Sedimentation
Encyclopedia
Sedimentation is the tendency for particle
s in suspension
to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity
, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism
. In geology sedimentation is often used as the polar opposite of erosion, i.e., the terminal end of sediment transport
. In that sense it includes the termination of transport by saltation
or true bedload transport. Settling
is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process.
Sedimentation may pertain to objects of various sizes, ranging from large rocks in flowing water to suspensions
of dust and pollen particles
to cell
ular suspensions to solution
s of single molecule
s such as protein
s and peptide
s. Even small molecules such as aspirin
can be sedimented, although it can be difficult to apply a sufficiently strong force to produce significant sedimentation.
The term is typically used in geology, to describe the deposition
of sediment
which results in the formation of sedimentary rock
, and in various chemical and environmental fields to describe the motions of often-smaller particles and molecules. Process is also used in biotech industry to separate out cells from the culture media.
at which the applied force is exactly canceled by an opposing drag force. For small enough particles (low Reynolds number), the drag force varies linearly with the terminal velocity
, i.e., (Stokes flow) where f depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Similarly, the applied force generally varies linearly with some coupling constant (denoted here as q) that depends only on the properties of the particle, . Hence, it is generally possible to define a sedimentation coefficient
that depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Thus, measuring s can reveal underlying properties of the particle.
In many cases, the motion of the particles is blocked by a hard boundary; the resulting accumulation of particles at the boundary is called a sediment
. The concentration of particles at the boundary is opposed by the diffusion
of the particles.
The sedimentation of particles under gravity is described by the Mason–Weaver equation, which has a simple exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient s in this case equals , where is the buoyant mass.
The sedimentation of particles under the centrifugal force
is described by the Lamm equation
, which likewise has an exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient s also equals , where is the buoyant mass. However, the Lamm equation differs from the Mason–Weaver equation because the centrifugal force depends on radius from the origin of rotation, whereas gravity is presumed constant. The Lamm equation also has extra terms, since it pertains to sector
-shaped cells, whereas the Mason–Weaver equation pertains to box-shaped
cells (i.e., cells whose walls are aligned with the three Cartesian axes
).
Particles with a charge or dipole moment can be sedimented by an electric field
or electric field gradient
, respectively. These processes are called electrophoresis
and dielectrophoresis
, respectively. For electrophoresis, the sedimentation coefficient corresponds to the particle charge divided by its drag
(the electrophoretic mobility
). Similarly, for dielectrophoresis
, the sedimentation coefficient equals the particle's electric dipole moment divided by its drag
.
Classification of sedimentation:
, sedimentation is the deposition of particles carried by a fluid flow. For suspended
load, this can be expressed mathematically by the Exner equation
, and results in the formation of depositional landform
s and the rocks that constitute sedimentary record. An undesired increased transport and sedimentation of suspended material is called siltation
, and it is a major source of pollution in waterways in some parts of the world. Climate change
also affect siltation rates.
), where the force of gravity is augmented with centrifugal force
in a centrifuge
.
ic organisms, as sinking under gravity moves them away from the surface, where sunlight provides energy.
Particle (ecology)
In marine and freshwater ecology, a particle is a small object. Particles can remain in suspension in the ocean or freshwater, however they eventually settle and accumulate as sediment. Some can enter the atmosphere through wave action where they can act as cloud condensation nuclei...
s in suspension
Suspension (chemistry)
In chemistry, a suspension is a heterogeneous fluid containing solid particles that are sufficiently large for sedimentation. Usually they must be larger than 1 micrometer. The internal phase is dispersed throughout the external phase through mechanical agitation, with the use of certain...
to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity
Gravitation
Gravitation, or gravity, is a natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract with a force proportional to their mass. Gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped...
, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is one of the four fundamental interactions in nature. The other three are the strong interaction, the weak interaction and gravitation...
. In geology sedimentation is often used as the polar opposite of erosion, i.e., the terminal end of sediment transport
Sediment transport
Sediment transport is the movement of solid particles , typically due to a combination of the force of gravity acting on the sediment, and/or the movement of the fluid in which the sediment is entrained...
. In that sense it includes the termination of transport by saltation
Saltation
Saltation may refer to:* Saltation , an evolutionary hypothesis emphasizing sudden and drastic change* Saltation , a process of particle transport by fluids* Saltation , the antithesis of Continuous Integration...
or true bedload transport. Settling
Settling
Settling is the process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a liquid and form a sediment. Particles that experience a force, either due to gravity or due to centrifugal motion will tend to move in a uniform manner in the direction exerted by that force...
is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process.
Sedimentation may pertain to objects of various sizes, ranging from large rocks in flowing water to suspensions
Suspension (chemistry)
In chemistry, a suspension is a heterogeneous fluid containing solid particles that are sufficiently large for sedimentation. Usually they must be larger than 1 micrometer. The internal phase is dispersed throughout the external phase through mechanical agitation, with the use of certain...
of dust and pollen particles
Particle (ecology)
In marine and freshwater ecology, a particle is a small object. Particles can remain in suspension in the ocean or freshwater, however they eventually settle and accumulate as sediment. Some can enter the atmosphere through wave action where they can act as cloud condensation nuclei...
to cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
ular suspensions to solution
Solution
In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of only one phase. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent. The solvent does the dissolving.- Types of solutions :...
s of single molecule
Molecule
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their electrical charge...
s such as protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s and peptide
Peptide
Peptides are short polymers of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. They are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, typically containing less than 50 monomer units. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond...
s. Even small molecules such as aspirin
Aspirin
Aspirin , also known as acetylsalicylic acid , is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication. It was discovered by Arthur Eichengrun, a chemist with the German company Bayer...
can be sedimented, although it can be difficult to apply a sufficiently strong force to produce significant sedimentation.
The term is typically used in geology, to describe the deposition
Deposition (geology)
Deposition is the geological process by which material is added to a landform or land mass. Fluids such as wind and water, as well as sediment flowing via gravity, transport previously eroded sediment, which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of...
of sediment
Sediment
Sediment is naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of fluids such as wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity acting on the particle itself....
which results in the formation of sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock are types of rock that are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution....
, and in various chemical and environmental fields to describe the motions of often-smaller particles and molecules. Process is also used in biotech industry to separate out cells from the culture media.
Experiments
In a sedimentation experiment called tripothsis, the applied force accelerates the particles to a terminal velocityTerminal velocity
In fluid dynamics an object is moving at its terminal velocity if its speed is constant due to the restraining force exerted by the fluid through which it is moving....
at which the applied force is exactly canceled by an opposing drag force. For small enough particles (low Reynolds number), the drag force varies linearly with the terminal velocity
Terminal velocity
In fluid dynamics an object is moving at its terminal velocity if its speed is constant due to the restraining force exerted by the fluid through which it is moving....
, i.e., (Stokes flow) where f depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Similarly, the applied force generally varies linearly with some coupling constant (denoted here as q) that depends only on the properties of the particle, . Hence, it is generally possible to define a sedimentation coefficient
Sedimentation coefficient
The sedimentation coefficient s of a particle is used to characterize its behaviour in sedimentation processes, notably centrifugation. It is defined as the ratio of a particle's sedimentation velocity to the acceleration that is applied to it .The sedimentation speed v_t is also known as the...
that depends only on the properties of the particle and the surrounding fluid. Thus, measuring s can reveal underlying properties of the particle.
In many cases, the motion of the particles is blocked by a hard boundary; the resulting accumulation of particles at the boundary is called a sediment
Sediment
Sediment is naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of fluids such as wind, water, or ice, and/or by the force of gravity acting on the particle itself....
. The concentration of particles at the boundary is opposed by the diffusion
Diffusion
Molecular diffusion, often called simply diffusion, is the thermal motion of all particles at temperatures above absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size of the particles...
of the particles.
The sedimentation of particles under gravity is described by the Mason–Weaver equation, which has a simple exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient s in this case equals , where is the buoyant mass.
The sedimentation of particles under the centrifugal force
Centrifugal force
Centrifugal force can generally be any force directed outward relative to some origin. More particularly, in classical mechanics, the centrifugal force is an outward force which arises when describing the motion of objects in a rotating reference frame...
is described by the Lamm equation
Lamm equation
The Lamm equation describes the sedimentation and diffusion of a solute under ultracentrifugation in traditional sector-shaped cells. It was named after Ole Lamm, later professor of physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology, who derived it during his Ph.D...
, which likewise has an exact solution. The sedimentation coefficient s also equals , where is the buoyant mass. However, the Lamm equation differs from the Mason–Weaver equation because the centrifugal force depends on radius from the origin of rotation, whereas gravity is presumed constant. The Lamm equation also has extra terms, since it pertains to sector
Circular sector
A circular sector or circle sector, is the portion of a disk enclosed by two radii and an arc, where the smaller area is known as the minor sector and the larger being the major sector. In the diagram, θ is the central angle in radians, r the radius of the circle, and L is the arc length of the...
-shaped cells, whereas the Mason–Weaver equation pertains to box-shaped
Cuboid
In geometry, a cuboid is a solid figure bounded by six faces, forming a convex polyhedron. There are two competing definitions of a cuboid in mathematical literature...
cells (i.e., cells whose walls are aligned with the three Cartesian axes
Cartesian coordinate system
A Cartesian coordinate system specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length...
).
Particles with a charge or dipole moment can be sedimented by an electric field
Electric field
In physics, an electric field surrounds electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic fields. The electric field depicts the force exerted on other electrically charged objects by the electrically charged particle the field is surrounding...
or electric field gradient
Electric field gradient
In atomic, molecular, and solid-state physics, the electric field gradient measures the rate of change of the electric field at an atomic nucleus generated by the electronic charge distribution and the other nuclei...
, respectively. These processes are called electrophoresis
Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis, also called cataphoresis, is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric field. This electrokinetic phenomenon was observed for the first time in 1807 by Reuss , who noticed that the application of a constant electric...
and dielectrophoresis
Dielectrophoresis
Dielectrophoresis is a phenomenon in which a force is exerted on a dielectric particle when it is subjected to a non-uniform electric field. This force does not require the particle to be charged. All particles exhibit dielectrophoretic activity in the presence of electric fields...
, respectively. For electrophoresis, the sedimentation coefficient corresponds to the particle charge divided by its drag
Drag (physics)
In fluid dynamics, drag refers to forces which act on a solid object in the direction of the relative fluid flow velocity...
(the electrophoretic mobility
Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis, also called cataphoresis, is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric field. This electrokinetic phenomenon was observed for the first time in 1807 by Reuss , who noticed that the application of a constant electric...
). Similarly, for dielectrophoresis
Dielectrophoresis
Dielectrophoresis is a phenomenon in which a force is exerted on a dielectric particle when it is subjected to a non-uniform electric field. This force does not require the particle to be charged. All particles exhibit dielectrophoretic activity in the presence of electric fields...
, the sedimentation coefficient equals the particle's electric dipole moment divided by its drag
Drag (physics)
In fluid dynamics, drag refers to forces which act on a solid object in the direction of the relative fluid flow velocity...
.
Classification of sedimentation:
- Type 1 sedimentation is characterized by particles that settle discretely at a constant settling velocity. They settle as individual particles and do not flocculate or stick to other during settling. Example: sand and grit material
- Type 2 sedimentation is characterized by particles that flocculate during sedimentation and because of this their size is constantly changing and therefore their settling velocity is changing. Example: alum or iron coagulation
- Type 3 sedimentation is also known as zone sedimentation. In this process the particles are at a high concentration (greater than 1000 mg/L) such that the particles tend to settle as a mass and a distinct clear zone and sludge zone are present. Zone settling occurs in lime-softening, sedimentation, active sludge sedimentation and sludge thickeners.
Geology
In geologyGeology
Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which it evolves. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates...
, sedimentation is the deposition of particles carried by a fluid flow. For suspended
Suspended
Suspended: A Cryogenic Nightmare is an interactive fiction computer game written by Michael Berlyn and published by Infocom in 1983. Like most Infocom titles, it was available on most popular personal computers of the day, such as the Apple II, PC, Atari ST and Commodore 64...
load, this can be expressed mathematically by the Exner equation
Exner equation
The Exner equation is a statement of conservation of mass that applies to sediment in a fluvial system such as a river. It was developed by the Austrian meteorologist and sedimentologist Felix Maria Exner, from whom it derives its name.-The equation:...
, and results in the formation of depositional landform
Landform
A landform or physical feature in the earth sciences and geology sub-fields, comprises a geomorphological unit, and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such, is typically an element of topography...
s and the rocks that constitute sedimentary record. An undesired increased transport and sedimentation of suspended material is called siltation
Siltation
Siltation is the pollution of water by fine particulate terrestrial clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments, and to the increased accumulation of fine sediments on bottoms where they are undesirable...
, and it is a major source of pollution in waterways in some parts of the world. Climate change
Climate change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions or the distribution of events around that average...
also affect siltation rates.
Chemistry
In chemistry, sedimentation has been used to measure the size of large molecules (macromoleculeMacromolecule
A macromolecule is a very large molecule commonly created by some form of polymerization. In biochemistry, the term is applied to the four conventional biopolymers , as well as non-polymeric molecules with large molecular mass such as macrocycles...
), where the force of gravity is augmented with centrifugal force
Centrifugal force
Centrifugal force can generally be any force directed outward relative to some origin. More particularly, in classical mechanics, the centrifugal force is an outward force which arises when describing the motion of objects in a rotating reference frame...
in a centrifuge
Centrifuge
A centrifuge is a piece of equipment, generally driven by an electric motor , that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis...
.
Biology
In biology, the sedimentation of organisms is a critical issue for planktonPlankton
Plankton are any drifting organisms that inhabit the pelagic zone of oceans, seas, or bodies of fresh water. That is, plankton are defined by their ecological niche rather than phylogenetic or taxonomic classification...
ic organisms, as sinking under gravity moves them away from the surface, where sunlight provides energy.