Bladen Nature Reserve
Encyclopedia
Bladen Nature Reserve is a landscape of cave
s, sinkhole
s, pristine streams and rivers, undisturbed old growth
rainforest
and an abundance of highly diverse flora and fauna which includes a great deal of rare and endemic species.
Widely described as the crown jewel of Belize
’s protected areas, Bladen is considered to be one of the most biodiversity
-rich, and geographically unique areas within the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor
. At 99796 acres (40,386 ha) Bladen forms a significant portion of the Key Biodiversity Area of the Maya Mountains Massif which was identified as one of the most important blocks of protected areas within Belize and more broadly, Mesoamerica
, itself a region considered a world ‘hotspot for species diversity’ and considered critical for the preservation of the biodiversity of the Western Hemisphere
.
At its most sheltered points, west of the rugged karst
(limestone
) hills, Bladen has protection from many of the destructive storms that hit the Caribbean
coastline, resulting in a forest with a little-disturbed structure, tall trees of impressive stature and intact ecosystem
s. The large number of ecosystems encompassed within the Nature Reserve highlights its importance as a strictly protected conservation area. Bladen protects species diversity
across a great range of elevations, which according to recent evidence includes several potential new and endemic species.
Within the Maya Mountains
, Bladen forms a crucial link between Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary
to the northeast and Columbia River Forest Reserve to the southwest. Chiquibul National Park and Forest Reserve
lie to the northwest, connecting to the protected areas system in Guatemala
. With the rapid clearance of forested areas throughout Central America, this is part of the last remaining large, relatively intact block of forest within the region – the Selva Maya - stretching from Belize through to Guatemala and Mexico
.
This large expanse of primarily forested uplands and valleys is essential for the survival of species such as the jaguar
, scarlet macaw
, white-lipped peccary
and harpy eagle, which need large contiguous forest stretches in order to maintain viable populations.
Management
Bladen is one of three nature reserve
s within Belize, and is managed through partnership between the Government of Belize and the Ya'axché Conservation Trust (Ya’axché). Ya’axché took over management in December 2008 and has a letter of intent from the Belize Forest Department to co-manage the protected area. Ya'axché now assumes responsibility for the day to day management of the Reserve.
, with this large contiguous block of undisturbed rainforest these game species are able to increase population size thus creating a ‘spillover effect’ onto community lands where they may be hunted as a source of protein
by indigenous Mayan
communities which buffer Bladen and who have traditionally lived off the products of these forests.
Bladen Nature Reserve’s role in watershed protection within the area is also important, with the river system providing water for local communities and large agricultural areas on the coastal plain. The watershed drains into the Caribbean Sea
26 km (16.2 mi) to the east, with the Belize Barrier Reef
- the second largest barrier reef
in the world - lying offshore, reliant on the quality of the water. Bladen, along with Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary protects the upper waters and tributaries of the Monkey River
, ensuring that it provides the major benefits of watershed protection and management to the coastal plain areas, including water supply
, water quality
, flood control
, sediment control
, quality of fish stocks, biodiversity, and habitat preservation. Furthermore, Bladen protects the steeper slopes of the watershed areas, which, if cleared, would cause rapid erosion
and sedimentation
problems, not only within the river system downstream, but also on the sea grass and out on the fragile coral reef
.
/ volcanic slopes rising to the crest of the Maya Divide to the north west, and the limestone karst to the south, both draining into the flat, alluvial plain
of the Bladen Branch itself. Between these two, lies the Bladen Branch valley, draining to the northeast.
The geology of Bladen follows this general topography
, being divided into two geomorphological areas running parallel to each other. The ridge of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, known as the Santa Rosa Group, with localized granite intrusions, is part of the main Maya Mountain range, which was subjected to tectonic uplift along two major fault systems – the Northern Boundary Fault to the north, and Quartz Ridge / Bladen Fault during the Triassic period, accompanied by intrusion by granite. In the early Cretaceous period oceanic waters flooded the area and fossiliferous limestones were deposited over the entire Maya Mountains.
The beginning of the Tertiary Period (65 million years ago) saw renewed tectonic uplift
of the Maya Mountains (Table 5) resulting in the formation of an upland plateau, and shaping the present topography of the Maya Massif. This plateau dips gently to the west, whilst the steep eastern edge of this plateau has been eroded by numerous streams to form the series of steep sided valleys leading down from the Maya Divide, that form the relief in Cockscomb, Bladen and Columbia Forest.
To the east and south-east lies rugged limestone topography of steep, conical hills pocked by vertical-sided sinkholes, underground streams and caves. Water is scarce in this karst landscape, especially during the dry months, resulting in the presence of a vegetation type adapted to seasonally drier conditions, and a seasonal migration
of wildlife to the lowlands. Smaller streams that emerge as springs within the hill slopes then disappear underground again after flowing a short distance – a characteristic of this limestone topography. Only the Bladen, flowing over the porphrytic Bladen Volcanic Member (an area composed of lavas and associated extrusive volcanic sediments that lies between the Santa Rosa Group and the limestone hills), runs permanently throughout the year.
studies have taken place in Belize – the first a comprehensive study of the whole country by Wright et al. (1959), looking at soils and associated vegetation assemblages in great detail. The second is a more recent study by King et al. (1986) based on Wright et al. (1959) but using techniques such as satellite imagery to update the original report. Soils within Bladen are dependent on the underlying geology
, and can be divided broadly into soils derived from limestone rocks, and those with granitic origins.
Constantly Lime Enriched Soils and Intermittently Lime Enriched Soils: These are soils of the Toledo Foothills - densely dissected, steeply sloping limestone hills. Much of the land consists of karst topography of sloping towers and sink holes, produced by differential limestone solution. The steeper regions are very prone to erosion, and therefore unsuitable for agriculture
.
Acidic Soils: These acidic soils are derived from the granite upland areas of the Richardson Peak Mountains Land System that form the western slopes of the Bladen Basin. These steep mountainous slopes of the Maya Mountains – over 25° angle between 80 and 1120 m (262.5 and 3,674.5 ft) altitude, overlie Santa Rosa Group metasediment
rocks, producing non-alluvial, shallow soils on the slopes, or deeper colluvial deposits that collect at the base of the hillslopes following erosion. Vegetation characteristic of this soil type is evergreen broadleaf forest, shrubland
and pine
at higher altitudes.
Recent Soils: The most recent soils are in the north-east of Bladen, following the line of the floodplain of Bladen Branch and Richardson Creek, and laid down by these streams as they drain the Richardson Peak Mountains and karst hills to either side, and also the volcanic porphyrite. These fertile, alluvial soils are built up by regular flood events, with the characteristics of the Toledo Floodplain soils, and have led to incursions into the area by people wanting to settle new farming areas.
To the south-east, a limited number of the karstic streams form the headwaters of Golden Stream, and to the south east, the Rio Grande
watersheds.
Of the three water system categories – upper reaches (headwaters), middle reaches, and lower reaches (estuarine) - only two (upper and middle reaches) are represented within Bladen, as the protected area has no direct contact with the coastal areas. The majority of the streams and creeks draining the hill slopes within Bladen fall within the upper, or ‘headwaters’ category, characterized by fast running streams, waterfalls, pools and riffles, often carved deep into the bedrock, with tropical broadleaf forest on either bank, branches meeting overhead and shading the water.
These upper reach streams then join to form Bladen Branch further downstream in the middle reaches of the river system, the water flowing through a narrow floodplain
, with little variation in gradient. The character of the waterway changes from the fast moving streams of the headwaters to slower, wider, deeper, meandering rivers, interspersed in places with shallower riffles.
Dependent on the geology of the area, the river systems of the Monkey River watershed can be divided into two different categories - those rivers that drain granite and Santa Rosa Group metasediments (tributaries of South Stann Creek, Swasey Branch and Trio), and those that drain the Bladen volcanic rock and surrounding limestone (Richardson Creek and other southern tributaries of Bladen Branch). The water of rivers draining the granite and metasediments is rich in phosphorus
, though with low nitrogen
levels, low conductivity
and a basic pH. Conversely Bladen Branch, draining the volcanic rock and adjacent limestone, is low in phosphorus, but has a higher level of nitrogen, high conductivity, and a neutral pH.
The differing phosphorus levels have a very strong bearing on the flora and fauna found within these rivers (Esselman, pers. com.). Phosphorus is particularly important as a plant growth promoter in freshwater
systems, resulting in more abundant aquatic plant life (especially Marathrum oxycarpum), providing greater shelter and food resources, enabling greater aquatic invertebrate
abundance and biomass
– which can be expected to result in an increased abundances and biomass of fish. M. oxycarpum is present at elevated levels in South Stann Creek, Swasey Branch and Trio Branch, all of which drain areas of granite and metasediments, and can be expected to show far greater abundance of plant life than the phosphorus-poor Bladen Branch and Richardson Creek.
in the valleys and on the lower slopes, semi-evergreen (25-50% deciduous
trees) on the upper slopes, and semi-deciduous (5-75% deciduous trees) on the ridge. Forest stature decreases with increasing elevation from the valleys to the ridges, with a corresponding decrease in the density of large trees. This largely reflects edaphic drought associated with rapid drainage on the steep limestone topography. Recent studies of phytogeography have demonstrated a significant affinity between the flora of the Greater Antilles
and the upper limestone ridges of the Bladen Nature Reserve, indicating a far more complex regional phytogeography than previously suspected.
Twenty ecosystems have been identified within the Bladen area, ranging from broadleaf lowland hill forest to submontane forest, riparian shrubland and short grass savannah
.
At the ecosystem level, the Bladen Nature Reserve plays a critical role as a core conservation area, protecting over 5% of the national extent of 11 ecosystems. 10 of these ecosystems have more than 15% of their total national coverage within the protected area, 5 of which have over one third of the total national coverage occurring within the boundaries of Bladen Nature Reserve. Each of these ecosystems is confined to rugged terrain in the higher rainfall areas of southern Belize.
, aspect and hydrology
, Bladen Nature Reserve offers perhaps the most diverse range of conditions for plant life of any protected area in Belize (Figure 7). A significant portion of the plants recorded to date are specialists – associated with a narrow ecological zone. This complexity is enhanced by the seasonality
experienced by the limestone substrata and associated soils (Brewer et al. 2003). Whilst the 1994 REA recognized only 9 ecosystems (as compared with the 20 mapped by Meerman & Sabido), they found that 73% of the approximately 300 plant species they identified were specific to single ecosystems. This suggests a far higher prevalence of ecological specialization in the flora of Bladen than is typical in Belize. Plant associations are reported to link the flora of some of the upper elevations within Bladen with the flora of the Antillean archipelago
(S. Brewer, pers. com.). A number of plant species that occur in these upper elevations of Bladen and the contiguous portions in Chiquibul National Park are found nowhere else in Belize (J. Marlin, pers. com.).
Whilst the lowlands of Bladen were repeatedly logged, albeit at low levels, up until about 1970, the steep terrain of much of the Reserve was not conducive to extensive logging
far beyond the most accessible valleys and adjacent slopes. Snake Creek, in SW Bladen, was the most remote portion that was logged. As a result of this limitation to the extent of logging activities, and the fact that legal commercial logging has not taken place for 35 years, Bladen is now considered as one of the most pristine environments in Belize.
93 species of mammal, 337 species of birds and 92 herptiles are considered confirmed for Bladen, either through being recorded within the protected area, or being recorded in both the contiguous protected areas to the north and south (Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and Columbia River Forest Reserve - Bladen is expected to have significant species overlap with these two adjacent protected areas). Bladen is also expected to share some of the species recorded in the montane forest areas of Doyle's Delight
, and the majority of those of the more intensively studied BFREE property.
The majority of species of concern listed for Cockscomb and Columbia River Forest Reserve are considered to be protected by Bladen as well, though in some cases this needs verification through further fieldwork in the area. Of these, 19 are considered of international concern at species level under the IUCN Red List
(Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or at Least Risk/Near Threatened). A further two are considered of international concern at sub-species level; the Central American spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi spp. yucatanensis) and the tayra
(Eira barbara ssp. senex).
species typical of tropical moist broadleaf forest. Of the 163 species of mammal recorded within Belize that could potentially be found in the protected area based on the assumption of similar ecosystems, 93 species are recorded as present within Bladen Nature Reserve itself.
When the entire Maya Mountain block of east-slope protected areas of contiguous ecosystems is considered (Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Bladen Nature Reserve and Columbia River Forest Reserve), the number of species that could be present increases to 110 species – 67% of the total number of mammal species recorded for Belize, partly as a result of specialized species surveys into groups such as the small rodent
s and bat
s. Bladen is therefore highlighted as a vital conservation area within the protected areas system, making a major contribution towards the maintenance of biodiversity in Belize. Its isolated nature and the lack of access have led to buffering it has with the presence of the other protected areas and the BFREE lands should enable it to continue its role in protecting both threatened and non-threatened species.
The Yucatan black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra), one of the two primate species recorded from the area, is endemic to a small area of the Yucatan Peninsula
, Belize and the Peten
. This species was decimated by a yellow fever
epidemic in 1956/1957 that swept through the Alouatta population throughout most of the country. Pockets of viable populations remained, including those in Columbia River Forest Reserve and Bladen Nature Reserve, whilst in other areas further north, such as Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Reserve, the epidemic was compounded by other impacts such as the effects of Hurricane Hattie
in 1961, and by local hunting pressure, extirpating the local population by 1978. There was a notable lack of howler monkey
s in Bladen during both the 1987 and 1994 surveys, attributed to the yellow fever - however enquiries into the howler monkey populations in the area, among traditional users – chicleros and hunters – suggest that this species has been continuously present in the area, and it is presently considered to have a healthy population (Marlin, pers. com.). This may be important for the replenishment of the coastal population following the population crash and social disorganization experienced after Hurricane Iris
in 2001. With increasing habitat fragmentation
and loss throughout its range, Alouatta pigra has recently been upgraded to Endangered in the IUCN Redbook.
The second species, the Central American spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi), appears to be more restricted to the forested hill slopes, overlapping less with the coastal areas of human impact. The Belize sub-species, Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis, is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ (IUCN, 2005), reflecting the decreasing population in the region, primarily through habitat destruction.
Baird's Tapir
(Tapirus bairdii) is the largest herbivore
present in Bladen, and tends to be associated particularly with riparian areas where it grazes on the herbaceous vegetation. Both the 1984 and the 1997 studies reported frequent sightings of tracks, suggesting that this species is widespread through the lowland areas of the Nature Reserve (Brokaw et al.). Whilst listed as an ‘Endangered’ species internationally, it is widespread in Belize, where it is seldom hunted (however, there have been recent reports of a tapir carcass killed adjacent to the protected area, with indications that it had been killed for the meat (Muschamp, pers. com, 2005), and there are reports that tapir is considered a traditional delicacy by the Garifuna communities (community consultations). The main threat to this species in Belize is the increasing land use change, with the destruction of suitable habitat - the protection of significant tracts of unfragmented riparian vegetation and other suitable habitat is now considered a priority for its continued survival.
The Neotropical river otter
(Lontra longicaudis) has been recorded within the protected area, this species being closely associated with the river system, where its presence indicates healthy fish stocks and little human disturbance. All five of the cat species found in Belize, jaguar, ocelot
, jaguarondi, puma and margay
are reported to be present within the Bladen area, suggesting that there is a good prey base to support these key predators (Marlin, pers. com.).
Two peccary
species are recorded from Bladen, the collared peccary
(Tayassu tajacu) and the white-lipped peccary (Dicotyles pecari). Whilst there is some illegal hunting pressure, populations are considered good. The larger D. pecari, travels in large herds, and requires extensive contiguous areas of unfragmented broadleaf forest (20,000 hectares being estimated as the minimum dynamic area to support a viable population) – the Maya Mountain block of contiguous protected areas contributes significantly to the conservation of these species, ensuring that there is sufficient broadleaf forest in the overall area to maintain this key species. Records of white-lipped peccary in the higher altitude areas of the Maya Divide in Columbia River Forest Reserve. suggest that they may also move from one drainage system to another over the mountain passes of the Maya Divide, maintaining a genetically diverse population throughout the Maya Mountain block of protected areas.
Mammal distribution in the karst area is reported as seasonal, with many larger species such as white lipped and collared peccary migrating to the coastal plains along the riparian forest routes as the water sources start to dry up in the steep limestone hills during the dry season. As the coastal savannas become flooded during the wet season
, these species then move back to the foothills once again. Predators, principally jaguar, are thought to follow this migration. Whilst this has been possible in past years, the current rate of fragmentation of forest habitat and increase in human presence, with the agricultural development along the Southern Highway
and the associated hunting pressure, is making this migration less viable, isolating the eastern hill slopes from the coastal areas, with their more accessible water sources. Initiatives such as YCT’s Golden Stream corridor and TIDE’s Block 127 provide the crucial link between the two, and will be an important factor in the long term viability of larger mammal species in this southern area of Bladen.
. 337 species have been recorded to date within the boundaries (based on surveys conducted within the protected area, this is anticipated to climb to as many as 357 species, from knowledge of species recorded in adjacent protected areas of similar ecosystem types (Columbia River Forest Reserve Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and Doyle’s Delight) – representing 62% of the total bird species currently recorded for Belize.
Bladen Nature Reserve contains a wide variety of ecosystems, ranging from the fertile floodplain vegetation to the higher elevations of the Maya Mountains. This has resulted in the high species richness observed within the area. The majority of the species are lowland broadleaf forest generalists, found throughout much of Belize. The floodplain of Bladen Branch also attracts many of the riverine, forest edge and gallery forest species, such as the bare-throated tiger-heron (Tigrisoma mexicanum), the shy agami heron (Agamia agami) and muscovy duck
(Cairina moschata), the white-necked Jacobin
(Florisuga mellivora) and yellow-tailed oriole
(Icterus mesomelas). Other species closely associated with water have also been recorded – the various kingfisher
s, spotted sandpiper
(Actitis macularia) and the two species of waterthrush.
Whilst the higher elevations within Bladen have not yet been studied, those of Columbia River Forest Reserve and Doyle’s Delight (within Chiquibul Forest Reserve) have both been the focus of expeditions with experienced ornithologists recording the avifauna. These areas are contiguous with those of Bladen, and from the data at these two sites, there appears to be almost complete species overlap. With these areas being so remote and inaccessible, there has also been the addition of new species records for Belize, such as the scaly-throated foliage gleaner (Anabacerthia variegaticeps) (Doyle’s Delight Expedition, 1989), and tawny-throated leaftosser
(Doyle’s Delight Expedition, 1993; Little Quartz Ridge, Jones, 1997). Two Neotropical migrants - Chuck-Will's-widow
(Caprimulgus carolinesis) and the warbling vireo
(Vireo galvus) - were also recorded for the first time, in Columbia River Forest Reserve in 1992, and may be present in the higher altitude areas of Bladen Nature Reserve.
Bladen has two large resident game bird species, the great curassow
(Crax rubra) and crested guan
(Penelope purpurascens). Both these species, along with their more common relative, the plain chachalaca
, are representatives of the Cracidae
family – the most threatened of the Neotropical bird families and common hunting targets. Cracids are important seed dispersers and are a major protein source for local communities. Within Belize, both the curassow and the guan are locally common, and outside of protected areas such as Bladen, they are legal game species for those with hunting permits. However, the increase in agricultural colonists and seasonal Central American workers adjacent to the Nature Reserve has led to increased illegal hunting within the protected area, resulting in reduced populations of both species. This was noted by the 1992 and 1997 expeditions to Columbia River Forest Reserve directly south of Bladen, with reports that game species were unexpectedly scarce in even the upper elevations, suggesting increasing hunting pressure, with relatively easy access from Guatemala. Whether this is impacting Bladen itself is currently unknown, but the implications are that these areas, once considered pristine, should now be considered under threat. This pronounced negative response to hunting pressure makes these two species especially valuable as indicator species in areas where hunting still occurs.
Of particular note is the presence of a number of species in the protected area considered endangered or vulnerable, and in need of protection within Belize. These include one of the two large game species (the great curassow), and the keel-billed motmot
(Electron carinatum). The ‘near threatened’ harpy eagle (Harpia harpyia) has also been recorded from Bladen (Marlin, pers. com., 2006, 2010) and in December 2010 researchers from Belize Foundation for Research and Environmental Education (BFREE) discovered a breeding pair of harpy eagles with a chick, the first ever recorded in Belize and also representing the extreme of their northerly range. The rare solitary eagle
(Harpyhaliaetus solitarius) has been recorded from the adjacent Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and Doyle’s Delight, with a high probability that its range includes Bladen. Other birds highlighted as being of concern include the second large game species Crested Guan (P. purpurascens), the ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), and seasonally, the regionally endangered subspecies of the scarlet macaw (Ara Macao).
and Dendropsophus microcephala, along with species with ranges restricted to the mid-to upper elevations of the Maya Mountains within their range in Belize – species such as Morelets tree-frog (Agalychnis moreletti), Rana juliani
, Smilisca cyanosticta
and most of the Eleutherodactylids. Through analysis of the known and predicted ranges of Belize’s herpetofauna, and of their habitat requirements, it can be estimated that the total number of species likely to occur within Bladen Nature Reserve is between 108 and 114 species (with a maximum possibly as high as 124).
Ten species are considered to be of international concern (IUCN red-list), and of the additional 22-32 species that are likely to occur in the protected area (but which have not yet been recorded there), a further four are considered to be of international concern (IUCN red-list) – the endangered Sanderson's Rainfrog (Eleutherodactylus sandersoni), and the near threatened Doflein's salamander (Bolitoglossa dofleini), broadhead rainfrog (Craugastor laticeps), and blue-spotted Mexican treefrog (Smilisca cyanosticta). A series of expeditions in Bladen in 2011 is expected to confirm the presence of some or all of these specis.
is strictly forbidden.
extractors suggested however that the Maya had indeed settled the Bladen system, later confirmed by the Maya Mountain Archaeological Project (MMAP), which worked in the Bladen area for two successive years (1993 and 1994).
It would appear that the Bladen area was an important extraction area particularly for mineral
resources. Whilst the density of settlement is considered to have been low in comparison with the coastal plain, during the Late Terminal Classic (AD 700 – 900) virtually all inhabitable land is considered to have been occupied, though Dunham estimates that there would have been no more than 10,000 people residing in the Bladen watershed at any one time during the Maya occupancy. The discovery of a Mixtec
style vessel during the 1994 fieldwork indicates that the settlements had wide ranging contacts, even when much of the southern lowland populations were in decline. Three areas have been highlighted by the MMAP: Quebrada de Oro, Snake Creek and the Esperanza Valley.
Two sites in the Quebrada de Oro area were discussed during early fieldwork in Bladen. Both sites were located on the alluvial soils of the valley, one a minor settlement, the second a more structured site of plazas and structures, with outlying mounds. This second site lies on the steep bank of the Quebrada, which in 1984 was eroding inwards towards the site. Looting activity was observed at both sites. These sites were later revisited during the Maya Mountain Archaeological Project.
In 1994, further work by the MMAP located three unlooted sites of considerable complexity within the Snake Creek and Esperanza areas. Whilst the south-eastern lower valley of Snake Creek is steep sided and was uninhabited in Maya times, the good agricultural soils of the north-western upper valley was found to have supported a modest Late Terminal Classic community with well constructed house mounds in complex groupings, with two main plazas flanked by an extensive range of structures. This site, named “Saach'olil” by the MMAP, is located on the creek bank, which is eroding its banks to gradually destroy the site.
During the same field season, Esperanza valley was discovered to have three sites, two of which are inside Bladen Nature Reserve, in its south western-most corner. “Chac Bolai,” situated on the valley floor of the Central River, is a moderately sized site found to consist of a large civic plaza, connected by a causeway to low temple mounds, with minor adjoining causeways. To the south lies “K'antulai,” located on the primary access route, straddling the mountain pass, and thought to have regulated the movement of people and goods into the Esperanza area during the Late Terminal Classic era. Unlike the majority of other sites, this fortress-like settlement, consisting of a long chain of structures (including a main, central plaza flanked by large structures), lies in an area of poor soils, distant from the nearest water supplies.
All three of these structures were unlooted in 1994; however, with the increasing knowledge of these sites, and the continued access by hunters to the area and Guatemalan Xateros from the west, it is unlikely that they are still intact. Anecdotal reports from as far as Gales Point
suggest major looting activity within the Bladen Nature Reserve a few years ago, highlighting the need to maintain effective patrolling, and greater targeted monitoring of activity at the archaeological sites within the Reserve.
Another major threat comes from poorly planned and unsustainable development particularly from hydroelectric speculators. In 2009 Bladen was illegally entered by a hydroelectric company who were conducting a feasibility study
for a potential hydroelectric dam on the Central River which forms the boundary between Bladen and Columbia River Forest Reserve. A litigation imposed by Ya’axché is currently pending an appeal in the courts.
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
s, sinkhole
Sinkhole
A sinkhole, also known as a sink, shake hole, swallow hole, swallet, doline or cenote, is a natural depression or hole in the Earth's surface caused by karst processes — the chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks or suffosion processes for example in sandstone...
s, pristine streams and rivers, undisturbed old growth
Old growth forest
An old-growth forest is a forest that has attained great age , and thereby exhibits unique ecological features. An old growth forest has also usually reached a climax community...
rainforest
Rainforest
Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with definitions based on a minimum normal annual rainfall of 1750-2000 mm...
and an abundance of highly diverse flora and fauna which includes a great deal of rare and endemic species.
Widely described as the crown jewel of Belize
Belize
Belize is a constitutional monarchy and the northernmost country in Central America. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Even though Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official...
’s protected areas, Bladen is considered to be one of the most biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
-rich, and geographically unique areas within the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor
Mesoamerican Biological Corridor
The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor is a large habitat corridor in Mesoamerica, stretching from Mexico southeastward through most of Central America, connecting several national parks. It was started in 1998 to keep 106 critically endangered species from going extinct...
. At 99796 acres (40,386 ha) Bladen forms a significant portion of the Key Biodiversity Area of the Maya Mountains Massif which was identified as one of the most important blocks of protected areas within Belize and more broadly, Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and...
, itself a region considered a world ‘hotspot for species diversity’ and considered critical for the preservation of the biodiversity of the Western Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere
The Western Hemisphere or western hemisphere is mainly used as a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies west of the Prime Meridian and east of the Antimeridian , the other half being called the Eastern Hemisphere.In this sense, the western hemisphere consists of the western portions...
.
At its most sheltered points, west of the rugged karst
KARST
Kilometer-square Area Radio Synthesis Telescope is a Chinese telescope project to which FAST is a forerunner. KARST is a set of large spherical reflectors on karst landforms, which are bowlshaped limestone sinkholes named after the Kras region in Slovenia and Northern Italy. It will consist of...
(limestone
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera....
) hills, Bladen has protection from many of the destructive storms that hit the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
coastline, resulting in a forest with a little-disturbed structure, tall trees of impressive stature and intact ecosystem
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
s. The large number of ecosystems encompassed within the Nature Reserve highlights its importance as a strictly protected conservation area. Bladen protects species diversity
Species diversity
Species diversity is an index that incorporates the number of species in an area and also their relative abundance. It is a more comprehensive value than species richness....
across a great range of elevations, which according to recent evidence includes several potential new and endemic species.
Within the Maya Mountains
Maya Mountains
The Maya Mountains are a mountain range in Belize and eastern Guatemala. The highest peaks are Doyle's Delight at and Victoria Peak at . The Maya Mountains and associated foothills contain a number of important Mayan ruins including the sites of Lubaantun, Nim Li Punit, Cahal Pech, and Chaa Creek;...
, Bladen forms a crucial link between Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary
Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary
The Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary is a nature reserve in south-central Belize established to protect the forests, fauna and watersheds of an approximately 400 square kilometre area of the eastern slopes of the Maya Mountains...
to the northeast and Columbia River Forest Reserve to the southwest. Chiquibul National Park and Forest Reserve
Chiquibul National Park
Chiquibul National Park is Belize's largest national park. It is in size. The park is located in Belize's Cayo District. The national park surrounds Caracol, a Mayan city. Caracol has been designated as an archaeological reserve and is not included within the park's total area...
lie to the northwest, connecting to the protected areas system in Guatemala
Guatemala
Guatemala is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast...
. With the rapid clearance of forested areas throughout Central America, this is part of the last remaining large, relatively intact block of forest within the region – the Selva Maya - stretching from Belize through to Guatemala and Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
.
This large expanse of primarily forested uplands and valleys is essential for the survival of species such as the jaguar
Jaguar
The jaguar is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus, and is the only Panthera species found in the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, and the largest in the Western Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends from Southern United States and Mexico...
, scarlet macaw
Scarlet Macaw
The Scarlet Macaw is a large, colorful macaw. It is native to humid evergreen forests in the American tropics. Range extends from extreme south-eastern Mexico to Amazonian Peru, Bolivia and Brazil in lowlands up to up to...
, white-lipped peccary
White-lipped Peccary
The White-lipped Peccary, Tayassu pecari, is a peccary species found in Central and South America, living in rainforest, dry forest and chaco scrub. It is monotypic within the genus Tayassu....
and harpy eagle, which need large contiguous forest stretches in order to maintain viable populations.
Management
Bladen is one of three nature reserve
Nature reserve
A nature reserve is a protected area of importance for wildlife, flora, fauna or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research...
s within Belize, and is managed through partnership between the Government of Belize and the Ya'axché Conservation Trust (Ya’axché). Ya’axché took over management in December 2008 and has a letter of intent from the Belize Forest Department to co-manage the protected area. Ya'axché now assumes responsibility for the day to day management of the Reserve.
Ecosystem Services
Bladen Nature Reserve provides global environmental benefits by providing clean air, functioning as a carbon sink, rainfall generation, and preserving genetic diversity. On a more local scale Bladen functions as a sanctuary for birds and mammals which are subject to hunting for bushmeatBushmeat
Bushmeat initially referred to the hunting of wild animals in West and Central Africa and is a calque from the French viande de brousse. Today the term is commonly used for meat of terrestrial wild animals, killed for subsistence or commercial purposes throughout the humid tropics of the Americas,...
, with this large contiguous block of undisturbed rainforest these game species are able to increase population size thus creating a ‘spillover effect’ onto community lands where they may be hunted as a source of protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
by indigenous Mayan
Maya peoples
The Maya people constitute a diverse range of the Native American people of southern Mexico and northern Central America. The overarching term "Maya" is a collective designation to include the peoples of the region who share some degree of cultural and linguistic heritage; however, the term...
communities which buffer Bladen and who have traditionally lived off the products of these forests.
Bladen Nature Reserve’s role in watershed protection within the area is also important, with the river system providing water for local communities and large agricultural areas on the coastal plain. The watershed drains into the Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Sea
The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean located in the tropics of the Western hemisphere. It is bounded by Mexico and Central America to the west and southwest, to the north by the Greater Antilles, and to the east by the Lesser Antilles....
26 km (16.2 mi) to the east, with the Belize Barrier Reef
Belize Barrier Reef
The Belize Barrier Reef is a series of coral reefs straddling the coast of Belize, roughly offshore in the north and in the south within the country limits...
- the second largest barrier reef
Barrier reef
Barrier reef may refer to:*a kind of coral reef*the Great Barrier Reef in Australia*the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System*the Belize Barrier Reef*the New Caledonia Barrier Reef*Barrier Reef , an Australian television series...
in the world - lying offshore, reliant on the quality of the water. Bladen, along with Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary protects the upper waters and tributaries of the Monkey River
Monkey River
Monkey River is a coastal watercourse in southern Belize that rises in the Maya Mountains and discharges to the Caribbean Sea near Monkey River Town. One of Belize's major rivers, Monkey River has northern headwaters which originate in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, where the Swasey Branch...
, ensuring that it provides the major benefits of watershed protection and management to the coastal plain areas, including water supply
Water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavours or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes...
, water quality
Water quality
Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which...
, flood control
Flood control
In communications, flood control is a feature of many communication protocols designed to prevent overwhelming of a destination receiver. Such controls can be implemented either in software or in hardware, and will often request that the message be resent after the receiver has finished...
, sediment control
Sediment control
A sediment control is a practice or device designed to keep eroded soil on a construction site, so that it does not wash off and cause water pollution to a nearby stream, river, lake, or bay...
, quality of fish stocks, biodiversity, and habitat preservation. Furthermore, Bladen protects the steeper slopes of the watershed areas, which, if cleared, would cause rapid erosion
Erosion
Erosion is when materials are removed from the surface and changed into something else. It only works by hydraulic actions and transport of solids in the natural environment, and leads to the deposition of these materials elsewhere...
and sedimentation
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration...
problems, not only within the river system downstream, but also on the sea grass and out on the fragile coral reef
Coral reef
Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral reefs are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps...
.
Geology and landforms
Bladen Nature Reserve encompasses much of the Upper Bladen Watershed, and is composed essentially of two geomorphological areas - the graniteGranite
Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granite usually has a medium- to coarse-grained texture. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic...
/ volcanic slopes rising to the crest of the Maya Divide to the north west, and the limestone karst to the south, both draining into the flat, alluvial plain
Alluvial plain
An alluvial plain is a relatively flat landform created by the deposition of sediment over a long period of time by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms...
of the Bladen Branch itself. Between these two, lies the Bladen Branch valley, draining to the northeast.
The geology of Bladen follows this general topography
Topography
Topography is the study of Earth's surface shape and features or those ofplanets, moons, and asteroids...
, being divided into two geomorphological areas running parallel to each other. The ridge of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, known as the Santa Rosa Group, with localized granite intrusions, is part of the main Maya Mountain range, which was subjected to tectonic uplift along two major fault systems – the Northern Boundary Fault to the north, and Quartz Ridge / Bladen Fault during the Triassic period, accompanied by intrusion by granite. In the early Cretaceous period oceanic waters flooded the area and fossiliferous limestones were deposited over the entire Maya Mountains.
The beginning of the Tertiary Period (65 million years ago) saw renewed tectonic uplift
Tectonic uplift
Tectonic uplift is a geological process most often caused by plate tectonics which increases elevation. The opposite of uplift is subsidence, which results in a decrease in elevation. Uplift may be orogenic or isostatic.-Orogenic uplift:...
of the Maya Mountains (Table 5) resulting in the formation of an upland plateau, and shaping the present topography of the Maya Massif. This plateau dips gently to the west, whilst the steep eastern edge of this plateau has been eroded by numerous streams to form the series of steep sided valleys leading down from the Maya Divide, that form the relief in Cockscomb, Bladen and Columbia Forest.
To the east and south-east lies rugged limestone topography of steep, conical hills pocked by vertical-sided sinkholes, underground streams and caves. Water is scarce in this karst landscape, especially during the dry months, resulting in the presence of a vegetation type adapted to seasonally drier conditions, and a seasonal migration
Animal migration
Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis. It is a ubiquitous phenomenon, found in all major animal groups, including birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans. The trigger for the migration may be local...
of wildlife to the lowlands. Smaller streams that emerge as springs within the hill slopes then disappear underground again after flowing a short distance – a characteristic of this limestone topography. Only the Bladen, flowing over the porphrytic Bladen Volcanic Member (an area composed of lavas and associated extrusive volcanic sediments that lies between the Santa Rosa Group and the limestone hills), runs permanently throughout the year.
Soils
Two major soil and land useLand use
Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. It has also been defined as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover...
studies have taken place in Belize – the first a comprehensive study of the whole country by Wright et al. (1959), looking at soils and associated vegetation assemblages in great detail. The second is a more recent study by King et al. (1986) based on Wright et al. (1959) but using techniques such as satellite imagery to update the original report. Soils within Bladen are dependent on the underlying geology
Geology
Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...
, and can be divided broadly into soils derived from limestone rocks, and those with granitic origins.
Constantly Lime Enriched Soils and Intermittently Lime Enriched Soils: These are soils of the Toledo Foothills - densely dissected, steeply sloping limestone hills. Much of the land consists of karst topography of sloping towers and sink holes, produced by differential limestone solution. The steeper regions are very prone to erosion, and therefore unsuitable for agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
.
Acidic Soils: These acidic soils are derived from the granite upland areas of the Richardson Peak Mountains Land System that form the western slopes of the Bladen Basin. These steep mountainous slopes of the Maya Mountains – over 25° angle between 80 and 1120 m (262.5 and 3,674.5 ft) altitude, overlie Santa Rosa Group metasediment
Metasediment
In geology, metasediment is sediment or sedimentary rock that shows evidence of having been subjected to metamorphism. The overall composition of a metasediment can be used to identify the original sedimentary rock, even where they have been subject to high-grade metamorphism and intense...
rocks, producing non-alluvial, shallow soils on the slopes, or deeper colluvial deposits that collect at the base of the hillslopes following erosion. Vegetation characteristic of this soil type is evergreen broadleaf forest, shrubland
Shrubland
Shrubland, scrubland, scrub or brush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity...
and pine
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
at higher altitudes.
Recent Soils: The most recent soils are in the north-east of Bladen, following the line of the floodplain of Bladen Branch and Richardson Creek, and laid down by these streams as they drain the Richardson Peak Mountains and karst hills to either side, and also the volcanic porphyrite. These fertile, alluvial soils are built up by regular flood events, with the characteristics of the Toledo Floodplain soils, and have led to incursions into the area by people wanting to settle new farming areas.
Hydrology
The Upper Bladen drainage is a tributary of the Monkey River, the fourth largest watershed catchments in Belize with an estimated drainage area of 1275 km² (492.3 sq mi). In the upper reaches, on the south-east slope of the Maya Divide, the water flows off steep terrain, carving deep valleys through the landscape, and is protected within three contiguous protected areas – Bladen Nature Reserve, Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and Maya Mountain Forest Reserve. To the south, this drainage basin is bordered by karstic ridge crests. Within Bladen, this trellis of fast flowing streams meet to form Bladen Branch, draining the extruded Bladen volcanic rock and limestone to the one side, and the granite and sedimentary rock to the other, flowing through an alluvial plain and meandering eastwards, exiting the protected area, and flowing on to join the Swasey on entering the coastal plain.To the south-east, a limited number of the karstic streams form the headwaters of Golden Stream, and to the south east, the Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that flows from southwestern Colorado in the United States to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way it forms part of the Mexico – United States border. Its length varies as its course changes...
watersheds.
Of the three water system categories – upper reaches (headwaters), middle reaches, and lower reaches (estuarine) - only two (upper and middle reaches) are represented within Bladen, as the protected area has no direct contact with the coastal areas. The majority of the streams and creeks draining the hill slopes within Bladen fall within the upper, or ‘headwaters’ category, characterized by fast running streams, waterfalls, pools and riffles, often carved deep into the bedrock, with tropical broadleaf forest on either bank, branches meeting overhead and shading the water.
These upper reach streams then join to form Bladen Branch further downstream in the middle reaches of the river system, the water flowing through a narrow floodplain
Floodplain
A floodplain, or flood plain, is a flat or nearly flat land adjacent a stream or river that stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls and experiences flooding during periods of high discharge...
, with little variation in gradient. The character of the waterway changes from the fast moving streams of the headwaters to slower, wider, deeper, meandering rivers, interspersed in places with shallower riffles.
Dependent on the geology of the area, the river systems of the Monkey River watershed can be divided into two different categories - those rivers that drain granite and Santa Rosa Group metasediments (tributaries of South Stann Creek, Swasey Branch and Trio), and those that drain the Bladen volcanic rock and surrounding limestone (Richardson Creek and other southern tributaries of Bladen Branch). The water of rivers draining the granite and metasediments is rich in phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
, though with low nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
levels, low conductivity
Conductivity
Conductivity may refer to:*Electrical conductivity, a measure of a material's ability to conduct an electric current*Conductivity , also the specific conductance, is a measurement of the electrical conductance per unit distance in an electrolytic or aqueous solution*Ionic conductivity, a measure of...
and a basic pH. Conversely Bladen Branch, draining the volcanic rock and adjacent limestone, is low in phosphorus, but has a higher level of nitrogen, high conductivity, and a neutral pH.
The differing phosphorus levels have a very strong bearing on the flora and fauna found within these rivers (Esselman, pers. com.). Phosphorus is particularly important as a plant growth promoter in freshwater
Freshwater
Fresh water is naturally occurring water on the Earth's surface in ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers, bogs, ponds, lakes, rivers and streams, and underground as groundwater in aquifers and underground streams. Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and...
systems, resulting in more abundant aquatic plant life (especially Marathrum oxycarpum), providing greater shelter and food resources, enabling greater aquatic invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
abundance and biomass
Biomass
Biomass, as a renewable energy source, is biological material from living, or recently living organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other energy products such as biofuel....
– which can be expected to result in an increased abundances and biomass of fish. M. oxycarpum is present at elevated levels in South Stann Creek, Swasey Branch and Trio Branch, all of which drain areas of granite and metasediments, and can be expected to show far greater abundance of plant life than the phosphorus-poor Bladen Branch and Richardson Creek.
Habitats
The forests of Bladen Nature Reserve are evergreenEvergreen
In botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season.There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs...
in the valleys and on the lower slopes, semi-evergreen (25-50% deciduous
Deciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
trees) on the upper slopes, and semi-deciduous (5-75% deciduous trees) on the ridge. Forest stature decreases with increasing elevation from the valleys to the ridges, with a corresponding decrease in the density of large trees. This largely reflects edaphic drought associated with rapid drainage on the steep limestone topography. Recent studies of phytogeography have demonstrated a significant affinity between the flora of the Greater Antilles
Greater Antilles
The Greater Antilles are one of three island groups in the Caribbean. Comprising Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola , and Puerto Rico, the Greater Antilles constitute almost 90% of the land mass of the entire West Indies.-Greater Antilles in context :The islands of the Caribbean Sea, collectively known as...
and the upper limestone ridges of the Bladen Nature Reserve, indicating a far more complex regional phytogeography than previously suspected.
Twenty ecosystems have been identified within the Bladen area, ranging from broadleaf lowland hill forest to submontane forest, riparian shrubland and short grass savannah
Savannah
Savannah or savanna is a type of grassland.It can also mean:-People:* Savannah King, a Canadian freestyle swimmer* Savannah Outen, a singer who gained popularity on You Tube...
.
At the ecosystem level, the Bladen Nature Reserve plays a critical role as a core conservation area, protecting over 5% of the national extent of 11 ecosystems. 10 of these ecosystems have more than 15% of their total national coverage within the protected area, 5 of which have over one third of the total national coverage occurring within the boundaries of Bladen Nature Reserve. Each of these ecosystems is confined to rugged terrain in the higher rainfall areas of southern Belize.
Flora
With its diversity of altitude, geologyGeology
Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...
, aspect and hydrology
Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability...
, Bladen Nature Reserve offers perhaps the most diverse range of conditions for plant life of any protected area in Belize (Figure 7). A significant portion of the plants recorded to date are specialists – associated with a narrow ecological zone. This complexity is enhanced by the seasonality
Seasonality
In statistics, many time series exhibit cyclic variation known as seasonality, periodic variation, or periodic fluctuations. This variation can be either regular or semi regular....
experienced by the limestone substrata and associated soils (Brewer et al. 2003). Whilst the 1994 REA recognized only 9 ecosystems (as compared with the 20 mapped by Meerman & Sabido), they found that 73% of the approximately 300 plant species they identified were specific to single ecosystems. This suggests a far higher prevalence of ecological specialization in the flora of Bladen than is typical in Belize. Plant associations are reported to link the flora of some of the upper elevations within Bladen with the flora of the Antillean archipelago
Archipelago
An archipelago , sometimes called an island group, is a chain or cluster of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi- and πέλαγος – pélagos through the Italian arcipelago...
(S. Brewer, pers. com.). A number of plant species that occur in these upper elevations of Bladen and the contiguous portions in Chiquibul National Park are found nowhere else in Belize (J. Marlin, pers. com.).
Whilst the lowlands of Bladen were repeatedly logged, albeit at low levels, up until about 1970, the steep terrain of much of the Reserve was not conducive to extensive logging
Logging
Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks.In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard...
far beyond the most accessible valleys and adjacent slopes. Snake Creek, in SW Bladen, was the most remote portion that was logged. As a result of this limitation to the extent of logging activities, and the fact that legal commercial logging has not taken place for 35 years, Bladen is now considered as one of the most pristine environments in Belize.
Fauna
This large expanse of primarily forested uplands and valleys is essential for the survival of species such as the scarlet macaw, white-lipped peccary and harpy eagle, which need large contiguous forest stretches in order to maintain viable populations.93 species of mammal, 337 species of birds and 92 herptiles are considered confirmed for Bladen, either through being recorded within the protected area, or being recorded in both the contiguous protected areas to the north and south (Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and Columbia River Forest Reserve - Bladen is expected to have significant species overlap with these two adjacent protected areas). Bladen is also expected to share some of the species recorded in the montane forest areas of Doyle's Delight
Doyle's Delight
Doyle's Delight is the highest peak in Belize . It lies in the Cockscomb Range, a spur of the Maya Mountains in Western Belize.The name Doyle's Delight was first coined in by Sharon Matola in 1989 and based on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's book "The Lost World" , which contains the quote "there must...
, and the majority of those of the more intensively studied BFREE property.
The majority of species of concern listed for Cockscomb and Columbia River Forest Reserve are considered to be protected by Bladen as well, though in some cases this needs verification through further fieldwork in the area. Of these, 19 are considered of international concern at species level under the IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
(Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or at Least Risk/Near Threatened). A further two are considered of international concern at sub-species level; the Central American spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi spp. yucatanensis) and the tayra
Tayra
The tayra , also known as the Tolomuco or Perico ligero in Central America, and San Hol or viejo de monte in the Yucatan Peninsula is an omnivorous animal from the weasel family Mustelidae. It is the only species in the genus Eira...
(Eira barbara ssp. senex).
Mammals
With its forested slopes, riparian vegetation, valleys and rugged limestone landscapes, Bladen Nature Reserve is home to a wide variety of mammalMammal
Mammals are members of a class of air-breathing vertebrate animals characterised by the possession of endothermy, hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands functional in mothers with young...
species typical of tropical moist broadleaf forest. Of the 163 species of mammal recorded within Belize that could potentially be found in the protected area based on the assumption of similar ecosystems, 93 species are recorded as present within Bladen Nature Reserve itself.
When the entire Maya Mountain block of east-slope protected areas of contiguous ecosystems is considered (Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Bladen Nature Reserve and Columbia River Forest Reserve), the number of species that could be present increases to 110 species – 67% of the total number of mammal species recorded for Belize, partly as a result of specialized species surveys into groups such as the small rodent
Rodent
Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
s and bat
Bat
Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera "hand" and pteron "wing") whose forelimbs form webbed wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of true and sustained flight. By contrast, other mammals said to fly, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums, and colugos, glide rather than fly,...
s. Bladen is therefore highlighted as a vital conservation area within the protected areas system, making a major contribution towards the maintenance of biodiversity in Belize. Its isolated nature and the lack of access have led to buffering it has with the presence of the other protected areas and the BFREE lands should enable it to continue its role in protecting both threatened and non-threatened species.
The Yucatan black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra), one of the two primate species recorded from the area, is endemic to a small area of the Yucatan Peninsula
Yucatán Peninsula
The Yucatán Peninsula, in southeastern Mexico, separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico, with the northern coastline on the Yucatán Channel...
, Belize and the Peten
Petén
Petén or Peten may refer to:*Petén , a department of Guatemala*Petén Basin, the geographical / archaeological region of Mesoamerica and a center of the Maya civilization*Lake Petén Itzá, a lake in the Petén Basin region...
. This species was decimated by a yellow fever
Yellow fever
Yellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease. The virus is a 40 to 50 nm enveloped RNA virus with positive sense of the Flaviviridae family....
epidemic in 1956/1957 that swept through the Alouatta population throughout most of the country. Pockets of viable populations remained, including those in Columbia River Forest Reserve and Bladen Nature Reserve, whilst in other areas further north, such as Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Reserve, the epidemic was compounded by other impacts such as the effects of Hurricane Hattie
Hurricane Hattie
Hurricane Hattie was the deadliest tropical cyclone of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season, as well as the strongest, reaching a peak intensity equivalent to Category 5 hurricane intensity...
in 1961, and by local hunting pressure, extirpating the local population by 1978. There was a notable lack of howler monkey
Howler monkey
Howler monkeys are among the largest of the New World monkeys. Fifteen species are currently recognised. Previously classified in the family Cebidae, they are now placed in the family Atelidae. These monkeys are native to South and Central American forests...
s in Bladen during both the 1987 and 1994 surveys, attributed to the yellow fever - however enquiries into the howler monkey populations in the area, among traditional users – chicleros and hunters – suggest that this species has been continuously present in the area, and it is presently considered to have a healthy population (Marlin, pers. com.). This may be important for the replenishment of the coastal population following the population crash and social disorganization experienced after Hurricane Iris
Hurricane Iris
Hurricane Iris was a Category 4 hurricane that devastated Belize in October 2001. It was the eleventh tropical cyclone, ninth named storm, fifth hurricane, and third major hurricane of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the second strongest storm of the season behind Hurricane...
in 2001. With increasing habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation as the name implies, describes the emergence of discontinuities in an organism's preferred environment , causing population fragmentation...
and loss throughout its range, Alouatta pigra has recently been upgraded to Endangered in the IUCN Redbook.
The second species, the Central American spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi), appears to be more restricted to the forested hill slopes, overlapping less with the coastal areas of human impact. The Belize sub-species, Ateles geoffroyi yucatanensis, is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ (IUCN, 2005), reflecting the decreasing population in the region, primarily through habitat destruction.
Baird's Tapir
Baird's Tapir
Baird’s Tapir is a species of tapir that is native to Central America and northern South America. It is one of three Latin American species of tapir.-Names:...
(Tapirus bairdii) is the largest herbivore
Herbivore
Herbivores are organisms that are anatomically and physiologically adapted to eat plant-based foods. Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in...
present in Bladen, and tends to be associated particularly with riparian areas where it grazes on the herbaceous vegetation. Both the 1984 and the 1997 studies reported frequent sightings of tracks, suggesting that this species is widespread through the lowland areas of the Nature Reserve (Brokaw et al.). Whilst listed as an ‘Endangered’ species internationally, it is widespread in Belize, where it is seldom hunted (however, there have been recent reports of a tapir carcass killed adjacent to the protected area, with indications that it had been killed for the meat (Muschamp, pers. com, 2005), and there are reports that tapir is considered a traditional delicacy by the Garifuna communities (community consultations). The main threat to this species in Belize is the increasing land use change, with the destruction of suitable habitat - the protection of significant tracts of unfragmented riparian vegetation and other suitable habitat is now considered a priority for its continued survival.
The Neotropical river otter
Neotropical River Otter
The Neotropical Otter , Lontra longicaudis, is an otter species found in Central America, South America and the island of Trinidad....
(Lontra longicaudis) has been recorded within the protected area, this species being closely associated with the river system, where its presence indicates healthy fish stocks and little human disturbance. All five of the cat species found in Belize, jaguar, ocelot
Ocelot
The ocelot , pronounced /ˈɒsəˌlɒt/, also known as the dwarf leopard or McKenney's wildcat is a wild cat distributed over South and Central America and Mexico, but has been reported as far north as Texas and in Trinidad, in the Caribbean...
, jaguarondi, puma and margay
Margay
The Margay is a spotted cat native to Middle and South America. Named for Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied, it is a solitary and nocturnal animal that prefers remote sections of the rainforest. Although it was once believed to be vulnerable to extinction, the IUCN now lists it as "Near Threatened"...
are reported to be present within the Bladen area, suggesting that there is a good prey base to support these key predators (Marlin, pers. com.).
Two peccary
Peccary
A peccary is a medium-sized mammal of the family Tayassuidae, or New World Pigs. Peccaries are members of the artiodactyl suborder Suina, as are the pig family and possibly the hippopotamus family...
species are recorded from Bladen, the collared peccary
Collared Peccary
The collared peccary is a species of mammal in the family Tayassuidae that is found in North, Central, and South America. They are commonly referred to as javelina, saíno or báquiro, although these terms are also used to describe other species in the family...
(Tayassu tajacu) and the white-lipped peccary (Dicotyles pecari). Whilst there is some illegal hunting pressure, populations are considered good. The larger D. pecari, travels in large herds, and requires extensive contiguous areas of unfragmented broadleaf forest (20,000 hectares being estimated as the minimum dynamic area to support a viable population) – the Maya Mountain block of contiguous protected areas contributes significantly to the conservation of these species, ensuring that there is sufficient broadleaf forest in the overall area to maintain this key species. Records of white-lipped peccary in the higher altitude areas of the Maya Divide in Columbia River Forest Reserve. suggest that they may also move from one drainage system to another over the mountain passes of the Maya Divide, maintaining a genetically diverse population throughout the Maya Mountain block of protected areas.
Mammal distribution in the karst area is reported as seasonal, with many larger species such as white lipped and collared peccary migrating to the coastal plains along the riparian forest routes as the water sources start to dry up in the steep limestone hills during the dry season. As the coastal savannas become flooded during the wet season
Wet season
The the wet season, or rainy season, is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region occurs. The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the...
, these species then move back to the foothills once again. Predators, principally jaguar, are thought to follow this migration. Whilst this has been possible in past years, the current rate of fragmentation of forest habitat and increase in human presence, with the agricultural development along the Southern Highway
Southern Highway
In Belize, the Southern Highway takes up where the Hummingbird Highway ends and runs from Dangriga to Punta Gorda. It is entirely paved, with the completion of a 10-mile segment between Golden Stream and Big Falls circa 2007-08. The Southern Highway provides important access to a number of Mayan...
and the associated hunting pressure, is making this migration less viable, isolating the eastern hill slopes from the coastal areas, with their more accessible water sources. Initiatives such as YCT’s Golden Stream corridor and TIDE’s Block 127 provide the crucial link between the two, and will be an important factor in the long term viability of larger mammal species in this southern area of Bladen.
Birds
Bladen Nature Reserve is considered to have a particularly rich and diverse avifaunaBird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
. 337 species have been recorded to date within the boundaries (based on surveys conducted within the protected area, this is anticipated to climb to as many as 357 species, from knowledge of species recorded in adjacent protected areas of similar ecosystem types (Columbia River Forest Reserve Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and Doyle’s Delight) – representing 62% of the total bird species currently recorded for Belize.
Bladen Nature Reserve contains a wide variety of ecosystems, ranging from the fertile floodplain vegetation to the higher elevations of the Maya Mountains. This has resulted in the high species richness observed within the area. The majority of the species are lowland broadleaf forest generalists, found throughout much of Belize. The floodplain of Bladen Branch also attracts many of the riverine, forest edge and gallery forest species, such as the bare-throated tiger-heron (Tigrisoma mexicanum), the shy agami heron (Agamia agami) and muscovy duck
Muscovy Duck
The Muscovy Duck is a large duck which is native to Mexico and Central and South America. A small wild population reaches into the United States in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas...
(Cairina moschata), the white-necked Jacobin
White-necked Jacobin
The White-necked Jacobin is a large and attractive hummingbird that ranges from Mexico south to Peru, Bolivia and south Brazil...
(Florisuga mellivora) and yellow-tailed oriole
Yellow-tailed Oriole
The Yellow-tailed Oriole, Icterus mesomelas, is a passerine bird in the New World family Icteridae. It breeds from southern Mexico to western Peru and northwestern Venezuela; in Peru it also lives in a river valley corridor....
(Icterus mesomelas). Other species closely associated with water have also been recorded – the various kingfisher
Kingfisher
Kingfishers are a group of small to medium sized brightly coloured birds in the order Coraciiformes. They have a cosmopolitan distribution, with most species being found in the Old World and Australia...
s, spotted sandpiper
Spotted Sandpiper
The Spotted Sandpiper is a small shorebird, 18–20 cm long. Together with its sister species, the Common Sandpiper they make up the genus Actitis...
(Actitis macularia) and the two species of waterthrush.
Whilst the higher elevations within Bladen have not yet been studied, those of Columbia River Forest Reserve and Doyle’s Delight (within Chiquibul Forest Reserve) have both been the focus of expeditions with experienced ornithologists recording the avifauna. These areas are contiguous with those of Bladen, and from the data at these two sites, there appears to be almost complete species overlap. With these areas being so remote and inaccessible, there has also been the addition of new species records for Belize, such as the scaly-throated foliage gleaner (Anabacerthia variegaticeps) (Doyle’s Delight Expedition, 1989), and tawny-throated leaftosser
Tawny-throated Leaftosser
The Tawny-throated Leaftosser is a tropical American bird species in the ovenbird family Furnariidae. It is also known as the Tawny-throated Leafscraper, Mexican Leaftosser or Mexican Leafscraper...
(Doyle’s Delight Expedition, 1993; Little Quartz Ridge, Jones, 1997). Two Neotropical migrants - Chuck-Will's-widow
Chuck-will's-widow
The Chuck-will's-widow, Caprimulgus carolinensis is a nocturnal bird of the nightjar family Caprimulgidae. It is found in the southeastern United States near swamps, rocky uplands, and pine woods...
(Caprimulgus carolinesis) and the warbling vireo
Warbling Vireo
The Warbling Vireo, Vireo gilvus, is a small North American songbird.Its breeding habitat is open deciduous and mixed woods from Alaska to Mexico and the Florida Panhandle. It often nests along streams. It migrates to Mexico and Central America....
(Vireo galvus) - were also recorded for the first time, in Columbia River Forest Reserve in 1992, and may be present in the higher altitude areas of Bladen Nature Reserve.
Bladen has two large resident game bird species, the great curassow
Great Curassow
The Great Curassow is a large, pheasant-like bird from the Neotropics. At in length and in weight, this is a very large cracid. No other cracid match its maximum weight, but its length is matched by a few other cracids....
(Crax rubra) and crested guan
Crested Guan
The Crested Guan, Penelope purpurascens, is a member of an ancient group of birds of the Cracidae family, which are related to the Australasian mound builders. It breeds in lowlands from south Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula to western Ecuador and southern Venezuela at up to 1850 m altitude.The...
(Penelope purpurascens). Both these species, along with their more common relative, the plain chachalaca
Plain Chachalaca
The Plain Chachalaca, Ortalis vetula, is a large bird in the Cracidae family. It breeds in tropical and subtropical environments from mezquital thickets in the Rio Grande Valley in southernmost Texas, United States to northernmost Costa Rica....
, are representatives of the Cracidae
Cracidae
The chachalacas, guans and curassows are birds in the family Cracidae.These are species of tropical and subtropical Central and South America. One species, the Plain Chachalaca, just reaches southernmost Texas in the USA...
family – the most threatened of the Neotropical bird families and common hunting targets. Cracids are important seed dispersers and are a major protein source for local communities. Within Belize, both the curassow and the guan are locally common, and outside of protected areas such as Bladen, they are legal game species for those with hunting permits. However, the increase in agricultural colonists and seasonal Central American workers adjacent to the Nature Reserve has led to increased illegal hunting within the protected area, resulting in reduced populations of both species. This was noted by the 1992 and 1997 expeditions to Columbia River Forest Reserve directly south of Bladen, with reports that game species were unexpectedly scarce in even the upper elevations, suggesting increasing hunting pressure, with relatively easy access from Guatemala. Whether this is impacting Bladen itself is currently unknown, but the implications are that these areas, once considered pristine, should now be considered under threat. This pronounced negative response to hunting pressure makes these two species especially valuable as indicator species in areas where hunting still occurs.
Of particular note is the presence of a number of species in the protected area considered endangered or vulnerable, and in need of protection within Belize. These include one of the two large game species (the great curassow), and the keel-billed motmot
Keel-billed Motmot
The Keel-billed Motmot is a species of bird in the Momotidae family.It is found in Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua....
(Electron carinatum). The ‘near threatened’ harpy eagle (Harpia harpyia) has also been recorded from Bladen (Marlin, pers. com., 2006, 2010) and in December 2010 researchers from Belize Foundation for Research and Environmental Education (BFREE) discovered a breeding pair of harpy eagles with a chick, the first ever recorded in Belize and also representing the extreme of their northerly range. The rare solitary eagle
Solitary Eagle
The Montane Solitary Eagle, Harpyhaliaetus solitarius, is a large Neotropical eagle.- Range and habitat :The Montane Solitary Eagle is native to Mexico and Central and South America. It is found in mountainous or hilly forests, at elevations between 600 m & 2,200 m...
(Harpyhaliaetus solitarius) has been recorded from the adjacent Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary and Doyle’s Delight, with a high probability that its range includes Bladen. Other birds highlighted as being of concern include the second large game species Crested Guan (P. purpurascens), the ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), and seasonally, the regionally endangered subspecies of the scarlet macaw (Ara Macao).
Herpetofauna
A total of 92 species have been recorded to date in Bladen Nature Reserve: 24 amphibians, 1 crocodilian, 6 freshwater turtles, 21 lizards and 40 snakes. These include ubiquitous generalists (such as Bufo vallicepsBufo valliceps
The Gulf Coast Toad is a species of toad native to the southern United States , Mexico, and Central America as far south as Costa Rica.- Description :...
and Dendropsophus microcephala, along with species with ranges restricted to the mid-to upper elevations of the Maya Mountains within their range in Belize – species such as Morelets tree-frog (Agalychnis moreletti), Rana juliani
Rana juliani
The Maya Mountains Frog, Rana juliani, is a species of frog in the Ranidae family.It is found in Belize and possibly Guatemala.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, moist savanna, and rivers....
, Smilisca cyanosticta
Smilisca cyanosticta
Smilisca cyanosticta is a species of frog in the Hylidae family.It is found in Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montanes, rivers, and intermittent freshwater marshes.It is threatened by habitat...
and most of the Eleutherodactylids. Through analysis of the known and predicted ranges of Belize’s herpetofauna, and of their habitat requirements, it can be estimated that the total number of species likely to occur within Bladen Nature Reserve is between 108 and 114 species (with a maximum possibly as high as 124).
Ten species are considered to be of international concern (IUCN red-list), and of the additional 22-32 species that are likely to occur in the protected area (but which have not yet been recorded there), a further four are considered to be of international concern (IUCN red-list) – the endangered Sanderson's Rainfrog (Eleutherodactylus sandersoni), and the near threatened Doflein's salamander (Bolitoglossa dofleini), broadhead rainfrog (Craugastor laticeps), and blue-spotted Mexican treefrog (Smilisca cyanosticta). A series of expeditions in Bladen in 2011 is expected to confirm the presence of some or all of these specis.
Status and access
Bladen’s status as an IUCN category 1a nature reserve means that it is afforded the highest level of protection possible to a protected area. It is one of only three nature reserves in Belize and, in addition to the 24 hour presence of trained rangers, only researchers with valid permits issued by the Forest Department and student groups (within a designated education zone) are permitted within the boundaries of the reserve. TourismTourism
Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes".Tourism has become a...
is strictly forbidden.
Cultural heritage
For many years it was assumed that the steep and rugged terrain of Bladen would have been of little interest to the Ancient Maya, with difficult access and little cultivatable land. Exploration in the early 1900s by chicleros and mahoganyMahogany
The name mahogany is used when referring to numerous varieties of dark-colored hardwood. It is a native American word originally used for the wood of the species Swietenia mahagoni, known as West Indian or Cuban mahogany....
extractors suggested however that the Maya had indeed settled the Bladen system, later confirmed by the Maya Mountain Archaeological Project (MMAP), which worked in the Bladen area for two successive years (1993 and 1994).
It would appear that the Bladen area was an important extraction area particularly for mineral
Mineral
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance formed through biogeochemical processes, having characteristic chemical composition, highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids and does not...
resources. Whilst the density of settlement is considered to have been low in comparison with the coastal plain, during the Late Terminal Classic (AD 700 – 900) virtually all inhabitable land is considered to have been occupied, though Dunham estimates that there would have been no more than 10,000 people residing in the Bladen watershed at any one time during the Maya occupancy. The discovery of a Mixtec
Mixtec
The Mixtec are indigenous Mesoamerican peoples inhabiting the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla in a region known as La Mixteca. The Mixtecan languages form an important branch of the Otomanguean language family....
style vessel during the 1994 fieldwork indicates that the settlements had wide ranging contacts, even when much of the southern lowland populations were in decline. Three areas have been highlighted by the MMAP: Quebrada de Oro, Snake Creek and the Esperanza Valley.
Two sites in the Quebrada de Oro area were discussed during early fieldwork in Bladen. Both sites were located on the alluvial soils of the valley, one a minor settlement, the second a more structured site of plazas and structures, with outlying mounds. This second site lies on the steep bank of the Quebrada, which in 1984 was eroding inwards towards the site. Looting activity was observed at both sites. These sites were later revisited during the Maya Mountain Archaeological Project.
In 1994, further work by the MMAP located three unlooted sites of considerable complexity within the Snake Creek and Esperanza areas. Whilst the south-eastern lower valley of Snake Creek is steep sided and was uninhabited in Maya times, the good agricultural soils of the north-western upper valley was found to have supported a modest Late Terminal Classic community with well constructed house mounds in complex groupings, with two main plazas flanked by an extensive range of structures. This site, named “Saach'olil” by the MMAP, is located on the creek bank, which is eroding its banks to gradually destroy the site.
During the same field season, Esperanza valley was discovered to have three sites, two of which are inside Bladen Nature Reserve, in its south western-most corner. “Chac Bolai,” situated on the valley floor of the Central River, is a moderately sized site found to consist of a large civic plaza, connected by a causeway to low temple mounds, with minor adjoining causeways. To the south lies “K'antulai,” located on the primary access route, straddling the mountain pass, and thought to have regulated the movement of people and goods into the Esperanza area during the Late Terminal Classic era. Unlike the majority of other sites, this fortress-like settlement, consisting of a long chain of structures (including a main, central plaza flanked by large structures), lies in an area of poor soils, distant from the nearest water supplies.
All three of these structures were unlooted in 1994; however, with the increasing knowledge of these sites, and the continued access by hunters to the area and Guatemalan Xateros from the west, it is unlikely that they are still intact. Anecdotal reports from as far as Gales Point
Gales Point
Gales Point is a village in the Belize District in the nation of Belize, Central America. The village is on a peninsula in the Southern Lagoon. In 2000 Gales Point had a population of about 500 people, most of whom subsist on fishing and farming....
suggest major looting activity within the Bladen Nature Reserve a few years ago, highlighting the need to maintain effective patrolling, and greater targeted monitoring of activity at the archaeological sites within the Reserve.
Threats
Despite the environmental and social importance of Bladen, threats such as expansion of adjacent agricultural areas, hunting, illegal extraction and development ventures have the potential to severely impact the integrity of the reserve and must be accounted and planned for appropriately. The most pressing threats are currently the advancing illegal xaté palm collectors, known as Xateros, who are causing widespread extirpations of xaté and impacting populations of game species by illegally hunting during xaté palm collecting expeditions. As mentioned above, looting of Mayan archaeological sites is also an important issue.Another major threat comes from poorly planned and unsustainable development particularly from hydroelectric speculators. In 2009 Bladen was illegally entered by a hydroelectric company who were conducting a feasibility study
Feasibility study
Feasibility studies aim to objectively and rationally uncover the strengths and weaknesses of the existing business or proposed venture, opportunities and threats as presented by the environment, the resources required to carry through, and ultimately the prospects for success. In its simplest...
for a potential hydroelectric dam on the Central River which forms the boundary between Bladen and Columbia River Forest Reserve. A litigation imposed by Ya’axché is currently pending an appeal in the courts.