Toroidal ring model
Encyclopedia
The toroidal
ring model, known originally as the Parson magneton
or magnetic electron, is also known as the plasmoid
ring, vortex
ring, or helicon
ring. This physical model treated electron
s and proton
s as elementary particle
s, and was first proposed by Alfred Lauck Parson
in 1915.
ing charge
, the toroidal ring was conceived as a collection of infinitesimal
charge elements, which orbited or circulated along a common continuous path or "loop". In general, this path of charge could assume any shape, but tended toward a circular form due to internal repulsive electromagnetic forces. In this configuration the charge elements circulated, but the ring as a whole did not radiate
due to changes in electric
or magnetic
fields
since it remained stationary
. The ring produced an overall magnetic field ("spin
") due to the current
of the moving charge elements. These elements circulated around the ring at the speed of light
c, but at frequency
ν = c/2πR, which depended inversely on the radius
R. The ring's inertia
l energy
increased when compressed, like a spring
, and was also inversely proportional to its radius , and therefore proportional
to its frequency ν. The theory claimed that the proportionality constant was Planck's constant h, the conserved angular momentum
of the ring.
According to the model, electrons or protons could be viewed as bundles of "fiber
s" or "plasmoid
s" with total charge ±e
. The electrostatic repulsion force between charge elements of the same sign was balanced by the magnetic attraction force between the parallel
current
s in the fibers of a bundle, per Ampère's law. These fibers twisted around the torus
of the ring as they progressed around its radius, forming a Slinky
-like helix
. Circuit completion demanded that each helical plasmoid fiber twisted around the ring an integer
number of times as it proceeded around the ring. This requirement was thought to account for "quantum
" values of angular momentum
and radiation
. Chirality
demanded the number of fibers to be odd, probably three, like a rope. The helicity of the twist, was thought to distinguish the electron from the proton .
The toroidal or " helicon" model did not demand a constant radius or inertial energy for a particle. In general its shape, size, and motion adjusted according to the external electromagnetic fields from its environment. These adjustments or reactions to external field changes constituted the emission or absorption
of radiation
for the particle. The model, then, claimed to explain how particles linked together to form atom
s.
, who in 1823 proposed tiny magnetic "loops of charge" to explain the attractive force between current elements. In that same era Carl Friedrich Gauss
and Michael Faraday
also uncovered foundational laws of classical electrodynamics, later collected by James Maxwell
as Maxwell's equations
When Maxwell expressed the laws of Gauss
, Faraday
, and Ampère in differential form
, he assumed point particle
s, an assumption that remains foundational to relativity theory
and quantum mechanics
today. In 1867 Lord Kelvin
suggested that the vortex
rings of a perfect fluid
discovered by Hermann von Helmholtz
represented "the only true atom
s". Then shortly before 1900, as scientists still debated over the very existence of atoms, J. J. Thomson
and Ernest Rutherford
sparked a revolution with experiments confirming the existence and properties of electrons, protons, and nuclei
. Max Planck
added to the fire when he solved the blackbody radiation problem
by assuming not only discrete
particles, but discrete frequencies
of radiation emanating from these "particles" or "resonator
s". Planck's famous paper, which incidentally calculated both Planck's constant h and Boltzmann's constant kB, suggested that something in the "resonators" themselves provided these discrete frequencies.
Numerous theories about the structure of the atom
developed in the wake of all the new information, of which the 1913 model of Niels Bohr
came to predominate. The Bohr model
proposed electrons in circular orbit around the nucleus
with quantized
values of angular momentum
. Instead of radiating energy continuously
, as classical electrodynamics demanded from an accelerating charge, Bohr's electron radiated discretely when it "leaped" from one state of angular momentum to another.
proposed his "magneton
" as an improvement over the Bohr model
, depicting finite-sized particles with the ability to maintain stability
and emit and absorb
radiation
from electromagnetic waves. At about the same time Leigh Page
developed a classical
theory] of blackbody radiation assuming rotating "oscillators", able to store energy without radiating. Gilbert N. Lewis
was inspired in part by Parson's model in developing his theory of chemical bonding. Then David L. Webster
wrote three papers connecting Parson's magneton with Page's oscillator and explaining mass
and alpha
scattering
in terms of the magneton. In 1917 Lars O. Grondahl confirmed the model with his experiments on free electrons in iron
wires. Parson's theory next attracted the attention of Arthur Compton
, who wrote a series of papers on the properties of the electron, and H. Stanley Allen
, whose papers also argued for a "ring electron".
; this dipole moment is indeed present. However, later work by Paul Dirac
and Alfred Landé
showed that a pointlike particle could have an intrinsic quantum spin
, and also a magnetic moment. The highly successful modern theory, Standard Model
of particle physics incorporates a pointlike electron with an intrinsic spin and magnetic moment. On the other hand, it should be noted that
the usual assertion that an electron is pointlike may be conventionally associated only with a "bare" electron. The pointlike electron would have a diverging electromagnetic field, which should create a strong vacuum polarization. In accordance with QED, deviations from the Coulomb law are predicted already on the Compton distances from the center of electron, 10−11 cm. Virtual processes in the Compton region determine the spin of electron and renormalization of its charge and mass. It shows that the Compton region of the electron should be considered as a coherent whole with its poinlike core, forming a physical ("dressed") electron. Notice that the Dirac theory of electron also exhibits the peculiar role of the Compton region. In particular, electron displays a "Zitterbewegung" of the Compton size, and the electron wave packet persists to any localization inside the Compton region.
From this point of view, the ring model does not contradict with QED and with the Dirac theory, and some of its versions may apparently find application to incorporate gravity in quantum theory.
The question of whether the electron has a substructure of any sort must be decided by experiment. All experiments to date agree with the Standard Model of the electron, with no substructure, ring-like or otherwise. The two major approaches are high-energy electron-positron scattering and high-precision atomic tests of quantum electrodynamics
, both of which agree that the electron is point-like at resolutions down to 10−20 m. At present, the Compton region of virtual processes, 10−11 cm across, is not exhibited in the high-energy experiments on electron-positron scattering.
Some creationist physicists, notably the Common Sense Science group organized by Thomas G. Barnes, continue advocating for a toroidal ring model.
Toroid (geometry)
In mathematics, a toroid is a doughnut-shaped object, such as an O-ring. Its annular shape is generated by revolving a plane geometrical figure about an axis external to that figure which is parallel to the plane of the figure and does not intersect the figure...
ring model, known originally as the Parson magneton
Magneton
Magneton may refer to:* Bohr magneton, a physical constant of magnetic moment named after Niels Bohr* Nuclear magneton, a physical constant of magnetic moment* Parson magneton, a hypothetical object in atomic physics suggested by Alfred Lauck Parson in 1915...
or magnetic electron, is also known as the plasmoid
Plasmoid
A plasmoid is a coherent structure of plasma and magnetic fields. Plasmoids have been proposed to explain natural phenomena such as ball lightning, magnetic bubbles in the magnetosphere, and objects in cometary tails, in the solar wind, in the solar atmosphere, and in the heliospheric current sheet...
ring, vortex
Vortex
A vortex is a spinning, often turbulent,flow of fluid. Any spiral motion with closed streamlines is vortex flow. The motion of the fluid swirling rapidly around a center is called a vortex...
ring, or helicon
Helicon (physics)
A helicon is a low frequency electromagnetic wave that can exist in plasmas in the presence of a magnetic field. The first helicons observed were atmospheric whistlers, but they also exist in solid conductors or any other electromagnetic plasma....
ring. This physical model treated electron
Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
s and proton
Proton
The proton is a subatomic particle with the symbol or and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The number of protons in each atom is its atomic number....
s as elementary particle
Elementary particle
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure; that is, it is not known to be made up of smaller particles. If an elementary particle truly has no substructure, then it is one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which...
s, and was first proposed by Alfred Lauck Parson
Alfred Lauck Parson
Alfred Lauck Parson was a British chemist and physicist, whose "magneton theory" of the atom contributed to the history of chemistry.-Biography:...
in 1915.
Theory
Instead of a single orbitOrbit
In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of an object around a point in space, for example the orbit of a planet around the center of a star system, such as the Solar System...
ing charge
Electric charge
Electric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. Electric charge comes in two types, called positive and negative. Two positively charged substances, or objects, experience a mutual repulsive force, as do two...
, the toroidal ring was conceived as a collection of infinitesimal
Infinitesimal
Infinitesimals have been used to express the idea of objects so small that there is no way to see them or to measure them. The word infinitesimal comes from a 17th century Modern Latin coinage infinitesimus, which originally referred to the "infinite-th" item in a series.In common speech, an...
charge elements, which orbited or circulated along a common continuous path or "loop". In general, this path of charge could assume any shape, but tended toward a circular form due to internal repulsive electromagnetic forces. In this configuration the charge elements circulated, but the ring as a whole did not radiate
Radiate
Radiate is a verb. See radiation.Radiate may also refer to an antic Roman bronze coin....
due to changes in electric
Electric field
In physics, an electric field surrounds electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic fields. The electric field depicts the force exerted on other electrically charged objects by the electrically charged particle the field is surrounding...
or magnetic
Magnetic field
A magnetic field is a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude ; as such it is a vector field.Technically, a magnetic field is a pseudo vector;...
fields
Field (physics)
In physics, a field is a physical quantity associated with each point of spacetime. A field can be classified as a scalar field, a vector field, a spinor field, or a tensor field according to whether the value of the field at each point is a scalar, a vector, a spinor or, more generally, a tensor,...
since it remained stationary
Stationary
Stationary can mean:* In statistics and probability: a stationary process.* In mathematics: a stationary point.* In mathematics: a stationary set.* In physics: a time-invariant quantity, such as a constant position or temperature....
. The ring produced an overall magnetic field ("spin
Spin (physics)
In quantum mechanics and particle physics, spin is a fundamental characteristic property of elementary particles, composite particles , and atomic nuclei.It is worth noting that the intrinsic property of subatomic particles called spin and discussed in this article, is related in some small ways,...
") due to the current
Electric current
Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium.This charge is typically carried by moving electrons in a conductor such as wire...
of the moving charge elements. These elements circulated around the ring at the speed of light
Speed of light
The speed of light in vacuum, usually denoted by c, is a physical constant important in many areas of physics. Its value is 299,792,458 metres per second, a figure that is exact since the length of the metre is defined from this constant and the international standard for time...
c, but at frequency
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
ν = c/2πR, which depended inversely on the radius
Radius
In classical geometry, a radius of a circle or sphere is any line segment from its center to its perimeter. By extension, the radius of a circle or sphere is the length of any such segment, which is half the diameter. If the object does not have an obvious center, the term may refer to its...
R. The ring's inertia
Inertia
Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to a change in its state of motion or rest, or the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion. It is proportional to an object's mass. The principle of inertia is one of the fundamental principles of classical physics which are used to...
l energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
increased when compressed, like a spring
Spring (device)
A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually made out of spring steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel and hardened after fabrication...
, and was also inversely proportional to its radius , and therefore proportional
Proportionality (mathematics)
In mathematics, two variable quantities are proportional if one of them is always the product of the other and a constant quantity, called the coefficient of proportionality or proportionality constant. In other words, are proportional if the ratio \tfrac yx is constant. We also say that one...
to its frequency ν. The theory claimed that the proportionality constant was Planck's constant h, the conserved angular momentum
Angular momentum
In physics, angular momentum, moment of momentum, or rotational momentum is a conserved vector quantity that can be used to describe the overall state of a physical system...
of the ring.
According to the model, electrons or protons could be viewed as bundles of "fiber
Fiber
Fiber is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread.They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together....
s" or "plasmoid
Plasmoid
A plasmoid is a coherent structure of plasma and magnetic fields. Plasmoids have been proposed to explain natural phenomena such as ball lightning, magnetic bubbles in the magnetosphere, and objects in cometary tails, in the solar wind, in the solar atmosphere, and in the heliospheric current sheet...
s" with total charge ±e
Elementary charge
The elementary charge, usually denoted as e, is the electric charge carried by a single proton, or equivalently, the absolute value of the electric charge carried by a single electron. This elementary charge is a fundamental physical constant. To avoid confusion over its sign, e is sometimes called...
. The electrostatic repulsion force between charge elements of the same sign was balanced by the magnetic attraction force between the parallel
Parallel (geometry)
Parallelism is a term in geometry and in everyday life that refers to a property in Euclidean space of two or more lines or planes, or a combination of these. The assumed existence and properties of parallel lines are the basis of Euclid's parallel postulate. Two lines in a plane that do not...
current
Current (mathematics)
In mathematics, more particularly in functional analysis, differential topology, and geometric measure theory, a k-current in the sense of Georges de Rham is a functional on the space of compactly supported differential k-forms, on a smooth manifold M. Formally currents behave like Schwartz...
s in the fibers of a bundle, per Ampère's law. These fibers twisted around the torus
Torus
In geometry, a torus is a surface of revolution generated by revolving a circle in three dimensional space about an axis coplanar with the circle...
of the ring as they progressed around its radius, forming a Slinky
Slinky
Slinky or "Lazy Spring" is a toy consisting of a helical spring that stretches and can bounce up and down. It can perform a number of tricks, including traveling down a flight of steps end-over-end as it stretches and re-forms itself with the aid of gravity and its own momentum.-History:The toy was...
-like helix
Helix
A helix is a type of smooth space curve, i.e. a curve in three-dimensional space. It has the property that the tangent line at any point makes a constant angle with a fixed line called the axis. Examples of helixes are coil springs and the handrails of spiral staircases. A "filled-in" helix – for...
. Circuit completion demanded that each helical plasmoid fiber twisted around the ring an integer
Integer
The integers are formed by the natural numbers together with the negatives of the non-zero natural numbers .They are known as Positive and Negative Integers respectively...
number of times as it proceeded around the ring. This requirement was thought to account for "quantum
Quantum
In physics, a quantum is the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction. Behind this, one finds the fundamental notion that a physical property may be "quantized," referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization". This means that the magnitude can take on only certain discrete...
" values of angular momentum
Angular momentum
In physics, angular momentum, moment of momentum, or rotational momentum is a conserved vector quantity that can be used to describe the overall state of a physical system...
and radiation
Radiation
In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There are two distinct types of radiation; ionizing and non-ionizing...
. Chirality
Chirality (physics)
A chiral phenomenon is one that is not identical to its mirror image . The spin of a particle may be used to define a handedness for that particle. A symmetry transformation between the two is called parity...
demanded the number of fibers to be odd, probably three, like a rope. The helicity of the twist, was thought to distinguish the electron from the proton .
The toroidal or " helicon" model did not demand a constant radius or inertial energy for a particle. In general its shape, size, and motion adjusted according to the external electromagnetic fields from its environment. These adjustments or reactions to external field changes constituted the emission or absorption
Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way by which the energy of a photon is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed to other forms of energy for example, to heat. The absorption of light during wave propagation is...
of radiation
Radiation
In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There are two distinct types of radiation; ionizing and non-ionizing...
for the particle. The model, then, claimed to explain how particles linked together to form atom
Atom
The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons...
s.
Beginnings
The development of the helicon or toroidal ring began with André-Marie AmpèreAndré-Marie Ampère
André-Marie Ampère was a French physicist and mathematician who is generally regarded as one of the main discoverers of electromagnetism. The SI unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere, is named after him....
, who in 1823 proposed tiny magnetic "loops of charge" to explain the attractive force between current elements. In that same era Carl Friedrich Gauss
Carl Friedrich Gauss
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss was a German mathematician and scientist who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, statistics, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, electrostatics, astronomy and optics.Sometimes referred to as the Princeps mathematicorum...
and Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, FRS was an English chemist and physicist who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry....
also uncovered foundational laws of classical electrodynamics, later collected by James Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell of Glenlair was a Scottish physicist and mathematician. His most prominent achievement was formulating classical electromagnetic theory. This united all previously unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and optics into a consistent theory...
as Maxwell's equations
Maxwell's equations
Maxwell's equations are a set of partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamics, classical optics, and electric circuits. These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and communications technologies.Maxwell's equations...
When Maxwell expressed the laws of Gauss
Gauss's law
In physics, Gauss's law, also known as Gauss's flux theorem, is a law relating the distribution of electric charge to the resulting electric field. Gauss's law states that:...
, Faraday
Faraday's law of induction
Faraday's law of induction dates from the 1830s, and is a basic law of electromagnetism relating to the operating principles of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors and generators...
, and Ampère in differential form
Differential (calculus)
In calculus, a differential is traditionally an infinitesimally small change in a variable. For example, if x is a variable, then a change in the value of x is often denoted Δx . The differential dx represents such a change, but is infinitely small...
, he assumed point particle
Point particle
A point particle is an idealization of particles heavily used in physics. Its defining feature is that it lacks spatial extension: being zero-dimensional, it does not take up space...
s, an assumption that remains foundational to relativity theory
Theory of relativity
The theory of relativity, or simply relativity, encompasses two theories of Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity. However, the word relativity is sometimes used in reference to Galilean invariance....
and quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics providing a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and subatomic...
today. In 1867 Lord Kelvin
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin OM, GCVO, PC, PRS, PRSE, was a mathematical physicist and engineer. At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, and did much to unify the emerging...
suggested that the vortex
Vortex
A vortex is a spinning, often turbulent,flow of fluid. Any spiral motion with closed streamlines is vortex flow. The motion of the fluid swirling rapidly around a center is called a vortex...
rings of a perfect fluid
Perfect fluid
In physics, a perfect fluid is a fluid that can be completely characterized by its rest frame energy density ρ and isotropic pressure p....
discovered by Hermann von Helmholtz
Hermann von Helmholtz
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz was a German physician and physicist who made significant contributions to several widely varied areas of modern science...
represented "the only true atom
Atom
The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons...
s". Then shortly before 1900, as scientists still debated over the very existence of atoms, J. J. Thomson
J. J. Thomson
Sir Joseph John "J. J." Thomson, OM, FRS was a British physicist and Nobel laureate. He is credited for the discovery of the electron and of isotopes, and the invention of the mass spectrometer...
and Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson OM, FRS was a New Zealand-born British chemist and physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics...
sparked a revolution with experiments confirming the existence and properties of electrons, protons, and nuclei
Atomic nucleus
The nucleus is the very dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom. It was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation of the famous 1909 Rutherford experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Rutherford. The...
. Max Planck
Max Planck
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, ForMemRS, was a German physicist who actualized the quantum physics, initiating a revolution in natural science and philosophy. He is regarded as the founder of the quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.-Life and career:Planck came...
added to the fire when he solved the blackbody radiation problem
Ultraviolet catastrophe
The ultraviolet catastrophe, also called the Rayleigh–Jeans catastrophe, was a prediction of late 19th century/early 20th century classical physics that an ideal black body at thermal equilibrium will emit radiation with infinite power....
by assuming not only discrete
Quantum
In physics, a quantum is the minimum amount of any physical entity involved in an interaction. Behind this, one finds the fundamental notion that a physical property may be "quantized," referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization". This means that the magnitude can take on only certain discrete...
particles, but discrete frequencies
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
of radiation emanating from these "particles" or "resonator
Resonator
A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior, that is, it naturally oscillates at some frequencies, called its resonant frequencies, with greater amplitude than at others. The oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical...
s". Planck's famous paper, which incidentally calculated both Planck's constant h and Boltzmann's constant kB, suggested that something in the "resonators" themselves provided these discrete frequencies.
Numerous theories about the structure of the atom
Atomic theory
In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms, as opposed to the obsolete notion that matter could be divided into any arbitrarily small quantity...
developed in the wake of all the new information, of which the 1913 model of Niels Bohr
Niels Bohr
Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr mentored and collaborated with many of the top physicists of the century at his institute in...
came to predominate. The Bohr model
Bohr model
In atomic physics, the Bohr model, introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913, depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus—similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction,...
proposed electrons in circular orbit around the nucleus
Atomic nucleus
The nucleus is the very dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom. It was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation of the famous 1909 Rutherford experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Rutherford. The...
with quantized
Quantization (physics)
In physics, quantization is the process of explaining a classical understanding of physical phenomena in terms of a newer understanding known as "quantum mechanics". It is a procedure for constructing a quantum field theory starting from a classical field theory. This is a generalization of the...
values of angular momentum
Angular momentum
In physics, angular momentum, moment of momentum, or rotational momentum is a conserved vector quantity that can be used to describe the overall state of a physical system...
. Instead of radiating energy continuously
Synchrotron radiation
The electromagnetic radiation emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially is called synchrotron radiation. It is produced in synchrotrons using bending magnets, undulators and/or wigglers...
, as classical electrodynamics demanded from an accelerating charge, Bohr's electron radiated discretely when it "leaped" from one state of angular momentum to another.
Parson magneton
In 1915, Alfred Lauck ParsonAlfred Lauck Parson
Alfred Lauck Parson was a British chemist and physicist, whose "magneton theory" of the atom contributed to the history of chemistry.-Biography:...
proposed his "magneton
Magneton
Magneton may refer to:* Bohr magneton, a physical constant of magnetic moment named after Niels Bohr* Nuclear magneton, a physical constant of magnetic moment* Parson magneton, a hypothetical object in atomic physics suggested by Alfred Lauck Parson in 1915...
" as an improvement over the Bohr model
Bohr model
In atomic physics, the Bohr model, introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913, depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus—similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction,...
, depicting finite-sized particles with the ability to maintain stability
Mechanical equilibrium
A standard definition of static equilibrium is:This is a strict definition, and often the term "static equilibrium" is used in a more relaxed manner interchangeably with "mechanical equilibrium", as defined next....
and emit and absorb
Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way by which the energy of a photon is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed to other forms of energy for example, to heat. The absorption of light during wave propagation is...
radiation
Radiation
In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium or space. There are two distinct types of radiation; ionizing and non-ionizing...
from electromagnetic waves. At about the same time Leigh Page
Leigh Page
Leigh Page developed the theory of conformal invariance originally suggested by Harry Bateman...
developed a classical
Classical physics
What "classical physics" refers to depends on the context. When discussing special relativity, it refers to the Newtonian physics which preceded relativity, i.e. the branches of physics based on principles developed before the rise of relativity and quantum mechanics...
theory] of blackbody radiation assuming rotating "oscillators", able to store energy without radiating. Gilbert N. Lewis
Gilbert N. Lewis
Gilbert Newton Lewis was an American physical chemist known for the discovery of the covalent bond , his purification of heavy water, his reformulation of chemical thermodynamics in a mathematically rigorous manner accessible to ordinary chemists, his theory of Lewis acids and...
was inspired in part by Parson's model in developing his theory of chemical bonding. Then David L. Webster
David L. Webster
David Locke Webster was an American physicist and physics professor, whose early research on X-rays and Parson's magneton influenced Arthur Compton.-Biography:...
wrote three papers connecting Parson's magneton with Page's oscillator and explaining mass
Mass
Mass can be defined as a quantitive measure of the resistance an object has to change in its velocity.In physics, mass commonly refers to any of the following three properties of matter, which have been shown experimentally to be equivalent:...
and alpha
Alpha particle
Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus, which is classically produced in the process of alpha decay, but may be produced also in other ways and given the same name...
scattering
Scattering
Scattering is a general physical process where some forms of radiation, such as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory by one or more localized non-uniformities in the medium through which they pass. In conventional use, this also includes deviation of...
in terms of the magneton. In 1917 Lars O. Grondahl confirmed the model with his experiments on free electrons in iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
wires. Parson's theory next attracted the attention of Arthur Compton
Arthur Compton
Arthur Holly Compton was an American physicist and Nobel laureate in physics for his discovery of the Compton effect. He served as Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis from 1945 to 1953.-Early years:...
, who wrote a series of papers on the properties of the electron, and H. Stanley Allen
H. Stanley Allen
Herbert Stanley Allen was a pioneer in early X-ray research, working under J. J. Thomson at the University of London and alongside Nobel laureate Charles Glover Barkla at the University of Edinburgh...
, whose papers also argued for a "ring electron".
Current status
The aspect of the Parson's magneton with the most experimental relevance (and the aspect investigated by Grondahl and Webster) was the existence of an electron magnetic dipole momentElectron magnetic dipole moment
In atomic physics, the electron magnetic dipole moment is the magnetic moment of an electron caused by its intrinsic property of spin.-Magnetic moment of an electron:...
; this dipole moment is indeed present. However, later work by Paul Dirac
Paul Dirac
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, OM, FRS was an English theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to the early development of both quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics...
and Alfred Landé
Alfred Landé
Alfred Landé was a German-American physicist known for his contributions to quantum theory. He is responsible for the Landé g-factor an explanation of the Zeeman Effect.-Life and Achievements:...
showed that a pointlike particle could have an intrinsic quantum spin
Spin (physics)
In quantum mechanics and particle physics, spin is a fundamental characteristic property of elementary particles, composite particles , and atomic nuclei.It is worth noting that the intrinsic property of subatomic particles called spin and discussed in this article, is related in some small ways,...
, and also a magnetic moment. The highly successful modern theory, Standard Model
Standard Model
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory concerning the electromagnetic, weak, and strong nuclear interactions, which mediate the dynamics of the known subatomic particles. Developed throughout the mid to late 20th century, the current formulation was finalized in the mid 1970s upon...
of particle physics incorporates a pointlike electron with an intrinsic spin and magnetic moment. On the other hand, it should be noted that
the usual assertion that an electron is pointlike may be conventionally associated only with a "bare" electron. The pointlike electron would have a diverging electromagnetic field, which should create a strong vacuum polarization. In accordance with QED, deviations from the Coulomb law are predicted already on the Compton distances from the center of electron, 10−11 cm. Virtual processes in the Compton region determine the spin of electron and renormalization of its charge and mass. It shows that the Compton region of the electron should be considered as a coherent whole with its poinlike core, forming a physical ("dressed") electron. Notice that the Dirac theory of electron also exhibits the peculiar role of the Compton region. In particular, electron displays a "Zitterbewegung" of the Compton size, and the electron wave packet persists to any localization inside the Compton region.
From this point of view, the ring model does not contradict with QED and with the Dirac theory, and some of its versions may apparently find application to incorporate gravity in quantum theory.
The question of whether the electron has a substructure of any sort must be decided by experiment. All experiments to date agree with the Standard Model of the electron, with no substructure, ring-like or otherwise. The two major approaches are high-energy electron-positron scattering and high-precision atomic tests of quantum electrodynamics
Precision tests of QED
Quantum electrodynamics , a relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics, is among the most stringently tested theories in physics....
, both of which agree that the electron is point-like at resolutions down to 10−20 m. At present, the Compton region of virtual processes, 10−11 cm across, is not exhibited in the high-energy experiments on electron-positron scattering.
Some creationist physicists, notably the Common Sense Science group organized by Thomas G. Barnes, continue advocating for a toroidal ring model.