Bibracte
Encyclopedia
Bibracte, a Gaulish oppidum
or fortified city, was the capital of the Aedui
and one of the most important hillforts in Gaul
. It was situated near modern Autun
in Burgundy
, France
. The material culture
of the Aedui corresponded to the Late Iron Age
La Tène culture
,
In 58 BC, at the Battle of Bibracte
, Julius Caesar
's armies defeated the Helvetii
16 miles south of the fort. In 52 BC, at Bibracte Vercingetorix
was proclaimed head of the Gaulish coalition. Again at Bibracte Julius Caesar
, the victor at the battle of Alesia
, completed dictating his Gallic Wars
. A few decades after the Roman conquest of Gaul, Bibracte was abandoned in favour of Autun
, 25 kilometres distant.
Without a continuous settlement to disturb or efface the site, Bibracte remained for modern archaeology to rediscover.
The first excavations were begun at the site by the wine merchant Jacques Gabriel Bulliot between 1867 and 1895. His nephew Joseph Déchelette, author of a famous Manuel d'Archéologie continued the excavations between 1897 and 1907
Today Mont Beuvray is generally credited as the ancient Bibracte. The site straddles the borders of the French départements of Nièvre
and Saône-et-Loire
in Burgundy. The site is an archaeological park at the centre of a protected forest, and a site of cooperative European archaeological efforts, a training ground for young archaeologists as well as a centre for interpreting Gaulish culture for a popular audience. Important international excavations take place at Mont Beuvray, with teams from the universities of Sheffield
, Kiel
, Budapest
, Vienna
and Leipzig
.
On December 12, 2007, the site of Bibracte received the "Great Site of France" Label.
) followed by the collective suffix -akti (cf. Irish, Gallic aktā) or from the Latin biffractrus (twice fortified). The latter version, however, is less certain, more from a strategic view than from a historical one. In fact, it is very difficult to protect a battlement over a long distance, and using a double battlement is therefore not justified. Furthermore, the surrounding wall of the city has shrunk since dating methods made it possible to show the precedence of the outer battlements compared to the inner battlements (see the map). The stone facing of the outer surrounding wall, moreover, was certainly reused for the construction of the second wall. Therefore, it is not certain that Bibracte had two surrounding walls at the same time.
Another explanation could come from three inscriptions dedicated to the goddess Bibracte which were found at Autun
in the 17th century. Unfortunately, two of the inscriptions carved into the stone have disappeared; the third, engraved on a brass medallion, has been the object of debate as to its authenticity. In fact, the old disagreements over the location of Bibracte may have led some scholars of the era to fabricate evidence to justify placing the Aeduian oppidum on the site of Autun (the former Augustodunum), which was effectively the capital of the Aedui in the 1st century. At all events, the mystery of the origins of Bibracte remains.
in his Commentaries on the Gallic War in the year 58 BCE. It was mentioned again in 52 BCE, during which he was questioning the intentions of his Aedui allies, who had joined the revolt and crowned Vercingetorix
king of the Gauls at Bibracte. It would not be mentioned again. Inscriptions from the era announced that the capital of the Aedui had received the name Augustodumun (the citadel of Augustus), under Augustus' reign; this name gave rise to the current Autun.
Starting in the 16th century, a passion for local history arose among scholars, aristocrats, and clergy, which led to the question of the location of Bibracte. Many theories would clash. One placed Bibracte at Autun: the Gallic city at the site of the Gallo-Roman city. Another placed it at Beaune
and was defended by the scholar Hugues de Salins. A third theory stated that the city was on the slopes of Beuvrect or Bevrect, today known as Mont Beuvray. This last theory was based on three major arguments. First of all, there is a connection between the names Bibracte and Beuvrect. Next, this theory invoked a tradition passed down by medieval chronicles which situated the city at Beuvrect. This was reinforced by the existence of an annual fair on the first Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of May, the age of which is attested to in texts from the 13th century. Finally, the discovery of pottery, coins, and the observations of the priest of Saint-Léger-sous-Beuvray in 1725 supports it.
Generally, the Autun hypothesis received the greatest approval at first. Moreover, Autun was renamed Bibracte after the revolution and remained so for some time. It took until the 19th century and the research of Jacques Gabriel Bulliot for the situation to change in favor of Mont Beuvray. In 1851, Bulliot decided to communicate with the Congress of the French Society of Archeology about an ancient chapel (the Saint Martin chapel on Mont Beuvray) established to Christianize the Aedui. He also returned to Mont Beuvray to take more notes. He discovered what he thought was the embankment of a Roman camp (actually a nemeton
) at the summit of Mont Beuvray next to the chapel. He documented it and considered placing Bibracte at Mont Beuvray instead of Autun, contrary to the unanimous opinion of the Aedui Society. The publication of his Essay on the Roman System of Defense in the Aedui country bettwen the Saône and the Loire, in which he revealed his convictions, was not taken seriously by the members of the Society of Archeology. Matters were moved along by the interest of Emperor Napoleon III in the battles of the Gallic Wars
. In fact, Bulliot would be visited by an officer, named Stoffel, charged by the Emperor with conducting investigations of the Roman victory over the Helvetii. Bulliot informed him of his opinions about the location of Bibracte. The officer was not interested, but he gave Xavier Garenne, another member of the Aedui Society, the mission of making a survey of Mont Beavray. At the same time, the Viscount of Aboville, the owner of the land, conducted the necessary research and showed it to the Archbishop of Reims, who was also a member of the Aedui Society and a friend of Bulliot (despite their disagreement on the question of Bibracte). Interested by these investigations, the latter broke the news to the Emperor. Thus, in 1867, Napoleon III assigned Bulliot to do research at Mont Beavray and granted him funding.
Bulliot excavated the site from 1867 to 1905, removing all doubt about the location of Bibracte. His nephew Joseph Déchelette, whom he introduced to excavation, continued the work until 1907, comparing Bibracte to other sites in Europe such as Strakonice
in Bohemia, Manching
in Germany and Velem-Zenst-Vid in Hungary, which were precursors of the cultural unification of the Celtic world and of the civilization of oppida
.
Because the Aedui had the status of "friend of the Roman people," contacts with Roman merchants were probable before the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar. This privileged status prevented Bibracte from suffering much conflict: in 58 BCE, at Montmort
25 kilometers south of the site, Julius Caesar's armies defeated the Helvetii
, forcing them to return to Switzerland and gradually be incorporated into what would become the Roman Empire
. In 52 BCE, an assembly of Gallic peoples at Bibracte gave Vercingetorix
supreme command of the Gallic armies. Despite this insurrection, Caesar treated the city mercifully after his victory at Alesia. He stayed there during the winter of 52-51 BCE to write his Commentaries on the Gallic War. These revealed, among other things, the names of certain notables of the Aedui aristocracy such as Dumnorix
, vergobret
of the Aedui, and his brother Diviciacos
, the druid
. The city's industry boomed in the decades following the war.
Strabo
the geographer, who wrote a generation after Caesar, indicated Bibracte as an Aedui stronghold again.
After the founding of Autun
(Augustodunum) 25 kilometers away c. 15 BCE, during the reign of Augustus
, Bibracte was gradually abandoned by its inhabitants. However, cults continued to practise in its temples and by its fountains and its aristocratic residences were maintained. Two main hypotheses were advanced concerning this gradual abandonment of the site over several decades. The migration could have been caused by economic reasons or by a desire to integrate with the Roman model; a part of the dominant Aedui class, already pro-Roman during the Gallic War, definitely realized the strategic importance of the new city located on the principal axes of communication, and also wanted to conform to the Roman model of flatland cities, while a more traditional population remained for a time on the site.
It is known from 13th century texts that a festival every first Monday of May survived. In the 15th and 16th Centuries, a convent of Cordeliers was established on Mont Beuvray. It was abandoned, but the festival continued.
and the Sequani
for hegemony over a large part of Gaul. These mentions were not impartial, since Rome was allied with the Aedui, "our blood brothers", since at least the 2nd century BCE. Moreover, they maintained commercial links and military alliances: Rome aided the Aedui in the 2nd century in defeating at Arverni army and rose to their defense against the invasion of the Helvetii that precipitated the Gallic War.
In addition to this powerful alliance with Rome, the Aedui were part of a confederation of Celtic tribes:
whose influence thus extended across a large part of Gaul.
Finally, the demographic aspect should not be ignored, since archeologists estimate the population of Beavray between 5,000 and 10,000 inhabitants at its peak.
writes these lines about the Aedui
: "Bibracte, I am sure, was the source and the guarantee of their power. Around Bibracte were very good roads, uniting the three biggest basins of France
."
So, the Roman products traveling up the Rhône
(the waterways were the fastest at the time) and taking after that the Saône
, the Loire
or the Allier, passed through Aedui territory before joining the basins of the Loire
and Seine
. The Aedui were located at a commercial crossroads between the Celtic world and Rome
. Thus did they allow the diffusion of Roman products through Gaul as soon as the 2nd century BCE, allowing their allies to benefit from their commerce with Rome and definitely with Greek colonies such as Massilia. These exchanges are confirmed by the large quantities of amphoras and ceramics from Italy found in waste tanks and in the paving of houses.
In addition, the Aedui installed a system of customs that taxed the products passing through their territory to increase their wealth as attested in the texts of Julius Caesar : "It was typical of Dumnorix
: the man was audacious, his generosity made him popular, and he wanted political change. For years, he has had the control of the customs and all the other taxes of the Aedui, because when he bid, noone dared bid against him." The Aedui and the Sequani
fought each other to control the Arar (now the Saône) because the control of the river allowed taxation of all the Roman and Celtic products traveling to the north of the continent via the waterways.
, the supreme magistrate, who exercised his functions over the course of a year. He was forbidden from leaving the borders of the territory during this period, which prevented him from commanding the army outside the borders. This measure, along with that which authorized only one voice per aristocratic family in the senate, aimed to prevent any individual or their family from monopolizing the reins of power. The vergobret was publicly elected by a council directed by the druids. Among the Aedui, it seems like the vergobret also exercised a judiciary role, since Caesar reports that he had "the right to life and death over his fellow citizens". Finally, it is thought that the vergobret was responsible for the administration of the territory. Caesar adds that the druids were charged with this: "They believe that religion does not allow them to put they material of their education in writing, while for the rest in general, for public and private administrative acts, they used the Greek alphabet." No excavation has permitted the rediscovery of such acts, the backings of which, being wood covered with wax, are perishable.
Furthermore, it is known that the druids held high functions since Diviciacos came to Rome to plead the case of the Aedui during the Germanic invasion led by Ariovistus
on the account of the Sequani.; he also directed the Aedui cavalry during the Gallic War after the death of his brother Dumnorix
. Therefore, it is thought that some druids held high military positions.
, who proclaimed Bibracte a site of national interest in 1985. This term, invented for the occasion, would permit the site to be subsidized. The label of "national interest" was created afterward in order to designate exhibitions or sites which benefit from a program of diffusion and enlargement of the public by the Minister of Culture. This will always give the necessary impetus to a project of excavations of European scope. Thus, in 1989, the European Archeological Center of Mont Beuvray was created, which will reassemble the site, the museum, and the research center of Glux-en-Glenne
. It was inaugurated in 1995. By order on March 21, 1995, the Minister of Culture, on the advice of the National Council of Archeological Research, confirmed the oppidum of Bibracte (Mont-Beuvray, Saint-Léger-sous-Beuvray; Saône-et-Loire; Glux-en-Glenne; Nièvre). The excavations were actually conducted by Vincent Guichard and put into practice by many French and foreign teams; the excavations notably concentrated on the Gallic neighborhood of Rebout, on the vast Gallo-Roman ensemble of the Pasture of the Convent and the Roman residence of the Horse Park.
Thus, specialists, researchers, professors and students from all over Europe mix on the site every summer in order to excavate different parts of the site. These included, among others:
Each university excavates the site in the form of triannual projects which currently depend on the comprehension of the operation of a Celtic city of the La Tène period. Their research consists of several weeks of work on the terrain which is followed by a detailed study of the excavation and of the discovered objects which are then stored at the site's research center.
In recent years, the same technique has been used in the same Porrey neighborhood with more precise tools, like theodolite
s and GPS
. In fact, aerial and electromagnetic prospecting is made impossible by the vegetation that that reforested the mountain since the end of grazing and the excavations of Joseph Déchelette and the nature of the subsoil. One costly but faster technique, which is to be tested in 2007, is LIDAR
, the use of airborne laser scanners, which are unhindered by the vegetation and can recreate in minutes what usually takes weeks to do on the ground. This will be done in order to attempt to make a complete map of the city and to archive the topography of the location.
Since 1984, the excavations have seemed to confirm Déchelette's and Bulliot's hypotheses in broad terms, while nevertheless contributing certain nuances.
The first wall (the internal wall on the map below), discovered by Bulliot, is a Murus Gallicus that delimits an area of 135 hectares for a length of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) per battlement. It is estimated that the construction of the wall required imposing quantities in excess of 10,000 cubic meters of wood, between 10,000 and 20,000 cubic meters of earth and about thirty tons of iron.
The second wall, surprisingly outside the first, encircles an area of 200 hectares and was the subject of research beginning in 1992 for initial probing. This archeological research revealed that the battlement had a height between 4 and 5 meters (13 and 16 feet) without its yet unknown top (e.g., palisades or towers) and an identical depth, and was preceded by a ditch between 2 and 4 meters (7 and 13 feet) deep and between 6 and 10 meters (20 and 33 feet) wide. A study was conducted between 1995 and 2002 with many probes along with those by the University of Vienna. The researchers were able to ascertain that this battlement was a Murus Gallicus that had been dismantled in order to construct the inner wall. The dating, however, remains imprecise, and places this event during the 2nd century. These excavations also updated a postern to the level of Porrey, which is the only one currently known for Murus Gallicus type fortifications.
The battlement is punctuated by about fifteen gates, including the famous Gate of Rebout (20 meters (66 feet) in width and 40 meters (131 feet) in depth). The gate of Rebout was the first location excavated by Bulliot, where he worked for 9 weeks, and was the first site for new excavations from 1984 to 1986 which also studied the ditches adjoining the battlements. These excavations revealed the existence of five levels of different restorations, including a palisade from the Neolithic Era (dated with carbon-14). The latter became the object of a reconstruction since 1996 which currently marks the entry into the old oppidum. At the present time, research has not been able to detect a trace of a method for locking the gate or a defensive device for it. Some hypotheses have advanced the idea of a double gate surmounted by a wooden guard tower like that of the Manching oppidum, but nothing can yet confirm this.
The recent research on the battlements, since 2005, has concentrated on a line of fortification downhill from the Gate of Rebout. Dating seems to indicate that this construction took place after that of the gate and therefore constituted an advance fortification. It will be studied over the course of the next excavations. At the same time, some aristocratic tombs have been discovered between the two lines of battlements.
Excavations on the site of Beuvray, in the region of the Champlain, and on the surrounding massifs revealed the existence of mines for the extraction of metals, including gold, iron, and tin ore. This research will continue and will attempt to restore the workshops for the smelting of the metals extracted outside the oppidum. In fact, given the specialization of the workshops in Bibracte, it seems that the metals arrived in bars which were therefore cast outside the oppidum.
Another artisanal neighborhood has been found in the region of one of the summits of the site, at the Rock of the Wyvern
, an area which had been little investigated at the time of Bulliot and Déchelette's research. This neighborhood will be the object of future excavations which will attempt to determine the function of the neighborhood.
.
with an atrium
containing an impluvium
, portico
s, and thermae
heated by hypocaust
, along with a system of sewers. In its final stage, the residence measured 55 by 67 meters, covering an area of around 3500 square meters, about four times the size of the domus found on the site of Pompeii
. It is estimated that there were about fifteen domus in this area, such as PC2, a smaller residence that faces PC1 on the other side of the central road. There are also homes of the villa rustica
type (the Italian rural residences) like PC33. However, it is still not known whether this was a residential neighborhood reserved for only the elite, since excavations have also revealed the presence of forges near the domus.
The main geometrics of the design are known: the intersection of two circles with connections of precisely the length of a Pythagorean triangle joining the center of the circle, the center of the fountain and one end of the fountain. However, its use is still unknown; it could be a sacred point of the city's founding, or a water shrine. Furthermore, among certain specialists, this manner of carving granite is unusual and rests on the principles of Mediterranean limestone carving. The Aedui doubtlessly employed foreigners to build the fountain.
All of this points to the fountain being a monument outside of ordinary Celtic architecture.
Near the fountain, many cellars and certain public buildings that stocked large quantities of cereals and wine imported from the southern countries have been found. One of these wooden cellars has recently been reconstructed. Without a doubt, it was in these buildings that the Aedui centralized their harvests and imports.
At the summit of the mountain, a Celtic place of worship (nemeton
) a hectare large has been updated, surrounded by a palisade and concentric ditches.
Under the current chapel from the 19th century, the 1988 excavations discovered a Galloroman temple.
Furthermore, the abandonment of the city before the beginning of the Christian era was not prevented by pursuit of pilgrimages carried out in its surroundings.
The museum has few proper collections, as many of those exhibited are loaned from other museum. During some years, the Coligny calendar
and the Gundestrup cauldron
can be seen there.
The ground floor, which consists of several alcoves, recounts the life of the Aedui at Bibracte. Objects of daily life, jewelry, funereal urns, and artisanal workshops are reconstructed or exhibited there.
(Nièvre
), is one of the most important libraries on the Celtic world, regularly funded by European researchers who take their counterparts there. There is also an archeological depot there, the administration of the archeological park, several technical establishments, a lecture hall, and, in the village, a dining hall and a several gîte
s.
In this center, archeologists, students, and researchers congregate from all over Europe to excavate the site of Bibracte. In several months, the research center will expand to accommodate the regional center for preservation of relics and archeological collections, becoming the reference center of Burgundy in this field.
Oppidum
Oppidum is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, "enclosed space," possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *pedóm-, "occupied space" or "footprint."Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age...
or fortified city, was the capital of the Aedui
Aedui
Aedui, Haedui or Hedui , were a Gallic people of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the Arar and Liger , in today's France. Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or and Nièvre.-Geography:The country of the Aedui is...
and one of the most important hillforts in Gaul
Gaul
Gaul was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg and Belgium, most of Switzerland, the western part of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the left bank of the Rhine. The Gauls were the speakers of...
. It was situated near modern Autun
Autun
Autun is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in Burgundy in eastern France. It was founded during the early Roman Empire as Augustodunum. Autun marks the easternmost extent of the Umayyad campaign in Europe.-Early history:...
in Burgundy
Bourgogne
Burgundy is one of the 27 regions of France.The name comes from the Burgundians, an ancient Germanic people who settled in the area in early Middle-age. The region of Burgundy is both larger than the old Duchy of Burgundy and smaller than the area ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, from the modern...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. The material culture
Archaeological culture
An archaeological culture is a recurring assemblage of artifacts from a specific time and place, which are thought to constitute the material culture remains of a particular past human society. The connection between the artifacts is based on archaeologists' understanding and interpretation and...
of the Aedui corresponded to the Late Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
La Tène culture
La Tène culture
The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where a rich cache of artifacts was discovered by Hansli Kopp in 1857....
,
In 58 BC, at the Battle of Bibracte
Battle of Bibracte
The Battle of Bibracte was fought between the Helvetii and six Roman legions, under the command of Gaius Julius Caesar. It was the second major battle of the Gallic Wars....
, Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
's armies defeated the Helvetii
Helvetii
The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC...
16 miles south of the fort. In 52 BC, at Bibracte Vercingetorix
Vercingetorix
Vercingetorix was the chieftain of the Arverni tribe, who united the Gauls in an ultimately unsuccessful revolt against Roman forces during the last phase of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars....
was proclaimed head of the Gaulish coalition. Again at Bibracte Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
, the victor at the battle of Alesia
Battle of Alesia
The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia took place in September, 52 BC around the Gallic oppidum of Alesia, a major town centre and hill fort of the Mandubii tribe...
, completed dictating his Gallic Wars
Gallic Wars
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. They lasted from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the...
. A few decades after the Roman conquest of Gaul, Bibracte was abandoned in favour of Autun
Autun
Autun is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in Burgundy in eastern France. It was founded during the early Roman Empire as Augustodunum. Autun marks the easternmost extent of the Umayyad campaign in Europe.-Early history:...
, 25 kilometres distant.
Without a continuous settlement to disturb or efface the site, Bibracte remained for modern archaeology to rediscover.
The first excavations were begun at the site by the wine merchant Jacques Gabriel Bulliot between 1867 and 1895. His nephew Joseph Déchelette, author of a famous Manuel d'Archéologie continued the excavations between 1897 and 1907
Today Mont Beuvray is generally credited as the ancient Bibracte. The site straddles the borders of the French départements of Nièvre
Nièvre
Nièvre is a department in the centre of France named after the Nièvre River.-History:Nièvre is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on March 4, 1790...
and Saône-et-Loire
Saône-et-Loire
Saône-et-Loire is a French department, named after the Saône and the Loire rivers between which it lies.-History:When it was formed during the French Revolution, as of March 4, 1790 in fulfillment of the law of December 22, 1789, the new department combined parts of the provinces of southern...
in Burgundy. The site is an archaeological park at the centre of a protected forest, and a site of cooperative European archaeological efforts, a training ground for young archaeologists as well as a centre for interpreting Gaulish culture for a popular audience. Important international excavations take place at Mont Beuvray, with teams from the universities of Sheffield
Sheffield
Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough of South Yorkshire, England. Its name derives from the River Sheaf, which runs through the city. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and with some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its largely...
, Kiel
Kiel
Kiel is the capital and most populous city in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, with a population of 238,049 .Kiel is approximately north of Hamburg. Due to its geographic location in the north of Germany, the southeast of the Jutland peninsula, and the southwestern shore of the...
, Budapest
Budapest
Budapest is the capital of Hungary. As the largest city of Hungary, it is the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation centre. In 2011, Budapest had 1,733,685 inhabitants, down from its 1989 peak of 2,113,645 due to suburbanization. The Budapest Commuter...
, Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
and Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig Leipzig has always been a trade city, situated during the time of the Holy Roman Empire at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, two important trade routes. At one time, Leipzig was one of the major European centres of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing...
.
On December 12, 2007, the site of Bibracte received the "Great Site of France" Label.
Etymology
The origin of the word Bibracte is still poorly understood. The term may have come from the Celtic *bibro- / *bebro- (beaverBeaver
The beaver is a primarily nocturnal, large, semi-aquatic rodent. Castor includes two extant species, North American Beaver and Eurasian Beaver . Beavers are known for building dams, canals, and lodges . They are the second-largest rodent in the world...
) followed by the collective suffix -akti (cf. Irish, Gallic aktā) or from the Latin biffractrus (twice fortified). The latter version, however, is less certain, more from a strategic view than from a historical one. In fact, it is very difficult to protect a battlement over a long distance, and using a double battlement is therefore not justified. Furthermore, the surrounding wall of the city has shrunk since dating methods made it possible to show the precedence of the outer battlements compared to the inner battlements (see the map). The stone facing of the outer surrounding wall, moreover, was certainly reused for the construction of the second wall. Therefore, it is not certain that Bibracte had two surrounding walls at the same time.
Another explanation could come from three inscriptions dedicated to the goddess Bibracte which were found at Autun
Autun
Autun is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in Burgundy in eastern France. It was founded during the early Roman Empire as Augustodunum. Autun marks the easternmost extent of the Umayyad campaign in Europe.-Early history:...
in the 17th century. Unfortunately, two of the inscriptions carved into the stone have disappeared; the third, engraved on a brass medallion, has been the object of debate as to its authenticity. In fact, the old disagreements over the location of Bibracte may have led some scholars of the era to fabricate evidence to justify placing the Aeduian oppidum on the site of Autun (the former Augustodunum), which was effectively the capital of the Aedui in the 1st century. At all events, the mystery of the origins of Bibracte remains.
Discovery of Bibracte
The first mention of Bibracte in history was made by Julius CaesarJulius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
in his Commentaries on the Gallic War in the year 58 BCE. It was mentioned again in 52 BCE, during which he was questioning the intentions of his Aedui allies, who had joined the revolt and crowned Vercingetorix
Vercingetorix
Vercingetorix was the chieftain of the Arverni tribe, who united the Gauls in an ultimately unsuccessful revolt against Roman forces during the last phase of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars....
king of the Gauls at Bibracte. It would not be mentioned again. Inscriptions from the era announced that the capital of the Aedui had received the name Augustodumun (the citadel of Augustus), under Augustus' reign; this name gave rise to the current Autun.
Starting in the 16th century, a passion for local history arose among scholars, aristocrats, and clergy, which led to the question of the location of Bibracte. Many theories would clash. One placed Bibracte at Autun: the Gallic city at the site of the Gallo-Roman city. Another placed it at Beaune
Beaune
Beaune is the wine capital of Burgundy in the Cote d'Or department in eastern France. It is located between Paris and Geneva.Beaune is one of the key wine centers in France and the annual wine auction of the Hospices de Beaune is the primary wine auction in France...
and was defended by the scholar Hugues de Salins. A third theory stated that the city was on the slopes of Beuvrect or Bevrect, today known as Mont Beuvray. This last theory was based on three major arguments. First of all, there is a connection between the names Bibracte and Beuvrect. Next, this theory invoked a tradition passed down by medieval chronicles which situated the city at Beuvrect. This was reinforced by the existence of an annual fair on the first Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of May, the age of which is attested to in texts from the 13th century. Finally, the discovery of pottery, coins, and the observations of the priest of Saint-Léger-sous-Beuvray in 1725 supports it.
Generally, the Autun hypothesis received the greatest approval at first. Moreover, Autun was renamed Bibracte after the revolution and remained so for some time. It took until the 19th century and the research of Jacques Gabriel Bulliot for the situation to change in favor of Mont Beuvray. In 1851, Bulliot decided to communicate with the Congress of the French Society of Archeology about an ancient chapel (the Saint Martin chapel on Mont Beuvray) established to Christianize the Aedui. He also returned to Mont Beuvray to take more notes. He discovered what he thought was the embankment of a Roman camp (actually a nemeton
Nemeton
A nemeton was a sacred space of ancient Celtic religion. Nemeta appear to have been primarily situated in natural areas, and, as they often utilized trees, they are often interpreted as sacred groves. However, other evidence suggests that the word implied a wider variety of ritual spaces, such as...
) at the summit of Mont Beuvray next to the chapel. He documented it and considered placing Bibracte at Mont Beuvray instead of Autun, contrary to the unanimous opinion of the Aedui Society. The publication of his Essay on the Roman System of Defense in the Aedui country bettwen the Saône and the Loire, in which he revealed his convictions, was not taken seriously by the members of the Society of Archeology. Matters were moved along by the interest of Emperor Napoleon III in the battles of the Gallic Wars
Gallic Wars
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. They lasted from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the...
. In fact, Bulliot would be visited by an officer, named Stoffel, charged by the Emperor with conducting investigations of the Roman victory over the Helvetii. Bulliot informed him of his opinions about the location of Bibracte. The officer was not interested, but he gave Xavier Garenne, another member of the Aedui Society, the mission of making a survey of Mont Beavray. At the same time, the Viscount of Aboville, the owner of the land, conducted the necessary research and showed it to the Archbishop of Reims, who was also a member of the Aedui Society and a friend of Bulliot (despite their disagreement on the question of Bibracte). Interested by these investigations, the latter broke the news to the Emperor. Thus, in 1867, Napoleon III assigned Bulliot to do research at Mont Beavray and granted him funding.
Bulliot excavated the site from 1867 to 1905, removing all doubt about the location of Bibracte. His nephew Joseph Déchelette, whom he introduced to excavation, continued the work until 1907, comparing Bibracte to other sites in Europe such as Strakonice
Strakonice
Strakonice is a town in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. Estimated population: 24,000.-History:The settlement of this region took place in the second half of 12th century when a castle was built...
in Bohemia, Manching
Oppidum of Manching
The Oppidum of Manching was a large Celtic proto-urban or city-like settlement at modern-day Manching , Bavaria . The settlement was founded in the 3rd century BC and existed until c. 50-30 BC. It reached its largest extent during the late La Tène period , when it had a size of 380 hectares...
in Germany and Velem-Zenst-Vid in Hungary, which were precursors of the cultural unification of the Celtic world and of the civilization of oppida
Oppidum
Oppidum is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, "enclosed space," possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *pedóm-, "occupied space" or "footprint."Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age...
.
Chronology of the population of Beuvray
During the excavations of the gate, five artifacts were discovered, the oldest of which showed human habitation on Mont Beuvray in the Neolithic Era. However, dating techniques have revealed that the oppidum was not founded until the end of the 3rd century on an area of 200 hectares protected by the exterior rampart. An interior rampart was built later, for reasons yet unknown.Because the Aedui had the status of "friend of the Roman people," contacts with Roman merchants were probable before the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar. This privileged status prevented Bibracte from suffering much conflict: in 58 BCE, at Montmort
Montmort
Montmort is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in the region of Bourgogne in eastern France.-References:*...
25 kilometers south of the site, Julius Caesar's armies defeated the Helvetii
Helvetii
The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC...
, forcing them to return to Switzerland and gradually be incorporated into what would become the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. In 52 BCE, an assembly of Gallic peoples at Bibracte gave Vercingetorix
Vercingetorix
Vercingetorix was the chieftain of the Arverni tribe, who united the Gauls in an ultimately unsuccessful revolt against Roman forces during the last phase of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars....
supreme command of the Gallic armies. Despite this insurrection, Caesar treated the city mercifully after his victory at Alesia. He stayed there during the winter of 52-51 BCE to write his Commentaries on the Gallic War. These revealed, among other things, the names of certain notables of the Aedui aristocracy such as Dumnorix
Dumnorix
Dumnorix was a chieftain of the Aedui, a Celtic tribe in Gaul in the 1st century B.C. He was strongly against alliance with the Romans, particularly Julius Caesar, who sparred with him on several occasions...
, vergobret
Vergobret
The vergobret was a person in Celtic society who held the highest office in many Gallic cities, especially among the Aedui. Julius Caesar discusses the role of the vergobret several times in his Commentaries on the Gallic War, referring to the office with the terms princeps civitatis, principatus,...
of the Aedui, and his brother Diviciacos
Diviciacus (Aedui)
Diviciacus or Divitiacus of the Aedui is the only druid from antiquity whose existence is attested by name. He should not be confused with the king of the Suessiones also known by the Latinised name Diviciacus; coins, possibly issued by the latter, give the Gaulish name in Greek lettering as...
, the druid
Druid
A druid was a member of the priestly class in Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, and possibly other parts of Celtic western Europe, during the Iron Age....
. The city's industry boomed in the decades following the war.
Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
the geographer, who wrote a generation after Caesar, indicated Bibracte as an Aedui stronghold again.
After the founding of Autun
Autun
Autun is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in Burgundy in eastern France. It was founded during the early Roman Empire as Augustodunum. Autun marks the easternmost extent of the Umayyad campaign in Europe.-Early history:...
(Augustodunum) 25 kilometers away c. 15 BCE, during the reign of Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
, Bibracte was gradually abandoned by its inhabitants. However, cults continued to practise in its temples and by its fountains and its aristocratic residences were maintained. Two main hypotheses were advanced concerning this gradual abandonment of the site over several decades. The migration could have been caused by economic reasons or by a desire to integrate with the Roman model; a part of the dominant Aedui class, already pro-Roman during the Gallic War, definitely realized the strategic importance of the new city located on the principal axes of communication, and also wanted to conform to the Roman model of flatland cities, while a more traditional population remained for a time on the site.
It is known from 13th century texts that a festival every first Monday of May survived. In the 15th and 16th Centuries, a convent of Cordeliers was established on Mont Beuvray. It was abandoned, but the festival continued.
Influence and power
In addition to the creation of the Beavraisian in the classification of ancient peoples by Gabriel de Mortillet, which has been abandoned since it does not correspond to the historical reality, the power of the Aedui capital was related in the Commentaries on the Gallic War, which underlined the many alliances held by the Aedui with neighboring peoples. Julius Caesar also mentioned the wars that set the Aedui against the ArverniArverni
The Arverni were a Gallic tribe living in what is now the Auvergne region of France during the last centuries BC. One of the most powerful tribes in ancient Gaul, they opposed the Romans on several occasions...
and the Sequani
Sequani
Sequani, in ancient geography, were a Gallic people who occupied the upper river basin of the Arar , the valley of the Doubs and the Jura Mountains, their territory corresponding to Franche-Comté and part of Burgundy.-Etymology:...
for hegemony over a large part of Gaul. These mentions were not impartial, since Rome was allied with the Aedui, "our blood brothers", since at least the 2nd century BCE. Moreover, they maintained commercial links and military alliances: Rome aided the Aedui in the 2nd century in defeating at Arverni army and rose to their defense against the invasion of the Helvetii that precipitated the Gallic War.
In addition to this powerful alliance with Rome, the Aedui were part of a confederation of Celtic tribes:
- The AmbarriAmbarriThe Ambarri were a Gallic people, whom Julius Caesar calls close allies and kinsmen of the Aedui. If the reading Aedui Ambarri in the passage referred to is correct, the Ambarri were Aedui. They are not mentioned among the clientes of the Aedui. The Ambarri were a Gallic people, whom Julius Caesar...
(in AinAinAin is a department named after the Ain River on the eastern edge of France. Being part of the region Rhône-Alpes and bordered by the rivers Saône and Rhône, the department of Ain enjoys a privileged geographic situation...
) - The BrannovicesBrannovicesThe Brannovices or Brannovi were a Gallic people mentioned by Julius Caesar . D'Anville conjectures that they may have been in the canton of Brionnois, near Mâcon, Saône-et-Loire, France. Walckenaer has some remarks on these people. In Caesar there are also readings "Blannovicibus" and...
- The BellovaciBellovaciThe Bellovaci were among the most powerful and numerous of the Belgic tribes of north-eastern Gaul conquered by Julius Caesar in 57 BC. The name survives today in the French city of Beauvais, called by the Romans Caesaromagus.- Geography :...
- The BiturigesBiturigesThe Bituriges was a tribe with its capital at Bourges .Early in the 1st century BCE, they had been one of the main tribes, especially in terms of Druids and their political influence. But they soon declined in power as the Druids were an important target for Julius Caesar in his conquest of Gaul...
(BerryBerry (province)Berry is a region located in the center of France. It was a province of France until the provinces were replaced by départements on 4 March 1790....
) - The ParisiiParisii (Gaul)The Parisii were a Celtic Iron Age people that lived on the banks of the river Seine in Gaul from the middle of the third century BC until the Roman era...
- The SegusiaviSegusiaviThe Segusiavi were a Celtic tribe of Gaul, whose fortress was located at Lugdunum .The name "Segusiavi" may have been an alternative name of the "Segobriges" who were legendarily involved with Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul and the foundation myth of Massalia....
(ForezForezForez is a former province of France, corresponding approximately to the central part of the modern Loire département and a part of the Haute-Loire and Puy-de-Dôme départements....
, adjacent to the Arverni) - The SenonesSenonesThe Senones were an ancient Gaulish tribe.In about 400 BC they crossed the Alps and, having driven out the Umbrians settled on the east coast of Italy from Forlì to Ancona, in the so-called ager Gallicus, and founded the town of Sena Gallica , which became their capital. In 391 BC they invaded...
(SensSensSens is a commune in the Yonne department in Burgundy in north-central France.Sens is a sub-prefecture of the department. It is crossed by the Yonne and the Vanne, which empties into the Yonne here.-History:...
region)
whose influence thus extended across a large part of Gaul.
Finally, the demographic aspect should not be ignored, since archeologists estimate the population of Beavray between 5,000 and 10,000 inhabitants at its peak.
Commerce
In his History of Gaul, the historian Camille JullianCamille Jullian
Camille Jullian was a French historian, philologist, archaeologist and historian of French literature, student of Fustel de Coulanges, whose posthumous work he published.-Biography:Jullian was born in Marseille...
writes these lines about the Aedui
Aedui
Aedui, Haedui or Hedui , were a Gallic people of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the Arar and Liger , in today's France. Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or and Nièvre.-Geography:The country of the Aedui is...
: "Bibracte, I am sure, was the source and the guarantee of their power. Around Bibracte were very good roads, uniting the three biggest basins of France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
."
So, the Roman products traveling up the Rhône
Rhône
Rhone can refer to:* Rhone, one of the major rivers of Europe, running through Switzerland and France* Rhône Glacier, the source of the Rhone River and one of the primary contributors to Lake Geneva in the far eastern end of the canton of Valais in Switzerland...
(the waterways were the fastest at the time) and taking after that the Saône
Saône
The Saône is a river of eastern France. It is a right tributary of the River Rhône. Rising at Vioménil in the Vosges department, it joins the Rhône in Lyon....
, the Loire
Loire
Loire is an administrative department in the east-central part of France occupying the River Loire's upper reaches.-History:Loire was created in 1793 when after just 3½ years the young Rhône-et-Loire department was split into two. This was a response to counter-Revolutionary activities in Lyon...
or the Allier, passed through Aedui territory before joining the basins of the Loire
Loire
Loire is an administrative department in the east-central part of France occupying the River Loire's upper reaches.-History:Loire was created in 1793 when after just 3½ years the young Rhône-et-Loire department was split into two. This was a response to counter-Revolutionary activities in Lyon...
and Seine
Seine
The Seine is a -long river and an important commercial waterway within the Paris Basin in the north of France. It rises at Saint-Seine near Dijon in northeastern France in the Langres plateau, flowing through Paris and into the English Channel at Le Havre . It is navigable by ocean-going vessels...
. The Aedui were located at a commercial crossroads between the Celtic world and Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
. Thus did they allow the diffusion of Roman products through Gaul as soon as the 2nd century BCE, allowing their allies to benefit from their commerce with Rome and definitely with Greek colonies such as Massilia. These exchanges are confirmed by the large quantities of amphoras and ceramics from Italy found in waste tanks and in the paving of houses.
In addition, the Aedui installed a system of customs that taxed the products passing through their territory to increase their wealth as attested in the texts of Julius Caesar : "It was typical of Dumnorix
Dumnorix
Dumnorix was a chieftain of the Aedui, a Celtic tribe in Gaul in the 1st century B.C. He was strongly against alliance with the Romans, particularly Julius Caesar, who sparred with him on several occasions...
: the man was audacious, his generosity made him popular, and he wanted political change. For years, he has had the control of the customs and all the other taxes of the Aedui, because when he bid, noone dared bid against him." The Aedui and the Sequani
Sequani
Sequani, in ancient geography, were a Gallic people who occupied the upper river basin of the Arar , the valley of the Doubs and the Jura Mountains, their territory corresponding to Franche-Comté and part of Burgundy.-Etymology:...
fought each other to control the Arar (now the Saône) because the control of the river allowed taxation of all the Roman and Celtic products traveling to the north of the continent via the waterways.
Politics
The political system of the Aedui was essentially reformed according to indications in the Commentaries on the Gallic War. At the head of the Aedui state sat a senate comprising one member of each Aedui aristrocratic family. What is today called executive power was held by the vergobretVergobret
The vergobret was a person in Celtic society who held the highest office in many Gallic cities, especially among the Aedui. Julius Caesar discusses the role of the vergobret several times in his Commentaries on the Gallic War, referring to the office with the terms princeps civitatis, principatus,...
, the supreme magistrate, who exercised his functions over the course of a year. He was forbidden from leaving the borders of the territory during this period, which prevented him from commanding the army outside the borders. This measure, along with that which authorized only one voice per aristocratic family in the senate, aimed to prevent any individual or their family from monopolizing the reins of power. The vergobret was publicly elected by a council directed by the druids. Among the Aedui, it seems like the vergobret also exercised a judiciary role, since Caesar reports that he had "the right to life and death over his fellow citizens". Finally, it is thought that the vergobret was responsible for the administration of the territory. Caesar adds that the druids were charged with this: "They believe that religion does not allow them to put they material of their education in writing, while for the rest in general, for public and private administrative acts, they used the Greek alphabet." No excavation has permitted the rediscovery of such acts, the backings of which, being wood covered with wax, are perishable.
Furthermore, it is known that the druids held high functions since Diviciacos came to Rome to plead the case of the Aedui during the Germanic invasion led by Ariovistus
Ariovistus
Ariovistus was a leader of the Suebi and other allied Germanic peoples in the second quarter of the 1st century BC. He and his followers took part in a war in Gaul, assisting the Arverni and Sequani to defeat their rivals the Aedui, after which they settled in large numbers in conquered Gallic...
on the account of the Sequani.; he also directed the Aedui cavalry during the Gallic War after the death of his brother Dumnorix
Dumnorix
Dumnorix was a chieftain of the Aedui, a Celtic tribe in Gaul in the 1st century B.C. He was strongly against alliance with the Romans, particularly Julius Caesar, who sparred with him on several occasions...
. Therefore, it is thought that some druids held high military positions.
Archeological research on Mont Beuvray
From 1865 to 1895, Gabriel Bulliot identified Bibracte in 1867 and began excavations there (notably the Celtic artisinal neighborhood surrounding the Rebout gate), with the aid of funds allocated by Napoleon III. In fact, having a passion for history, the emperor set off vast campaigns of excavations to uncover sites of the Gallic War in order to write his History of Julius Caesar. The modest "Hotel of the Gauls" which housed the researcher on the premises had been constructed there since. Joseph Déchelette, the nephew of Bulliot, took up his work again from 1895 to 1907. He was killed during World War I. Thus, the excavations fell into neglect. In 1984, the excavations began again under the impetus of François MitterrandFrançois Mitterrand
François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand was the 21st President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra, serving from 1981 until 1995. He is the longest-serving President of France and, as leader of the Socialist Party, the only figure from the left so far elected President...
, who proclaimed Bibracte a site of national interest in 1985. This term, invented for the occasion, would permit the site to be subsidized. The label of "national interest" was created afterward in order to designate exhibitions or sites which benefit from a program of diffusion and enlargement of the public by the Minister of Culture. This will always give the necessary impetus to a project of excavations of European scope. Thus, in 1989, the European Archeological Center of Mont Beuvray was created, which will reassemble the site, the museum, and the research center of Glux-en-Glenne
Glux-en-Glenne
Glux-en-Glenne is a commune in the Nièvre department in central France.-Demographics:At the 1999 census, the population was 105. On 1 January 2006, the estimate was 103.-References:*...
. It was inaugurated in 1995. By order on March 21, 1995, the Minister of Culture, on the advice of the National Council of Archeological Research, confirmed the oppidum of Bibracte (Mont-Beuvray, Saint-Léger-sous-Beuvray; Saône-et-Loire; Glux-en-Glenne; Nièvre). The excavations were actually conducted by Vincent Guichard and put into practice by many French and foreign teams; the excavations notably concentrated on the Gallic neighborhood of Rebout, on the vast Gallo-Roman ensemble of the Pasture of the Convent and the Roman residence of the Horse Park.
Thus, specialists, researchers, professors and students from all over Europe mix on the site every summer in order to excavate different parts of the site. These included, among others:
- AustriaAustriaAustria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
: University of ViennaUniversity of ViennaThe University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world... - BelgiumBelgiumBelgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
: Université Libre de BruxellesUniversité Libre de BruxellesThe Université libre de Bruxelles is a French-speaking university in Brussels, Belgium. It has 21,000 students, 29% of whom come from abroad, and an equally cosmopolitan staff.-Name:... - Czech RepublicCzech RepublicThe Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the northeast, Slovakia to the east, Austria to the south, and Germany to the west and northwest....
: Masaryk UniversityMasaryk UniversityMasaryk University is the second largest university in the Czech Republic, a member of the Compostela Group and the Utrecht Network. Founded in 1919 in Brno as the third Czech university , it now consists of nine faculties and 42,182 students... - FranceFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
: University of Franche-ComtéUniversity of Franche-ComtéThe University of Franche-Comté is a French university in the Academy of Besançon with five campuses: Besançon , Belfort , Montbéliard , Vesoul , and Lons-le-Saunier ....
, University of BurgundyUniversity of BurgundyThe University of Burgundy is a university located in Dijon, France.The University of Burgundy is situated on a large campus called Campus Montmuzard, 15 minutes by bus from the City Centre...
, University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne, Pierre and Marie Curie UniversityPierre and Marie Curie UniversityThe Paris VI University , or the Pierre and Marie Curie University , is a university located on the Jussieu Campus in the Latin Quarter of the 5th arrondissement of Paris, France....
, François Rabelais UniversityFrançois Rabelais UniversityFrançois Rabelais University or University of Tours, is a public university in Tours, France. The university is named after the French writer François Rabelais, and was founded in 1969.-Organisation:... - GermanyGermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
: University of KielUniversity of KielThe University of Kiel is a university in the city of Kiel, Germany. It was founded in 1665 as the Academia Holsatorum Chiloniensis by Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and has approximately 23,000 students today...
, University of LeipzigUniversity of LeipzigThe University of Leipzig , located in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the oldest universities in the world and the second-oldest university in Germany...
, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, University of Mainz - HungaryHungaryHungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
: Eötvös Loránd University - ItalyItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
: University of BolognaUniversity of BolognaThe Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna is the oldest continually operating university in the world, the word 'universitas' being first used by this institution at its foundation. The true date of its founding is uncertain, but believed by most accounts to have been 1088... - PolandPolandPoland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
: Rzeszów UniversityRzeszów UniversityThe Rzeszów University is a university in Rzeszów, Poland.It was officially established in 2001 by combining several older institutions in the city.The current university comprises the former:* Rzeszów branch of the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University... - SloveniaSloveniaSlovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
: University of LjubljanaUniversity of LjubljanaThe University of Ljubljana is the oldest and largest university in Slovenia. With 64,000 enrolled graduate and postgraduate students, it is among the largest universities in Europe.-Beginnings:... - SpainSpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
: University of MadridUniversity of MadridThe Complutense University of Madrid is a public university in Madrid, Spain, and one of the oldest universities in the world.The University of Madrid may also refer to:* The Autonomous University of Madrid, a public university founded in 1968...
and University of ZaragozaUniversity of ZaragozaThe University of Zaragoza or sometimes Saragossa University is a university located in Zaragoza, in the Aragon region of Spain... - SwitzerlandSwitzerlandSwitzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
: University of LausanneUniversity of LausanneThe University of Lausanne in Lausanne, Switzerland was founded in 1537 as a school of theology, before being made a university in 1890. Today about 12,000 students and 2200 researchers study and work at the university... - United KingdomUnited KingdomThe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
: University of EdinburghUniversity of EdinburghThe University of Edinburgh, founded in 1583, is a public research university located in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city, with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university...
Each university excavates the site in the form of triannual projects which currently depend on the comprehension of the operation of a Celtic city of the La Tène period. Their research consists of several weeks of work on the terrain which is followed by a detailed study of the excavation and of the discovered objects which are then stored at the site's research center.
Archeological prospecting on Mont Beuvray
The prospecting technique used by Bulliot was rudimentary. It consisted of observing the irregularities in the landscape, since the mountain was practically unchanged since the period under study. This allowed him to recreate a plan of the battlements with nearly no excavation. He used this technique to make a scale plan with the help of the army topographers, who made a series of topographical recreations of the landscape. Only the recreation of the Porrey neighborhood exists to this day.In recent years, the same technique has been used in the same Porrey neighborhood with more precise tools, like theodolite
Theodolite
A theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. Theodolites are mainly used for surveying applications, and have been adapted for specialized purposes in fields like metrology and rocket launch technology...
s and GPS
Global Positioning System
The Global Positioning System is a space-based global navigation satellite system that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites...
. In fact, aerial and electromagnetic prospecting is made impossible by the vegetation that that reforested the mountain since the end of grazing and the excavations of Joseph Déchelette and the nature of the subsoil. One costly but faster technique, which is to be tested in 2007, is LIDAR
LIDAR
LIDAR is an optical remote sensing technology that can measure the distance to, or other properties of a target by illuminating the target with light, often using pulses from a laser...
, the use of airborne laser scanners, which are unhindered by the vegetation and can recreate in minutes what usually takes weeks to do on the ground. This will be done in order to attempt to make a complete map of the city and to archive the topography of the location.
Organization
The research done by Bulliot and Déchelette at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century recreated an organization of the site into neighborhoods, with construction mostly following a central road from the Gate of Rebout to the Great Gates. This organization differs from that of oppida like Manching, where there is a regular urban framework; this is explained by the relief of the terrain, as the battlements encircle three summits with some relatively steep slopes.Since 1984, the excavations have seemed to confirm Déchelette's and Bulliot's hypotheses in broad terms, while nevertheless contributing certain nuances.
Battlements
Bibracte was protected by strong Murus Gallicus style battlements, which excavations have made possible to reconstruct. The city had a progression of two different surrounding walls and at least five restorations of the inner surrounding wall, revealed, among other things, by the study of the Rebout gate. Surprisingly, this inner surrounding wall was constructed after the outer wall. The city, therefore, shrank its area from 200 to 135 hectares (494 to 334 acres).The first wall (the internal wall on the map below), discovered by Bulliot, is a Murus Gallicus that delimits an area of 135 hectares for a length of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) per battlement. It is estimated that the construction of the wall required imposing quantities in excess of 10,000 cubic meters of wood, between 10,000 and 20,000 cubic meters of earth and about thirty tons of iron.
The second wall, surprisingly outside the first, encircles an area of 200 hectares and was the subject of research beginning in 1992 for initial probing. This archeological research revealed that the battlement had a height between 4 and 5 meters (13 and 16 feet) without its yet unknown top (e.g., palisades or towers) and an identical depth, and was preceded by a ditch between 2 and 4 meters (7 and 13 feet) deep and between 6 and 10 meters (20 and 33 feet) wide. A study was conducted between 1995 and 2002 with many probes along with those by the University of Vienna. The researchers were able to ascertain that this battlement was a Murus Gallicus that had been dismantled in order to construct the inner wall. The dating, however, remains imprecise, and places this event during the 2nd century. These excavations also updated a postern to the level of Porrey, which is the only one currently known for Murus Gallicus type fortifications.
The battlement is punctuated by about fifteen gates, including the famous Gate of Rebout (20 meters (66 feet) in width and 40 meters (131 feet) in depth). The gate of Rebout was the first location excavated by Bulliot, where he worked for 9 weeks, and was the first site for new excavations from 1984 to 1986 which also studied the ditches adjoining the battlements. These excavations revealed the existence of five levels of different restorations, including a palisade from the Neolithic Era (dated with carbon-14). The latter became the object of a reconstruction since 1996 which currently marks the entry into the old oppidum. At the present time, research has not been able to detect a trace of a method for locking the gate or a defensive device for it. Some hypotheses have advanced the idea of a double gate surmounted by a wooden guard tower like that of the Manching oppidum, but nothing can yet confirm this.
The recent research on the battlements, since 2005, has concentrated on a line of fortification downhill from the Gate of Rebout. Dating seems to indicate that this construction took place after that of the gate and therefore constituted an advance fortification. It will be studied over the course of the next excavations. At the same time, some aristocratic tombs have been discovered between the two lines of battlements.
Artisans' neighborhoods of Côme Chaudron and Champlain
The excavations, which were resumed in 2000 in the neighborhoods known as the Côme Cauldron and the Champlain, near the Rebout Gate, revealed a neighborhood dedicated to metalwork and to artisans' lodging. This metalworking seems to have been very specialized, incorporating blacksmiths, bronzeworkers, and enamellers, whose workshops had already been restored by Bulliot, and probably also involved goldsmiths and minters.Excavations on the site of Beuvray, in the region of the Champlain, and on the surrounding massifs revealed the existence of mines for the extraction of metals, including gold, iron, and tin ore. This research will continue and will attempt to restore the workshops for the smelting of the metals extracted outside the oppidum. In fact, given the specialization of the workshops in Bibracte, it seems that the metals arrived in bars which were therefore cast outside the oppidum.
Another artisanal neighborhood has been found in the region of one of the summits of the site, at the Rock of the Wyvern
Wyvern
A wyvern or wivern is a legendary winged reptilian creature with a dragon's head, two legs , and a barbed tail. The wyvern is found in heraldry. There exists a purely sea-dwelling variant, termed the Sea-Wyvern which has a fish tail in place of a barbed dragon's tail...
, an area which had been little investigated at the time of Bulliot and Déchelette's research. This neighborhood will be the object of future excavations which will attempt to determine the function of the neighborhood.
Housing
Predominantly made of wood and earth, the Gallic houses used stone only sparingly, which was saved for the ramparts. Little is known of the houses' structure as wood rots and decomposes. There are, however, stone constructions in the horse Park district, probably aristocratic residences and a public building with columns, near the convent's pasture. These were probably constructed soon after the Gallic WarsGallic Wars
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. They lasted from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the...
.
Horse Park
At the center of Mont Beuvray, the plateau known as the Horse Park holds several Roman-style stone houses which were excavated in the 19th century. The houses there include, in particular, the residence PC1 (so named by Bulliot), which is a veritable gold mine for the researchers. In fact, it developed from a wood construction (of Roman inspiration) at a domusDomus
In ancient Rome, the domus was the type of house occupied by the upper classes and some wealthy freedmen during the Republican and Imperial eras. They could be found in almost all the major cities throughout the Roman territories...
with an atrium
Atrium (architecture)
In modern architecture, an atrium is a large open space, often several stories high and having a glazed roof and/or large windows, often situated within a larger multistory building and often located immediately beyond the main entrance doors...
containing an impluvium
Impluvium
The impluvium is the sunken part of the atrium in a Greek or Roman house . Designed to carry away the rainwater coming through the compluvium of the roof, it is usually made of marble and placed about 30 cm below the floor of the atrium.The name is also used for a type of dwelling typical of...
, portico
Portico
A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls...
s, and thermae
Thermae
In ancient Rome, thermae and balnea were facilities for bathing...
heated by hypocaust
Hypocaust
A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The word derives from the Ancient Greek hypo meaning "under" and caust-, meaning "burnt"...
, along with a system of sewers. In its final stage, the residence measured 55 by 67 meters, covering an area of around 3500 square meters, about four times the size of the domus found on the site of Pompeii
Pompeii
The city of Pompeii is a partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Along with Herculaneum, Pompeii was destroyed and completely buried during a long catastrophic eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius spanning...
. It is estimated that there were about fifteen domus in this area, such as PC2, a smaller residence that faces PC1 on the other side of the central road. There are also homes of the villa rustica
Villa rustica
Villa rustica was the term used by the ancient Romans to denote a villa set in the open countryside, often as the hub of a large agricultural estate . The adjective rusticum was used to distinguish it from an urban or resort villa...
type (the Italian rural residences) like PC33. However, it is still not known whether this was a residential neighborhood reserved for only the elite, since excavations have also revealed the presence of forges near the domus.
The fountain and its surroundings
At the center of the main road, in the area of the Pasture of the Monastery, stands a pink granite monumental fountain with a transversal orientation corresponding to the rising sun during the Winter Solstice and to the setting sun during the Summer Solstice. Water left the fountain through the northern opening downstream, continuing through a pipe. The supply of water, however, has not yet been discovered:- the fountain was waterproofed with a coat of red clay, precluding a feed from a spring
- no supply pipe has been found
The main geometrics of the design are known: the intersection of two circles with connections of precisely the length of a Pythagorean triangle joining the center of the circle, the center of the fountain and one end of the fountain. However, its use is still unknown; it could be a sacred point of the city's founding, or a water shrine. Furthermore, among certain specialists, this manner of carving granite is unusual and rests on the principles of Mediterranean limestone carving. The Aedui doubtlessly employed foreigners to build the fountain.
All of this points to the fountain being a monument outside of ordinary Celtic architecture.
Near the fountain, many cellars and certain public buildings that stocked large quantities of cereals and wine imported from the southern countries have been found. One of these wooden cellars has recently been reconstructed. Without a doubt, it was in these buildings that the Aedui centralized their harvests and imports.
Places of worship
The oppidum of Bibracte has about ten springs and five fountains dating from the Gallic or Galloroman periods. The Saint Pierre Fountain was a place of worship and pilgrimage, in which pieces of currency and plagues of thanksgivings were found.At the summit of the mountain, a Celtic place of worship (nemeton
Nemeton
A nemeton was a sacred space of ancient Celtic religion. Nemeta appear to have been primarily situated in natural areas, and, as they often utilized trees, they are often interpreted as sacred groves. However, other evidence suggests that the word implied a wider variety of ritual spaces, such as...
) a hectare large has been updated, surrounded by a palisade and concentric ditches.
Under the current chapel from the 19th century, the 1988 excavations discovered a Galloroman temple.
Furthermore, the abandonment of the city before the beginning of the Christian era was not prevented by pursuit of pilgrimages carried out in its surroundings.
Necropolis
Located below the present-day museum parking lot, the necropolis underwent archaeological excavations, with the aim of saving it, when the museum was created and the route départementale was diverted. Over a surface area of 1.5 hectares, 70 funeral enclosures, used following incineration, were found, each having a eastern entry. The crematorium was found further south. Other funerary urns were discovered at the foot of the Rebout gates, possibly the remains of a local aristocratic family. More cemeteries are presumably situated on the former site access paths, as was the often the case at the time, but have not yet been excavated.Basilica
In the area of the Convent Pasture, the excavations revealed, under a large domus from the Augustan era, the presence of an exceptional public monument, which was at the time unique for that period in Gaul: a Roman basilica. It appears to have been a basilica with three naves and an internal peristyle with a peripheral ambulatory, displaying four rows of eight columns or eight pilasters. It was connected on the east with a small square, 22 meters on a side, bordered to the north and south with porticoes which were extensions of the walls of annexes of the basilica. On the west it was connected to the main road of Bibracte with another square, 17 meters on the side. Some architectural elements have been found that attest the presence of limestone columns with Attic bases and Doric and Corinthian capitals. These elements form a monumental urban project of the greatest importance. These public buildings were dated to the period between 50-40 BCE and 35-25 BCE. At this date, the basilica and the square were carefully leveled and replaced by a large private residence, doubtlessly in connection with the movement of the Aedui capital to Autun. The basilica of Bibracte confirms the exceptional importance of the site and revealed that the Romanization of the Aedui was considerably faster than believed. The basilica of Bibracte is currently the oldest representation of Roman monumental stone architecture in non-Mediterranean Europe .Museum of Celtic Civilization
The site hosts the Museum of Celtic Civilization, constructed by Pierre-Louis Faloci and opened to the public in 1996. Pierre-Louis Faloci is also the architect of Bibracte's Center of European Archeological Research, which was opened in 1994. The architectural design corresponds to the evolution of the ages of humanities: it has a base of carved stone, walls of polished pradesh, and a metal roof. One of the facades, which are large picture windows, is hidden by a wall of pradesh (on the valley side), while that which faces the site allows free view to the visitors.The museum has few proper collections, as many of those exhibited are loaned from other museum. During some years, the Coligny calendar
Coligny calendar
The Gaulish Coligny calendar was found in Coligny, Ain, France near Lyon in 1897, along with the head of a bronze statue of a youthful male figure. It is a lunisolar calendar...
and the Gundestrup cauldron
Gundestrup cauldron
The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly-decorated silver vessel, thought to date to the 1st century BC, placing it into the late La Tène period. It was found in 1891 in a peat bog near the hamlet of Gundestrup, in the Aars parish in Himmerland, Denmark...
can be seen there.
Permanent exhibits
The 2000 square meters of the exhibit in the museum are laid out over two stages. The first stage (and the first in the tour) recounts the discovery of the site and the place of Bibracte in the global context of the European Celtic culture. The majority of the following subjects are covered: war, the age of oppida, Mediterranean commerce, and agriculture.The ground floor, which consists of several alcoves, recounts the life of the Aedui at Bibracte. Objects of daily life, jewelry, funereal urns, and artisanal workshops are reconstructed or exhibited there.
Temporary exhibits
Several summer exhibits have been featured at the museum, each addressing a precise subject of the Celtic world:- 1995: Celtic Europe at the time of Bibracte
- 1996: History seen from above
- 1997: A look at the Celts in Slovenia
- 1998: At the border of East and West
- 1999: The tombs of the last Celtic aristocrats
- 2000: The Gallic druids
- 2001: The time of the Gauls in the provinces
- 2002: On Caesar's trail
- 2003: Blacksmiths and metal merchants
- 2004: The white gold of Hallstatt
- 2005: Wine, the nectar of the Gods
- 2006: The treasures of women
- 2007: A round trip between Bibracte and Kathmandu
- 2008: Situlae, images of a vanished world
- 2009: La Tène
- 2010: The Gauls do the head
Research center
Located 4 kilometers from Beauvay, in the commune of Glux-en-GlenneGlux-en-Glenne
Glux-en-Glenne is a commune in the Nièvre department in central France.-Demographics:At the 1999 census, the population was 105. On 1 January 2006, the estimate was 103.-References:*...
(Nièvre
Nièvre
Nièvre is a department in the centre of France named after the Nièvre River.-History:Nièvre is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on March 4, 1790...
), is one of the most important libraries on the Celtic world, regularly funded by European researchers who take their counterparts there. There is also an archeological depot there, the administration of the archeological park, several technical establishments, a lecture hall, and, in the village, a dining hall and a several gîte
Gîte
"Gîte" is a French term which refers to a specific type of holiday accommodation. A "Gîte" is a holiday home that is available for rent. Gîtes are usually fully furnished and equipped for self-catering...
s.
In this center, archeologists, students, and researchers congregate from all over Europe to excavate the site of Bibracte. In several months, the research center will expand to accommodate the regional center for preservation of relics and archeological collections, becoming the reference center of Burgundy in this field.
See also
- Network of the Great Sites of France
- Jacques Gabriel Bulliot
- Joseph Déchelette
- Christian Goudineau
- Murus GallicusMurus GallicusMurus Gallicus or Gallic Wall is a method of construction of defensive walls used to protect Iron Age hillforts and oppida of the La Tene period in Western Europe.The distinctive features are:* earth or rubble fill...
- OppidumOppidumOppidum is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, "enclosed space," possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *pedóm-, "occupied space" or "footprint."Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age...
- AeduiAeduiAedui, Haedui or Hedui , were a Gallic people of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the Arar and Liger , in today's France. Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of Saône-et-Loire, Côte-d'Or and Nièvre.-Geography:The country of the Aedui is...
- DumnorixDumnorixDumnorix was a chieftain of the Aedui, a Celtic tribe in Gaul in the 1st century B.C. He was strongly against alliance with the Romans, particularly Julius Caesar, who sparred with him on several occasions...
- DiviciacosDiviciacus (Aedui)Diviciacus or Divitiacus of the Aedui is the only druid from antiquity whose existence is attested by name. He should not be confused with the king of the Suessiones also known by the Latinised name Diviciacus; coins, possibly issued by the latter, give the Gaulish name in Greek lettering as...
Reference works
- Christian Goudineau and Christian Peyre, Bibracte et les Éduens, À la découverte d'un peuple gaulois, éditions Errance, 1993
- Christian Goudineau, Regards sur la Gaule, éditions Errance, 1998, p. 65-82
- Anne-Marie Romero, Bibracte. Archéologie d'une ville gauloise, Bibracte-Centre archéologique européen, 2006
- Stephan Fichtl, La ville celtique, Les oppida de 150av. J.-C. à 15ap. J.-C., éditions Errance, 2005
- K. Gruel et D. Vitali, L'oppidum de Bibracte. Un bilan de onze années de recherches (1984-1996), Gallia, 55, 1998, p. 1-140 Read online
- "Bibracte, capitale des Éduens", L'Archéologue-Archéologie nouvelle, 4, mars 1994, p. 36-45 et 6, juin 1994, p. 62-72
Old works
- Jacques Gabriel Bulliot, Fouilles du Mont-Beuvray (ancienne Bibracte) de 1867 à 1895, Dejussieu (Autun), 2volumes, 1899
- Joseph Déchelette, Les fouilles du Mont-Beuvray de 1897 à 1901, Picard (Paris), Dejussieu (Autun), 1904
- Joseph Déchelette, L'oppidum de Bibracte. Guide du touriste et de l'archéologue au Mont Beuvray et au Musée de l'Hôtel Rolin, Picard (Paris), Dejussieu (Autun), 1903
- Joseph Déchelette, Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique, celtique et gallo-romaine, éditions Picard, Collection Grands manuels Picard, 2000
Works from the collection Archeological Excavations of Bibracte
- Guillaumet J.-P., Szabo M. (sous la direction de), Études sur Bibracte, Glux-en-Glenne : BIBRACTE, 2005, 313 p.,
- Paunier D., Luginbühl T., Les site de la maison 1 du Parc aux Chevaux (PC 1). Des origines de l’oppidum au règne de Tibère, Glux-en-Glenne : Bibracte, 2004, 472 p.
- Olmer F., Les amphores de Bibracte, 2. Le commerce du vin chez les Eduens d’après les timbres d’amphores, Glux-en-Glenne : Bibracte, 2003, 375 p.
- Buchsenschutz O., Guillaumet J.-P., Ralston I. (sous la direction de), La Porte du Rebout, Glux-en-Glenne : Centre *Archéologique Européen du Mont Beuvray (CAE), 1999, 320 p.