Chola Navy
Encyclopedia
The Chola Navycomprised the naval forces of the Chola Empire
along with several other Naval-arms of the country. The Chola navy
played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and Sri Vijaya (present day Indonesia), the spread of Hinduism
, Dravidian architecture
and Dravidian culture to South east Asia and in curbing the piracy
in Southeast Asia
in the 900 CE.
The Navy grew both in size and status during the Medieval Cholas
reign. The Chola Admirals commanded much respect and prestige in the society. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 CE to 1100 CE, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia. But was gradually reduced in significance for the period when the Cholas main had land battles for subjugating the Chalukyas that took place in the Andhra-Kannada area in South India place mainly in the land.
whose actions heralded India's Naval domination of the sub-continent and beyond. Historians divide the Chola Reign into three distinct phases. The first era is the period of Early Cholas
.The second phase is of Vijalaya Cholas and the final phase in the empire was the Chalukya Chola period.
The Cholas were at the height of their power
continuously from the later half of the 9th century until the beginning of the 13th centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I
and his son Rajendra Chola I
, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia
. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives
in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River
in Andhra Pradesh
. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India
, annexed parts of Sri Lanka
and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala
ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala
. He also successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago
.
The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature
. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the common era
. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history.
Little archeological evidence exists of the maritime activities of this era, except some excavated wooden plaques depicting naval engagements in the vicinity of the old city (See Poompuhar for more details).
However, much insight into the naval activities of the Cholas has been gathered from Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. In this work, the unknown merchant describes the activity of escort-ships assigned to the merchant vessels with valuable cargo. These early naval ships had some sort of a rudimentary flame-thrower and or a catapult type weapon.
s dominated the Tamil country (c. 600). An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras
, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century.
This period from the 3rd century CE until 7th century CE is a blind spot in the maritime tradition of the Cholas. But, it can be safely assumed from the contemporary activities of the Pandyas and Pallava
s. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century. In the Interregnum, the Cholas were probably reduced to Vassal
s of Pallava
s, though at times they switched sides and allied with Pandyas and tried to dispose their overlords. But, there is no concrete line of kings or court recordings.
However, even during this time the Cholas
had maintained a small but potent Naval force based inland in the Kaveri river. During this time they dominated the inland trade in the Kaveri basin and Musuri
is their major inland port. Dry-docks built during this period exist to this day.
This phase of the history is the most well documented one, partly due the survival of the edicts and inscriptions from the time along with reliable foreign narratives. This has enabled historians to interpolate various accounts and come up with a clear account of Chola Naval activities of the time.
The Imperial Chola navy took its shape in the aftermath of the resurgence of Chola power, with the rise of Vijalaya dynasty. During the Pallavas rule, the Cholas took control of not only the territories, but the cultural and socio-economic mantle. Thus, the Medieval Cholas inherited the will to dominate trade and control seas from the Pallavas.
The evolution of combat ships and naval-architecture elsewhere played an important part in the development of the Pallava
Navy. There were serious effort in the period of the Pallava king Simavishnu to control the piracy in South East Asia and to establish a Tamil friendly regime in the Malay peninsula. However, this effort was accomplished only three centuries later by the new Naval power of the Cholas.
The three decades of conflict with the Sinhala king Mahinda V came to a swift end, after Raja Raja Chola I's (985-1014 CE) ascent to the throne and his decisive use of the Naval flotilla to subdue the Sinhalese.
This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions. Rajaraja commissioned various foreigners (Prominently, the Arabs and Chinese) in the naval building program. These effort were continued and the benefits were reaped by his successor, Rajendra Chola I. Rajendra led a successful expedition against the Sri Vijaya kingdom (present day Indonesia) and subdued Sailendra. Though there were friendly exchanges between the Sri Vijaya empire and the Chola Empire in preceding times (including the construction of chudamani Pagoda
in Nagapattinam
), the raid seems to have been motivated by the commercial interests rather than any political motives.
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra
cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country. The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.
Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity, especially with the Chinese and Arab
s. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty
of China, the Srivijaya
empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid
Kalifat at Baghdad
were the main trading partners.
The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval and the license from the customs
force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade. The normal trade voyage of those day involved three legs of journey, starting with the Indian goods (mainly spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to China
and in the return leg the Chinese goods (silk, incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials were utilized for local consumption, the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo was shipped to the Arabs. Traditionally, this involved transfer of material/cargo to many ships before the ultimate destination was reached.
) as a mid-point in the trade route between Chinese and Arabian ports was crucial. Up to 5th century CE, the Arabs traded with Chinese directly using Sri Vijaya as a port of call and replenishment hub. Realizing their potential, the Sri Vijaya empire began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the area. The benefits were twofold, the loot from piracy was a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the trading parties.
Piracy also grew stronger due to a conflict of succession in Sri Vijaya, when two princes fought for the throne and in turn, relied on the loot from the sea-piracy for their civil war.
The pirate menace grew to unprecedented levels. Sea trade with China was virtually impossible without the loss of 1/3 of the convoy for every voyage. Even escorted convoys came under attacks, which was a new factor. Repeated diplomatic missions urged the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy, with little effect. With the rise in piracy, and in the absence of Chinese commodity, the Arabs, on whom the Cholas were dependent of horses for their cavalry
corps, began to demand high prices for their trade. This led to a slew of reduction in the Chola army. The Chinese were equally infuriated by the piracy menace, as they too were losing revenue.
The culmination of three century's combined naval traditions of Pallavas and Cholas
led to the most known accomplishment of the Chola Navy (or any Indian power for that matter)., Namely the 1st expedition of the Chola navy into the Malay
peninsula.
In one particular note, the Cholas went as far as to conquer the Kamboja and gave it to the Sri Vijaya kings (as per their request) to ensure cooperation in the curbing piracy.
reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077, and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices'.
The close diplomatics tie between the Song dynasty
of China
and the Medieval Cholas
facilitated many technological innovations to travel both ways. The more interesting ones to have reached Chola shores are:
The Ancient Chola navy was based on trade vessel designs with little more than boarding implements, though this changed throughout the history. The later day navy was a specialized force with specially built ships for each type of combat.
The Imperial navy of the Medieval Cholas
was composed of a multitude of forces in its command. In addition to the regular Navy
(Kappal-Padai), there were many auxiliary
forces that could be used in naval combat. The Chola Navy was an autonomous service unlike many of its contemporaries. The Army
depended on the Naval-fleets for transportation and logistics. The Navy also had a core of Marines. Even Saboteur
s, who were trained Pearl-fishermen were used, to dive and disable enemy vessels by destroying/damaging the Rudder.
The Chola navy could undertake any of the following combat and non-combat missions,
This multi-dimensional force enabled the Cholas to achieve the Military, Political and cultural hegemony over their vast dominion.
of all the Military forces including the Navy
.
The navy is organized mostly on role based squadrons & divisions, containing various types of ships assigned for a specific role and home-ported in an associated base/port. This procedure became necessary, especially after the conquest of Ceylon. Normally, a Ganam (Fleet-Squadron) would (the largest individual unit)be commanded by a Ganathipathy (not to be confused with the elephant headed god Ganapathy).
There were numerous sub-units of operational reasons and organizational reasons or otherwise. Some are presented below,
In addition to the Standing Navy of the state, there were other services which had a naval arm of its own. Notable among them are the Customs Department, Militia
and the state monopoly of Pearl fisheries. In addition to the state services, a small but formidable forces were maintained by various trade-guilds, these guilds are highly regulated and acted as mercenaries and reinforcements in times of need.
was constantly battling in many fronts to protect Chola Commercial, religious and Political interests. So the home ports were literally, undefended. This led to a change in the of outlook Chola naval strategy, the sturdier and larger vessels were repeatedly called to reinforce the high-sea flotilla, leading to the development of a specialized Auxiliary force of fast and heavily armed light ships in large numbers. The erstwhile Karaipirivu was the natural choice for this expansion and in time they became an autonomous force vested with the duties of protecting the Chola territorial waters, home ports, patrol of newly captured ports and coastal cities.
And in the increasingly competitive field of international trade, the state faced with difficulties to reinforce and or rescue stranded Merchant ships in high seas, in a timely manner. This led to the establishment of privateer
navies. Like its European counterparts, they had no National markings and employed multi-national crews.
But, they were employed by the Trade-guilds rather than the Empire, giving the Traders an edge in the seas. Normally, they performed path-finding, escort and protection duties. but, in more than a few occasions, these forces had been summoned to serve the Empire's interests.
Notable Trade guilds which employed a privateer navy were,
Even before the accounts of the 1st century BC, there were written accounts of Shipbuilding and war-craft at sea. Professor R.C. Majumdar says that there existed a comprehensive book of Naval-architecture in India dating back to 2nd century BC, if not earlier.
During the reign of Raja Raja and his son, there were a complex classification of class of vessels and its utility. Some of the survived classes' name and utility are below.
Though all ships of the time employed a small Marine force (for boarding enemy vessels), this class of ship seems to have had a separate cabins and training area for them.
This ship also is said to be able to engage in asymmetrical warfare.
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Apart from class definitions, there are names of Royal Yacht
s and their architecture.
Some of which are,
In addition to these, we find many names of Ship classes in Purananuru
and its application in both inland waters and open oceans. Some of them are,
for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many legend
s and folktales. Not to mention the hero
es in both sides. The notable campaigns are below
In addition to these sea ports there were many inland ports and dry dock connected by Rivers Kaveri and Thamarabarani which served commercial fleets and in times of war, to facilitate mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.
The fleets were normally named after the dead monarchs and god's name. The most distinguished ones were granted Royal prefixes like Theiva-sovereign's name-fleet name. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I
and Rajendra Chola I
, there were 5 fleets, each catering to particular needs. The main fleet was home ported in Nagapatinam. The other fleets were home ported in Kadalur and a small fleet was also based in Kanchipuram.
In addition to the main fleets of war ships, there were 2 fleets of Logistics
and transport ships to serve the needs of the Army; involved in a bloody war in Ceylon and later in SE Asia.
In the later years this numbers increased drastically and a several fleets were created anew. During the later 11th century CE, there were a total 9 battle fleets, based in various dominians across the vast expanses of the Chola empire ranging from the present day Aceh, Ankorwat to the southern reaches of ceylon/Sri Lanka.
is undoubtedly the underlying reason for expansion and prosperity. But, this was accomplished by the tireless efforts and pains of the Navy. In essence, Raja Raja was the first person in the Sub-continent to realize the power projection capabilities of a powerful navy. He and his successors initiated a massive naval buildup and continued supporting it. And they used it more than just wars.
The chola navy was a potent Diplomatic symbol, It was the carrier of Chola might and prestige. It spread the Dravidian culture, the literary and architectural grandeur. For the sake of comparison, it was just the equivalent of the " Gunboat diplomacy " of the modern day Great power
s and super powers.
There is evidence to show that the king of Kambujadesa (modern Cambodia) sent an ornamental chariot to the Chola Emperor, probably to appease him so that his strategic attention does not extend further than the Malay peninsula.
Talking of impact, after 8th centuries (from Kulothunga's time) and Islamic conversion, Indonesia still has a high regard for their connections with the cholas (navy). The Indonesian submarine museum is housed in an old Russian whiskey-class submarine. Which was named "Pasopati", one of the names of the Hindu god Shiva
. Still exciting fact is the cultural ties spread by the chola navies. The motto of the Indonesian navy is Jalaseva Jayamahe, which is Sanskrit for "On the sea we are glorious."
And there are very many surviving examples of the temples built around Dravidian Architecture, in Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.
in the Kalingattuparani
. Parani is a special type of literary work, which; according to the traditions and rules of linguistics of Tamizh
can only be composed on a king/general whose forces have killed a thousand elephants in combat.
In modern times, more than a few Romance has been inspired by the Chola Navy, and mostly in Tamil Language and literature.
Archeological evidence:
The dated excavations,
Literary references and recordings
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
along with several other Naval-arms of the country. The Chola navy
Navy
A navy is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake- or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions...
played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and Sri Vijaya (present day Indonesia), the spread of Hinduism
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
, Dravidian architecture
Dravidian architecture
Dravidian architecture was a style of architecture that emerged thousands of years ago in Southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India. They consist primarily of pyramid shaped temples called Koils which are dependent on intricate carved stone in order to create a step design consisting...
and Dravidian culture to South east Asia and in curbing the piracy
Piracy
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence at sea. The term can include acts committed on land, in the air, or in other major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against persons traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator...
in Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
in the 900 CE.
The Navy grew both in size and status during the Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya...
reign. The Chola Admirals commanded much respect and prestige in the society. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 CE to 1100 CE, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia. But was gradually reduced in significance for the period when the Cholas main had land battles for subjugating the Chalukyas that took place in the Andhra-Kannada area in South India place mainly in the land.
History
This proverb could be still true if not for the periods of Chola EmpireChola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
whose actions heralded India's Naval domination of the sub-continent and beyond. Historians divide the Chola Reign into three distinct phases. The first era is the period of Early Cholas
Early Cholas
The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period were one of the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country. Their early capitals were Urayur and Kaveripattinam...
.The second phase is of Vijalaya Cholas and the final phase in the empire was the Chalukya Chola period.
The Cholas were at the height of their power
Great power
A great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength and diplomatic and cultural influence which may cause small powers to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions...
continuously from the later half of the 9th century until the beginning of the 13th centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I
Rajaraja Chola I
Raja Raja Chola I born Arunmozhi Thevar , popularly known as Raja Raja the Great, is one of the greatest emperors of the Tamil Chola Empire of India who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE...
and his son Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives
Maldives
The Maldives , , officially Republic of Maldives , also referred to as the Maldive Islands, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean formed by a double chain of twenty-six atolls oriented north-south off India's Lakshadweep islands, between Minicoy Island and...
in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River
Godavari River
The Godavari is a river that runs from western to southern India and is considered to be one of the big river basins in India. With a length of 1465 km, it is the second longest river in India , that runs within the country and also the longest river in South India...
in Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh , is one of the 28 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of India. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population. Its capital and largest city by population is Hyderabad.The total GDP of Andhra Pradesh is $100 billion and is ranked third...
. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India
South India
South India is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area...
, annexed parts of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala
Pala Empire
The Pāla Empire was one of the major middle kingdoms of India existed from 750–1174 CE. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala , which means protector. The Palas were often described...
ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala
Mahipala
Mahipala I is considered the second founder of the Pala dynasty. Gopala I established the dynastic rule of the Palas in the middle of the 8th century CE. The Pala Dynasty ruled Bengal and Bihar for about four centuries from the middle of the 8th century CE...
. He also successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago
Malay Archipelago
The Malay Archipelago refers to the archipelago between mainland Southeastern Asia and Australia. The name was derived from the anachronistic concept of a Malay race....
.
Early Activity
Sangam literature
Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years c. 600 BCE to 300 CE. This collection contains 2381 poems composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous The period during which these poems were composed is commonly referred to as the Sangam...
. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the common era
Common Era
Common Era ,abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era originally introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century, traditionally identified with Anno Domini .Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for Before the Common Era Common Era...
. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history.
Ancient Navy
The earliest record of Chola Naval activity by an external source is dated around 1st century CE, the Roman report of Kaveripoompattinam(presently known as Poombuhar) as Haverpoum and a description of how the Trade vessels were escorted by the King's fleet to the estuary as it was a natural harbor in the mouth of the river Kaveri.Little archeological evidence exists of the maritime activities of this era, except some excavated wooden plaques depicting naval engagements in the vicinity of the old city (See Poompuhar for more details).
However, much insight into the naval activities of the Cholas has been gathered from Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. In this work, the unknown merchant describes the activity of escort-ships assigned to the merchant vessels with valuable cargo. These early naval ships had some sort of a rudimentary flame-thrower and or a catapult type weapon.
Medieval Navy
Interregnum
Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) up to the time when the Pandyas and PallavaPallava
The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram...
s dominated the Tamil country (c. 600). An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras
Kalabhras
The Kalabhras dynasty ruled over the entire Ancient Tamil country between the 3rd and the 6th century in an era of South Indian history called the Kalabhra interregnum. The Kalabhras displaced the kingdoms of the early Cholas, early Pandayan and Chera dynasties. Information about its origin and...
, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century.
This period from the 3rd century CE until 7th century CE is a blind spot in the maritime tradition of the Cholas. But, it can be safely assumed from the contemporary activities of the Pandyas and Pallava
Pallava
The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram...
s. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century. In the Interregnum, the Cholas were probably reduced to Vassal
Vassal
A vassal or feudatory is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held...
s of Pallava
Pallava
The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram...
s, though at times they switched sides and allied with Pandyas and tried to dispose their overlords. But, there is no concrete line of kings or court recordings.
However, even during this time the Cholas
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
had maintained a small but potent Naval force based inland in the Kaveri river. During this time they dominated the inland trade in the Kaveri basin and Musuri
Musuri
Musuri is a Korean term referring to female slaves in charge of odd chores in the court during the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasty of Korea. Their main tasks were miscellaneous works such as drawing water from a well, making a fire in the fireplace or cleaning....
is their major inland port. Dry-docks built during this period exist to this day.
Imperial Navy with Blue water capabilities
The Imperial Chola navy took its shape in the aftermath of the resurgence of Chola power, with the rise of Vijalaya dynasty. During the Pallavas rule, the Cholas took control of not only the territories, but the cultural and socio-economic mantle. Thus, the Medieval Cholas inherited the will to dominate trade and control seas from the Pallavas.
The evolution of combat ships and naval-architecture elsewhere played an important part in the development of the Pallava
Pallava
The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram...
Navy. There were serious effort in the period of the Pallava king Simavishnu to control the piracy in South East Asia and to establish a Tamil friendly regime in the Malay peninsula. However, this effort was accomplished only three centuries later by the new Naval power of the Cholas.
The three decades of conflict with the Sinhala king Mahinda V came to a swift end, after Raja Raja Chola I's (985-1014 CE) ascent to the throne and his decisive use of the Naval flotilla to subdue the Sinhalese.
This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions. Rajaraja commissioned various foreigners (Prominently, the Arabs and Chinese) in the naval building program. These effort were continued and the benefits were reaped by his successor, Rajendra Chola I. Rajendra led a successful expedition against the Sri Vijaya kingdom (present day Indonesia) and subdued Sailendra. Though there were friendly exchanges between the Sri Vijaya empire and the Chola Empire in preceding times (including the construction of chudamani Pagoda
Pagoda
A pagoda is the general term in the English language for a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other parts of Asia. Some pagodas are used as Taoist houses of worship. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most commonly Buddhist,...
in Nagapattinam
Nagapattinam
Nagapattinam is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam District. It is a prominent seaport on the east coast of India and an important centre of trade and commerce.The town of Nagapattinam dates back to the Sangam period...
), the raid seems to have been motivated by the commercial interests rather than any political motives.
Trade, Commerce and diplomacy
Sumatra
Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia, westernmost of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island entirely in Indonesia , and the sixth largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 with a population of 50,365,538...
cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country. The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.
Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity, especially with the Chinese and Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
s. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
of China, the Srivijaya
Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6...
empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the Abbasids , was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region....
Kalifat at Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
were the main trading partners.
The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval and the license from the customs
Customs
Customs is an authority or agency in a country responsible for collecting and safeguarding customs duties and for controlling the flow of goods including animals, transports, personal effects and hazardous items in and out of a country...
force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade. The normal trade voyage of those day involved three legs of journey, starting with the Indian goods (mainly spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and in the return leg the Chinese goods (silk, incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials were utilized for local consumption, the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo was shipped to the Arabs. Traditionally, this involved transfer of material/cargo to many ships before the ultimate destination was reached.
Piracy in Southeast Asia
The Strategic position of Sri Vijaya and Khamboj (modern day CambodiaCambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
) as a mid-point in the trade route between Chinese and Arabian ports was crucial. Up to 5th century CE, the Arabs traded with Chinese directly using Sri Vijaya as a port of call and replenishment hub. Realizing their potential, the Sri Vijaya empire began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the area. The benefits were twofold, the loot from piracy was a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the trading parties.
Piracy also grew stronger due to a conflict of succession in Sri Vijaya, when two princes fought for the throne and in turn, relied on the loot from the sea-piracy for their civil war.
The pirate menace grew to unprecedented levels. Sea trade with China was virtually impossible without the loss of 1/3 of the convoy for every voyage. Even escorted convoys came under attacks, which was a new factor. Repeated diplomatic missions urged the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy, with little effect. With the rise in piracy, and in the absence of Chinese commodity, the Arabs, on whom the Cholas were dependent of horses for their cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
corps, began to demand high prices for their trade. This led to a slew of reduction in the Chola army. The Chinese were equally infuriated by the piracy menace, as they too were losing revenue.
The culmination of three century's combined naval traditions of Pallavas and Cholas
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
led to the most known accomplishment of the Chola Navy (or any Indian power for that matter)., Namely the 1st expedition of the Chola navy into the Malay
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula or Thai-Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southern-most point of the Asian mainland...
peninsula.
In one particular note, the Cholas went as far as to conquer the Kamboja and gave it to the Sri Vijaya kings (as per their request) to ensure cooperation in the curbing piracy.
Cooperation with the Chinese
Chinese Song DynastySong Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077, and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices'.
The close diplomatics tie between the Song dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and the Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya...
facilitated many technological innovations to travel both ways. The more interesting ones to have reached Chola shores are:
- The famous Chinese ship-designs employing independent water tight compartments in the hullHull (watercraft)A hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present. The line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline.The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type...
of a ship. - The mariner's compass
- The continuously shooting Flamethrowers for naval warfare.
Organization and Administration
The Imperial navy of the Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya...
was composed of a multitude of forces in its command. In addition to the regular Navy
Navy
A navy is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake- or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions...
(Kappal-Padai), there were many auxiliary
Auxiliaries
An auxiliary force is a group affiliated with, but not part of, a military or police organization. In some cases, auxiliaries are armed forces operating in the same manner as regular soldiers...
forces that could be used in naval combat. The Chola Navy was an autonomous service unlike many of its contemporaries. The Army
Army
An army An army An army (from Latin arma "arms, weapons" via Old French armée, "armed" (feminine), in the broadest sense, is the land-based military of a nation or state. It may also include other branches of the military such as the air force via means of aviation corps...
depended on the Naval-fleets for transportation and logistics. The Navy also had a core of Marines. Even Saboteur
Saboteur
A saboteur is someone who commits sabotage.It may also refer to:*Morituri , a 1965 film also known as The Saboteur*Saboteur , a card game by Frederic Moyersoen, published in 2004...
s, who were trained Pearl-fishermen were used, to dive and disable enemy vessels by destroying/damaging the Rudder.
The Chola navy could undertake any of the following combat and non-combat missions,
- Peacetime patrol and interdiction of piracy.
- Escort trade conveys.
- Escort friendly vessels.
- Naval battle close to home ports and at high-seas.
- Establish a beachhead and or reinforce the Army in times of need.
- Denial of passage for allies of the state's enemies.
- Sabotage of enemy vessels
This multi-dimensional force enabled the Cholas to achieve the Military, Political and cultural hegemony over their vast dominion.
Administration
The King/Emperor was the Supreme commanderSupreme Commander
Supreme Commander may refer to:* Commander-in-chief, a military rank**Supreme Allied Commander, title held by the most senior commander within certain multinational military alliances...
of all the Military forces including the Navy
Navy
A navy is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake- or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions...
.
The navy is organized mostly on role based squadrons & divisions, containing various types of ships assigned for a specific role and home-ported in an associated base/port. This procedure became necessary, especially after the conquest of Ceylon. Normally, a Ganam (Fleet-Squadron) would (the largest individual unit)be commanded by a Ganathipathy (not to be confused with the elephant headed god Ganapathy).
There were numerous sub-units of operational reasons and organizational reasons or otherwise. Some are presented below,
| Unit Name | Commander | Modern-day equivalent | Composition | Functions/Duties | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kanni - Wartime/special purpose formation | Senior Kalapathy, Normally Kalapathy is the rank of a commanding officer of a Ship (akin to Captain) | Not more than five ships of any role. | Kanni In Tamil means trap.‡1 A tactical formation, it was used to lure enemy combatants to a particular area. Where larger bodies (usually, a Thalam or 2) ships will ambush the enemy. | During a strategic deployment, the formation would be used many times before engaging in the main combat to decimate the enemy fleet. | Also had a very bad reputation for losses, since high numbers of ships were lost in this role if the friendlies arrival was delayed in unfavorable currents. |
| Jalathalam or simply Thalam‡2 - A permanent formation. | Jalathalathipathy - The lord of Thalam | The smallest self sustained unit in naval formation, consisted 5 main battle vessels, 3 Auxiliaries and 2 Logistics and 1 or 2 Privateers. A Thalam could be used for reconnaissance, patrol or interdiction. | Normally, 2-3 Thalam operated in a vicinity on scouting or search & destroy missions. while can search a wide area, can reach to each other's aid in short duration. | A fully equipped Chola Thalam is said to have been able to withstand an attack by more than twice its size. This is attributed to the superior range of missile weapons in Chola Inventory. | |
| Mandalam - A semi-permanent formation. Mostly used in battle/Overseas deployment. | Mandalathipathy - The lord of Mandalam | Roughly equivalent to Task force Task force A task force is a unit or formation established to work on a single defined task or activity. Originally introduced by the United States Navy, the term has now caught on for general usage and is a standard part of NATO terminology... or Battle groups |
Composed of 40-50 Ships of various roles. (Mandalam in Tamil and various Indian languages is the word of 48) | They can used as an individual combat unit, especially during pincer or break-neck maneuvering in high-seas. | |
| Ganam - A permanent formation | Ganathipathy - Literally, Athipathy (lord) of the Ganam, equivalent to modern-day rear-admiral | Fleet-Squadron Squadron (naval) A squadron, or naval squadron, is a unit of 3-4 major warships, transport ships, submarines, or sometimes small craft that may be part of a larger task force or a fleet... |
Composed of 100-150 Ships of various roles. (Ganam in Tamil means volume and three). A ganam comprises three Mandalams. | A self-reliant unit of the force, only lesser than the Fleet. Had combat, reconnaissance, logistics and resupply/repair units. | Normally, this would be the minimum strength/size of the overseas deployment. |
| Ani | Anipathy - lord of an Ani | Taskforce or battle group Battle group Battle group may refer to:* Battlegroup , the basic building block of an army's fighting force* Battleship battle group, a battleship and its escorts* Carrier battle group, a carrier and its escorts... |
Composed of 3 Ganams (Fleet-division) minimum. Normally consisting of 300-500 ships. | Mainly an Expedition order than normal formation. But, during long deployments, they were deployed (only 2 instances of an Ani being deployed in a combat have been documented.) | |
| Pirivu | Normally headed by a prince/confidante of the King, title depends on the sea where the fleet is based. For example, The eastern fleet would be named as Keelpirivu-athipathy or Nayagan or Thevan/r, depending on the person. | Fleet Naval fleet A fleet, or naval fleet, is a large formation of warships, and the largest formation in any navy. A fleet at sea is the direct equivalent of an army on land.... |
they functioned much like modern Fleets. There were 2-4 fleets in chola navy during various times. The principle fleet was based in east. Later on a 2nd fleet was based on Ceylon/Sri Lanka. During and after the Rajendra I, 3 or 4 Fleets existed. | The rise of Chera Chera dynasty Chera Dynasty in South India is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas, they formed the three principle warring Iron Age Tamil kingdoms in southern India... naval power gave more than a little loss in revenue, prompting the Cholas to station a Fleet permanently in the Malabar and to engage Mercenary navies to support the Chola strategic design. |
Rank Structure
The Chola navy used a hybrid rank structure. There were dedicated Naval ranks as well as Army-derived ranks. The Chola Navy used both naval-ranks & army-style ranks. While some of the modern-day convention of Ranks did apply, for e.g., the Army Captain is equal to a Lieutenant in Navy and a Navy Captain is equal to a Colonel in the army; others were totally different. So a small comparison is provided for comparison.- The Supreme Commander :Chakravarthy - The Emperor
- The Commander-in Chief of Navy :Jalathipathhi - roughly, the Admiral of the Navy.
- The commander of the Fleet : Pirivu+ Athipathy or Devar/n or Nayagan - The equivalent of an Admiral
- The commander of the Fleet-Squadron : Ganathipathy - the equivalent of a rear-admiral (roughly)
- The commander of a group : Mandalathipathy#(refer below) - the equivalent of a Vice-admiral
- The commander of the Ship : Kalapathy -The equivalent of a captain in modern navies.
- The officer in-charge of Arms in a ship : Kaapu - Roughly the Executive officer and Weapons officer rolled into one.
- The officer in-charge of the oarsmen/masts : Seevai - roughly the equivalent of the Master Chief and Engineering officer.
- The officer in-charge of boarding Party (Marines) : Eeitimaar - Major/Captain in marines.
Other Naval Arms
The auxiliary forces of the Chola NavyIn addition to the Standing Navy of the state, there were other services which had a naval arm of its own. Notable among them are the Customs Department, Militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
and the state monopoly of Pearl fisheries. In addition to the state services, a small but formidable forces were maintained by various trade-guilds, these guilds are highly regulated and acted as mercenaries and reinforcements in times of need.
Customs & Excise
The Customs force, called Sungu (SUNGA ILLAKA) was highly organized and unlike anything in the ancient world. It was under the command of a Director-general like position called Thalai-Thirvai. Thalai - Head, Thirvai - duty (customs). It was highly evolved and had various departments Some are| Department | Duties | Assets |
|---|---|---|
| Thirvai (Customs duty & Exercise) | This unit employed some of the brilliant merchants of the time and most were professional economists. They deduced and fixed the percentage of the Customs duty of a commodity for a particular season. (trade-voyages were influenced by ocean currents and hence the price changed accordingly) | They normally had boarding officers, boarding crafts and some sea vessels; as most of their duty was inland. |
| Aaivu (Inspection Inspection An inspection is, most generally, an organized examination or formal evaluation exercise. In engineering activities inspection involves the measurements, tests, and gauges applied to certain characteristics in regard to an object or activity... & enforcement) |
This unit was the Action arm of the trade law, they inspected ships for contraband, illegal goods, wrong declaring of tonnage, small crimes control and the protection of the Harbors under Chola dominion. | These units employed some of the fast assault and boarding vessels of the time and in more than one reported occasion, the Navy had sought its help in intercepting rogue vessels.† |
| Ottru (Intelligence Corps) | They were the Intelligence corps of the territorial waters of the Chola dominion. They normally tailed foreign vessels, performed path-finding for larger forces/conveys and gave periodic updates for the Kings and the trade-guilds of the happenings in the sea. | They operated highly capable vessels which are noted for stealth and speed, rather than brute force and weapons platforms. Most of the ships they operated were Privateer Privateer A privateer is a private person or ship authorized by a government by letters of marque to attack foreign shipping during wartime. Privateering was a way of mobilizing armed ships and sailors without having to spend public money or commit naval officers... s and contained no national markings. We have some understandings of their crafts, which seemed to have been equipped with concealable catapults and napalm Napalm Napalm is a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with gasoline or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, primarily as an anti-personnel weapon... throwers (not Trebuchet Trebuchet A trebuchet is a siege engine that was employed in the Middle Ages. It is sometimes called a "counterweight trebuchet" or "counterpoise trebuchet" in order to distinguish it from an earlier weapon that has come to be called the "traction trebuchet", the original version with pulling men instead of... s like the ones employed by the naval ships.) |
| Kallarani (Pirate squad) | Technically, they weren't employed by either the sovereign or the state. But rather, they are pirates themselves who have received the Royal Pardon on the pledge of their support of the Chola Empire Chola Dynasty The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until... . They had been used in more than a few instances to deal with the Arab piracy in the western water. They have also been used as Coast Guard. |
These mercenaries operated anything that they could capture and composed of multi-national-ethnic corps. Notable among them are the Arabian Amirs, who were highly respected upon their oath of allegiance and their fervor in combat. |
| Karaipirivu (Coastal defense Coastal defence and fortification Coastal defence , Coastal defense and Coastal fortification are measures taken to provide protection against attack by military and naval forces at or near the shoreline... ) |
They performed duties akin to the modern coast-guard, search & rescue and costal patrols. But mainly they were land-based and scattered along the long coast-line to provide a seaward defense. | they operated substantially smaller crafts and occasionally even catamarans . Nevertheless, they were feared by petty crooks and coastal thieves. |
Coast Guard
In the later years of the 1100 CE, the NavyNavy
A navy is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake- or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions...
was constantly battling in many fronts to protect Chola Commercial, religious and Political interests. So the home ports were literally, undefended. This led to a change in the of outlook Chola naval strategy, the sturdier and larger vessels were repeatedly called to reinforce the high-sea flotilla, leading to the development of a specialized Auxiliary force of fast and heavily armed light ships in large numbers. The erstwhile Karaipirivu was the natural choice for this expansion and in time they became an autonomous force vested with the duties of protecting the Chola territorial waters, home ports, patrol of newly captured ports and coastal cities.
Privateers
The state's dependence on overseas trade for much valued foreign exchange created the powerful Trade-guilds. Some of which grew more powerful than the regional governors.And in the increasingly competitive field of international trade, the state faced with difficulties to reinforce and or rescue stranded Merchant ships in high seas, in a timely manner. This led to the establishment of privateer
Privateer
A privateer is a private person or ship authorized by a government by letters of marque to attack foreign shipping during wartime. Privateering was a way of mobilizing armed ships and sailors without having to spend public money or commit naval officers...
navies. Like its European counterparts, they had no National markings and employed multi-national crews.
But, they were employed by the Trade-guilds rather than the Empire, giving the Traders an edge in the seas. Normally, they performed path-finding, escort and protection duties. but, in more than a few occasions, these forces had been summoned to serve the Empire's interests.
Notable Trade guilds which employed a privateer navy were,
- Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar - literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"
- Maalainattu Thiribuvana Vaanibar kzhulumam - The merchants from the high-country in three worlds (meaning the 3 domiciles of Chinese, Indian and Arabian empires)
- Maadathu valaingair (or valainzhr)vaanibar Kzhu - The pearl exporters form the KanchipuramKanchipuramKanchipuram, or Kanchi, is a temple city and a municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a temple town and the headquarters of Kanchipuram district...
Vessels and Weapons
During the reign of Raja Raja and his son, there were a complex classification of class of vessels and its utility. Some of the survived classes' name and utility are below.
- Dharani - The equivalent of modern-day destroyers designed to take combat to high-seas.
- Loola - The equivalent of a modern day CorvetteCorvetteA corvette is a small, maneuverable, lightly armed warship, originally smaller than a frigate and larger than a coastal patrol craft or fast attack craft , although many recent designs resemble frigates in size and role...
s; designed to perform light combat and escort duties. - Vajra - The equivalent of a Frigate maybe, a fast attack craft lightly armored.
- Thirisadai - Probably the battle cruisers or Battleships of the day, they are reported to be armored heavily and can engage more than 2 targets in combat, and relies on its built rather than speed to survive and attack.
Though all ships of the time employed a small Marine force (for boarding enemy vessels), this class of ship seems to have had a separate cabins and training area for them.
This ship also is said to be able to engage in asymmetrical warfare.
| Dharani | The primary Weapons platform with extensive endurance(up to 3 months), They normally engaged in groups and avoided one on one encounters. | Probably can be equated to a Destroyer Destroyer In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, powerful, short-range attackers. Destroyers, originally called torpedo-boat destroyers in 1892, evolved from... . |
| Lola | They were lightly armored, fast attack vessels. Normally performed escort duties. They cannot perform frontal assaults. | Equivalent to modern day Corvette Corvette A corvette is a small, maneuverable, lightly armed warship, originally smaller than a frigate and larger than a coastal patrol craft or fast attack craft , although many recent designs resemble frigates in size and role... |
| Vajara | They were highly capable fast attack crafts, Typically used to reinforce/rescue a stranded fleet. | Probably, can be equated to a Frigate Frigate A frigate is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries.In the 17th century, the term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability, the description often used being "frigate-built"... |
| Thirisadai | The heaviest class known, had extensive war-fighting capabilities and endurance.had a dedicated marine force of around 400 Marines to board enemy vessels. They are reported to be able to engage three vessels of Dharani class. Hence the name Thirisadai, which means, three braids. (braid was also the time's name for oil-fire) | This class can be attributed/compared to modern Battle cruiser or Battleship Battleship A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of heavy caliber guns. Battleships were larger, better armed and armored than cruisers and destroyers. As the largest armed ships in a fleet, battleships were used to attain command of the sea and represented the apex of a... s. |
Royal Yacht
A royal yacht is a ship used by a monarch or a royal family. If the monarch is an emperor the proper term is imperial yacht. Most of them are financed by the government of the country of which the monarch is head...
s and their architecture.
Some of which are,
- Akramandham - A royal Yacht with the Royal quarters in the stern.
- Neelamandham - A royal Yacht with extensive facilities for conducting courts and accommodation for hi-officials/ministers.
- Sarpammugam - these were smaller yachts used in the Rivers (with ornamental snake heads)
In addition to these, we find many names of Ship classes in Purananuru
Purananuru
Purananuru is a Tamil poetic work in the Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology of Tamil literature, belonging to the Sangam period corresponding to between 200 BCE – 100 CE. Purananuru is part of the Ettuthokai anthology which is the oldest available collection of poems of Sangam literature in Tamil....
and its application in both inland waters and open oceans. Some of them are,
- Yanthiram - Hybrid ship employing bot sails and oars or probably Paddle wheels of some type (as Yanthiram is literally translated to mechanical wheel)
- Kalam - Large vessels with 3 masts which can travel in any direction irrespective of winds.
- Punai - medium sized vessels that can be used to coastal shipping as well as inland.
- Patri - Large barge type vessel used to ferrying trade goods.
- Oodam - Small boat with large oars.
- Ambi - Medium sized boat with a single mast and oars.
- Toni - small boat used in rocky terrain.
Campaigns
In the tenure spanning the 700 years of its documented existence, the Chola Navy was involved in confrontations for probably 500 years. There were frequent skirmishes and many pitched battles. Not to mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5th centuries of conflict between the Pandyas and CholasChola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many legend
Legend
A legend is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude...
s and folktales. Not to mention the hero
Hero
A hero , in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, their cult being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion...
es in both sides. The notable campaigns are below
-
-
- War of Pandya Succession (1172 CE)
- War of Pandya succession (1167 CE)
- The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148CE)
- Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaighn (1081CE-1083CE)
- The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1031CE-1034CE)
- The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1027CE -1029CE)
- The Annexation of KedahKedahKedah is a state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a total area of over 9,000 km², and it consists of the mainland and Langkawi. The mainland has a relatively flat terrain, which is used to grow rice...
(1024-1025 CE) - Annexation of the Kamboja (?-996CE)
- The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977CE-?)
- Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-8 CE)
-
Recruitment and Service
The chola emperors gave a free hand to the Admirals in recruiting and training of sailors, engineers, oarsmen and marines. There were no complicated tests and evaluation process. Any citizen or even non citizen could sign up for the naval service. But, one did not end up in the work of his choice. Preference were given to ex-servicemen, their sons and noblemen. But, this attitude changed in later days. And many class of soldiers / sailors distinguished themselves, irrespective of rank and class.Ports and fleets
the most ancient of ports used by Cholas was Poompuhar. Later on, they used many more ports and even built some new ones. Some of the famous ports are:- ArikameduArikameduArikamedu is an archaeological site near Pondicherry, southern India, where Mortimer Wheeler conducted his best-known excavation in the 1940s. According to Wheeler, Arikamedu was a Tamil fishing village which was formerly a major Chola port dedicated to bead making and trading with Roman traders...
- Poombuhar.
- Kancheepuram
- NagapattinamNagapattinamNagapattinam is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam District. It is a prominent seaport on the east coast of India and an important centre of trade and commerce.The town of Nagapattinam dates back to the Sangam period...
- Kulachal
- KorkaiKorkaiKorkai is a small village in the Srivaikuntam taluk of Thoothukudi district in Tamil Nadu, India. It is situated about 3 km north of the Thamirabarani River and about 6 km from the shore of Bay of Bengal. Korkai was the capital, principal center of trade and important port of the Early Pandyan...
- Kadalur.
- ThoothukudiThoothukudiThoothukudi , also known as Tuticorin, is a port city and a Municipal Corporation in Thoothukudi district of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thoothukudi is the headquarters of Thoothukudi District....
In addition to these sea ports there were many inland ports and dry dock connected by Rivers Kaveri and Thamarabarani which served commercial fleets and in times of war, to facilitate mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.
- Musuri
- Worayur or Urayur
The fleets were normally named after the dead monarchs and god's name. The most distinguished ones were granted Royal prefixes like Theiva-sovereign's name-fleet name. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I
Rajaraja Chola I
Raja Raja Chola I born Arunmozhi Thevar , popularly known as Raja Raja the Great, is one of the greatest emperors of the Tamil Chola Empire of India who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE...
and Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
, there were 5 fleets, each catering to particular needs. The main fleet was home ported in Nagapatinam. The other fleets were home ported in Kadalur and a small fleet was also based in Kanchipuram.
In addition to the main fleets of war ships, there were 2 fleets of Logistics
Logistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of destination in order to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and...
and transport ships to serve the needs of the Army; involved in a bloody war in Ceylon and later in SE Asia.
In the later years this numbers increased drastically and a several fleets were created anew. During the later 11th century CE, there were a total 9 battle fleets, based in various dominians across the vast expanses of the Chola empire ranging from the present day Aceh, Ankorwat to the southern reaches of ceylon/Sri Lanka.
Political, Cultural and Economic Impact
The Grand vision and imperial energy of the Father and son duo Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola IRajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
is undoubtedly the underlying reason for expansion and prosperity. But, this was accomplished by the tireless efforts and pains of the Navy. In essence, Raja Raja was the first person in the Sub-continent to realize the power projection capabilities of a powerful navy. He and his successors initiated a massive naval buildup and continued supporting it. And they used it more than just wars.
The chola navy was a potent Diplomatic symbol, It was the carrier of Chola might and prestige. It spread the Dravidian culture, the literary and architectural grandeur. For the sake of comparison, it was just the equivalent of the " Gunboat diplomacy " of the modern day Great power
Great power
A great power is a nation or state that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength and diplomatic and cultural influence which may cause small powers to consider the opinions of great powers before taking actions...
s and super powers.
There is evidence to show that the king of Kambujadesa (modern Cambodia) sent an ornamental chariot to the Chola Emperor, probably to appease him so that his strategic attention does not extend further than the Malay peninsula.
Talking of impact, after 8th centuries (from Kulothunga's time) and Islamic conversion, Indonesia still has a high regard for their connections with the cholas (navy). The Indonesian submarine museum is housed in an old Russian whiskey-class submarine. Which was named "Pasopati", one of the names of the Hindu god Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
. Still exciting fact is the cultural ties spread by the chola navies. The motto of the Indonesian navy is Jalaseva Jayamahe, which is Sanskrit for "On the sea we are glorious."
And there are very many surviving examples of the temples built around Dravidian Architecture, in Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.
Popular culture
From the Sangam age poems to commemorate the victory of the sovereign of the day to the immortalized Kalinga Campaign of the Kulothunga Chola IKulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
in the Kalingattuparani
Kalingattuparani
Kalingattuparani is a 12th century Tamil poem and a war song by Jayamkondar, celebrating the victory of Kulottunga Chola I over the Kalinga king, Anantavarman Chodaganga in the Chola-Kalinga war. It gives a vivid and a graphic description of battle scenes. It is hailed as one of the master-pieces...
. Parani is a special type of literary work, which; according to the traditions and rules of linguistics of Tamizh
Tamil language
Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in the Indian union territory of Pondicherry. Tamil is also an official language of Sri Lanka and Singapore...
can only be composed on a king/general whose forces have killed a thousand elephants in combat.
In modern times, more than a few Romance has been inspired by the Chola Navy, and mostly in Tamil Language and literature.
- Yavana raniYavana RaniYavana Rani is a Tamil language historical novel written by Sandilyan. Its title translates to "Greek Queen" in English. The story is based on ancient Tamil poetry. It is a love story set around 2000 years ago, focusing on the Commander-in-chief of the Chola Army...
: A historical novel by Sandilyian surrounding the events of the Karikala's Ascendence to throne.
- Ponniyin selvanPonniyin SelvanPonniyin Selvan is a 2400 page 20th-century Tamil historical novel written by Kalki Krishnamurthy. Written in 5 volumes, this narrates the story of Arulmozhivarman , one of the kings of the Chola Dynasty during the 10th-11th century CE period.-Historical background:Ponniyin Selvan is a historical...
: The crowning glory of the Rajaraja is idolized in this Novel surrounding the assassination of his brother and crown prince Aditha Karikalan. More than a passing note is given of the navy and its organization in this Magnum opus by Kalki. Krishnamoorthy.
- Kadal puraKadal PuraKadal Pura , meaning Sea Pigeon, is a Tamil language historical novel written by Sandilyan. The story is based on the ancient Tamil Kingdom. It was named after the fictional ship built by the Chola Commander Illayapallavan Karunagara Pallavan, who later became King Thondaiman...
: Another historical novel by sandilyan surrounding the foundation of the Chalukya Chola dynasty in India and the Song DynastySong DynastyThe Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
in china. Sandilyan gives more than a passing evidence to prove that the song-emperor and Kulothunga chola were friends. By far, this work gives the most intricate details of the navies of the day and naval warfare. In this work he describes the various weapons and tactics employed by the Cholas and Chinese navies and their combined efforts to overthrow the Sri Vijaya dynasty.
- Kanni Maadam : A historical novel by Sandilyan in the time of Rajathiraja Chola. The work describes the Pandyas' civil war .It elaborates the war by proxy, between the sinhalese and cholas. The pallavas are all but gone, they are in the service of both Cholas and pandyas. It features some of the most detailed tactical maneuvering in battlefield. It also highlights the importance of the Naval power and logistics in an overseas campaign.
Timeline of events
The major events which had direct impact in the development of the Chola Naval capability are listed here, which is in no case comprehensive. But, some of the events had deep impact nevertheless.Archeological evidence:
The dated excavations,
- 3000 BCE - Dugboats were found in Arikamedu, what is now in Pondicherry.
- 2400 BCE - Highly functional port is in operation in LothalLothalLothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. Located in Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 2400 BCE. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from February 13, 1955 to May 19, 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India...
of what is now Gujurat. - 700 BCE - The first mention of the word Yavana in pottery around korkai.(meaning Greeks or Romans)
- 300 BCE - A load-stone compass with Chinese inscriptions is found off the coast of Kaaveripoompatnam.
- 100 BCE - A settlement of TamilTamil peopleTamil people , also called Tamils or Tamilians, are an ethnic group native to Tamil Nadu, India and the north-eastern region of Sri Lanka. Historic and post 15th century emigrant communities are also found across the world, notably Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, South Africa, Australia, Canada,...
/Pakrit speaking merchants founded in Rome. - Later 1st Century BCE - Roman glass were found in Southern coastal regions of Tamilnadu.
Literary references and recordings
- 356-321 BCE: The Periplus of Niarchus, an officer of Alexander the Great, describes the Persian coast. Niarchus commissioned thirty oared galleys to transport the troops of Alexander the Great from northwest India back to Mesopotamia, via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, an established commercial route.
- 334-323 BCE: Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, drew a map which includes Sri Lanka and the mouth of the Ganges. Which states the exchange of traffic and commodity in the regions.
- 207-190 BCE: In a puranaanuru song, there is an advice for enterprising soldiers, which when translated literally comes to "He should ride the horse like the Phalavas, Muster the elephant like cherals, and must organize the defense of a fort like the Yavanas, this brings to light the existence of Roman settlements.
- 1st century BCE : When Vennikkuyithiar mentions about Karikala, he mentions several class of inland vessels by Name some are Kalam, Punai & Patri.
External links
- http://www.tifr.res.in/~akr/crab_webtifr.html (Indian subcontinent section)
- http://www.sabrizain.demon.co.uk/malaya/early2.htm
- http://www.tsr8283.com/general/history.htm
- http://nandhivarman.indiainteracts.com/2007/11/01/chola-maritime-conquests-and-technological-grandeur/
- http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Archeaology/arch_tambaramhistory.htm
- http://www.sangam.org/articles/view2/print.php?uid=1012
- http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1600s/Prakash.html