his body quartered and sent to four towns and his head set on London Bridge
London Bridge
London Bridge is a bridge over the River Thames, connecting the City of London and Southwark, in central London. Situated between Cannon Street Railway Bridge and Tower Bridge, it forms the western end of the Pool of London...
." Philip Scudamore and Rhys ap Tudur
Rhys ap Tudur
Rhys ap Tudur was a Welsh nobleman and a key figure in the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr. A descendant of Ednyfed Fychan, he was escheator and sheriff of Anglesey before the revolt, and served as esquire of Richard II in the 1390s. He held the offices of sheriff and escheator of Anglesey as well as the...
were also beheaded and their heads displayed at Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury
Shrewsbury is the county town of Shropshire, in the West Midlands region of England. Lying on the River Severn, it is a civil parish home to some 70,000 inhabitants, and is the primary settlement and headquarters of Shropshire Council...
and Chester
Chester
Chester is a city in Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is home to 77,040 inhabitants, and is the largest and most populous settlement of the wider unitary authority area of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 328,100 according to the...
(no doubt to discourage any further thoughts of rebellion).
In 1412, Owain captured, and later ransomed, a leading Welsh
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
supporter of King Henry's, Dafydd Gam
Dafydd Gam
Dafydd ap Llewelyn ap Hywel , better known as Dafydd Gam or Davy Gam, was a Welsh medieval nobleman, a prominent opponent of Owain Glyndŵr, who died at the Battle of Agincourt fighting for King Henry V, King of England in that victory against the French...
("Crooked David"), in an ambush in Brecon
Brecon
Brecon is a long-established market town and community in southern Powys, Mid Wales, with a population of 7,901. It was the county town of the historic county of Brecknockshire; although its role as such was eclipsed with the formation of Powys, it remains an important local centre...
. These were the last flashes of the revolt. This was the last time that Owain was seen alive by his enemies. As late as 1414, there were rumours that the Herefordshire
Herefordshire
Herefordshire is a historic and ceremonial county in the West Midlands region of England. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire" NUTS 2 region. It also forms a unitary district known as the...
based Lollard leader, Sir John Oldcastle
John Oldcastle
Sir John Oldcastle , English Lollard leader, was son of Sir Richard Oldcastle of Almeley in northwest Herefordshire and grandson of another Sir John Oldcastle....
, was communicating with Owain and reinforcements were sent to the major castles in the north and south. Outlaws and bandits left over from the rebellion were still active in Snowdonia
Snowdonia
Snowdonia is a region in north Wales and a national park of in area. It was the first to be designated of the three National Parks in Wales, in 1951.-Name and extent:...
.
But by then things were changing. King Henry IV died in 1413 and his son King Henry V began to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to the Welsh. Royal Pardons were offered to the major leaders of the revolt and other opponents of his father's regime. In a symbolic and pious gesture, the body of deposed King Richard II was interred in Westminster Abbey
Westminster Abbey
The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, popularly known as Westminster Abbey, is a large, mainly Gothic church, in the City of Westminster, London, United Kingdom, located just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English,...
. In 1415 Henry V offered a Pardon to Owain, as he prepared for war with France. There is evidence that the new King Henry V was in negotiations with Owain's son, Maredudd ab Owain Glyndŵr
Maredudd ab Owain Glyndwr
Maredudd ab Owain Glyndŵr was a son of Margaret Hanmer and Owain Glyndŵr. He is thought to have participated in revolt raised by Glyndŵr in Wales between 1400 and c.1416.-Early life:...
, but nothing was to come of it. In 1416 Maredudd was himself offered a Pardon but refused. Perhaps his father Owain was still alive and he was unwilling to accept it while he lived. He finally accepted a Royal Pardon in 1421, suggesting that Owain Glyndŵr was finally dead. There is some evidence to suggest, in the poetry of the Welsh Bard
Bard
In medieval Gaelic and British culture a bard was a professional poet, employed by a patron, such as a monarch or nobleman, to commemorate the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.Originally a specific class of poet, contrasting with another class known as fili in Ireland...
Llawdden
Llawdden
Llawdden was Welsh language poet and a priest.Llawdden composed poems to many prominent noble families.Perhaps Llawdden’s greatest claim to fame is his inauguration in the Eisteddfod held at Caerfyrddin attended by Dafydd ab Edmwnd....
for example, that a few diehards continued to fight on even after 1421 under the leadership of Owain's son-in-law Phylib ap Rhys.
The Annals of Owain Glyndwr (Panton MS. 22) finish in the year 1422. The last entry regarding the prince reads:
- 1415 - Owain went into hiding on St Matthew's Day in Harvest (21 September), and thereafter his hiding place was unknown. Very many said that he died; the seers maintain he did not.
The Aftermath of Rebellion in Wales
By 1415, full English rule was returned to Wales. The leading rebels were dead, imprisoned, or impoverished through massive fines. Scarcely a parishParish
A parish is a territorial unit historically under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of one parish priest, who might be assisted in his pastoral duties by a curate or curates - also priests but not the parish priest - from a more or less central parish church with its associated organization...
or family in Wales, English or Welsh, had not been affected in some way. The cost in loss of life, physical destruction, and ruined lives was enormous. Wales, already a poor country on the border of England, was further impoverished by pillage, economic blockade and communal fines. Reports by travellers talk of ruined castles, such as Montgomery Castle
Montgomery Castle
Montgomery Castle is a stone masonry castle looking over the town of Montgomery in Powys, mid Wales. It is one of many Norman castles on the border between Wales and England.- Motte & Bailey Castle :...
and Abbeys such as Strata Florida Abbey
Strata Florida Abbey
Strata Florida Abbey Flowers. Ystrad corrupts into Strata, while Fflur is the name of the nearby river. After the region around St. David's was firmly occupied by the Norman Marcher lordship of Pembroke by the early 12th century, with St...
and Abbeycwmhir
Abbeycwmhir
Abbeycwmhir or Abbey Cwmhir is a village in the valley of the Clywedog brook in Powys, Wales.- The Abbey :The village is named after Cwmhir Abbey, the Cistercian abbey built there in 1143. It was the largest Abbey in Wales but was never completed. Its fourteen bay nave was longer than Canterbury...
. Grass grew in the market squares of many towns such as Oswestry
Oswestry
Oswestry is a town and civil parish in Shropshire, England, close to the Welsh border. It is at the junction of the A5, A483, and A495 roads....
and Welsh commerce had almost ground to a halt. Land that had previously been productive was now empty wasteland with no tenants to work the land. As late as 1492, a Royal Official in lowland Glamorgan
Glamorgan
Glamorgan or Glamorganshire is one of the thirteen historic counties and a former administrative county of Wales. It was originally an early medieval kingdom of varying boundaries known as Glywysing until taken over by the Normans as a lordship. Glamorgan is latterly represented by the three...
was still citing the devastation caused by the revolt as the reason why he was unable to deliver promised revenues to the King.
Many prominent families were ruined. In 1411, John Hanmer pleaded poverty as the reason why he could not pay the fines imposed on him. The Tudors no longer lorded it over Anglesey
Anglesey
Anglesey , also known by its Welsh name Ynys Môn , is an island and, as Isle of Anglesey, a county off the north west coast of Wales...
and northwest Wales as they had done throughout the late 14th century. The family seemed finished until the third Tudor brother, Maredudd, went to London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
and established a new destiny for the family. Others eventually surrendered and made peace with the new order. The redoubtable Henry Dwn who with the French and Bretons had laid siege to Kidwelly Castle
Kidwelly Castle
Kidwelly Castle is an Norman castle overlooking the river Gwendraeth and the town of Kidwelly, Carmarthenshire, Wales.The present remains of the castle include work from about 1200 to about 1476. Created as a defence against the Welsh, the castle fell to the Welsh several times in the twelfth...
in 1403 and 1404 made his peace and accepted a fine. Somehow he avoided paying a penny. For many years after his surrender and despite official proscriptions, he sheltered rebels on the run, levied fines on 200 individuals that had not supported him, rode around the county with his retinue, and even plotted the murder of the King’s justice. Nevertheless, his grandson fought alongside Henry V in 1415 at the Battle of Agincourt
Battle of Agincourt
The Battle of Agincourt was a major English victory against a numerically superior French army in the Hundred Years' War. The battle occurred on Friday, 25 October 1415 , near modern-day Azincourt, in northern France...
. Others could not fit into the new order. An unknown number of Owain’s supporters went into exile. Henry Gwyn ("White Henry") — heir to the substantial Lordship of Llansteffan
Llansteffan
Llansteffan is a village in Carmarthenshire, Wales. Llansteffan is one of three settlements positioned on the Tywi river, other settlements include Ferryside and Carmarthen . Llansteffan Castle, built by the Normans in the 12th century, is located in the village...
— left Wales forever and was to die in the service of Charles VI of France
Charles VI of France
Charles VI , called the Beloved and the Mad , was the King of France from 1380 to 1422, as a member of the House of Valois. His bouts with madness, which seem to have begun in 1392, led to quarrels among the French royal family, which were exploited by the neighbouring powers of England and Burgundy...
facing his old comrades at the Battle of Agincourt
Battle of Agincourt
The Battle of Agincourt was a major English victory against a numerically superior French army in the Hundred Years' War. The battle occurred on Friday, 25 October 1415 , near modern-day Azincourt, in northern France...
. Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young
Gruffydd Young was a cleric and a close supporter of Owain Glyndwr during his Welsh rebellion against the English King Henry IV between 1400 and 1412.- Winning favour :...
was another permanent exile. By 1415 he was in Paris. He was to live another 20 years being first Bishop of Ross in Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
and later of Hippo
Hippo Regius
Hippo Regius is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba, in Algeria. Under this name, it was a major city in Roman Africa, hosting several early Christian councils, and was the home of the philosopher and theologian Augustine of Hippo...
in North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
.