Medieval Cholas
Encyclopedia
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India
under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya
. They dominated the political affairs of Lanka
for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east.
Cholas and Chalukyas, the other major power of that time, were continuously in conflict over the control of the Vengi
kingdom and this conflict eventually exhausted both the empires and brought down their decline. The Chola dynasty merged into the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty of Vengi through decades of alliances, and at the end of this period came under one ruler (Kulothunga Chola I
).
of the Sangam era were one of the most dominant political force in the Tamil country. They had managed to establish hegemony over the Pandyas and Cheras
and their influence was even felt beyond the traditional boundaries of the Tamil country.
C.E. to 600
C.E., there is an almost total lack of information regarding events in the Tamil country. Some time after 300 C.E. the whole south India was upset by the predatory activities of the Kalabhras
. These people, possibly from the south Deccan, were not Tamil speakers, and could have once been part of the Satavahana
kingdom. After the demise this kingdom, its various dominions split up and established their independence. Kalabhras arose out of this political confusion, and trying to carve themselves a territory, invaded the land of the Tamils. The Tamil dynasties were not prepared to face this new threat and their defiance quickly crumbled.
Kalabhras, not bound by the norms and customs of the Tamils, upset the existing order by their ways. They are speculated to be the followers of Buddhism
and did not respect the traditional Hindu values. These differences in the custom probably caused animosity to them amongst their subject and were probably the reason for the uniform adverse reports by the Tamil historians and authors who wrote following their demise.
and the Pallava
Simhavishnu managed to oust the Kalabhras from their territories and dominted the Tamil country for the next three centuries. After repeated wars, their frontier fluctuated along the river Kaveri. Cholas almost disappeared from the political map. They retained their ancient seat of Urayur
and probably aligned with both the Pandyas and the Pallavas as the situation demanded. Their home country around Urayur was the location of many battles between the two major kingdoms. It is most likely, due to the strategic location of the Chola country during this time, both the Pallavas and Pandyas sought their help.
, who was probably a Pallava Vassal, rose out of obscurity during the middle of the 9th century C.E. Making use of the opportunity during a war between Pandyas and Pallavas, Vijayalaya rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur in 848
C.E.
We do not know whom Vijayalaya defeated to capture Thanjavur. During the 8th century a family of chiefs known as the Muttaraiyans ruled Thanjavur. Historians have suggested that they may have belongs to the Pandya clan. In the disturbed state of affairs that existed then, Vijayalaya seems to have found a good opportunity to defeat the Muttaraiyan chiefs, and make himself the ruler of Thanjavur and the surrounding Chola country.
The Cholas under Aditya I
soon displaced the remnants of Pallava power in the north (c. 869
C.E.) and subdued the Pandayas and Cheras in the south (c. 903
C.E.). Parantaka I
drove the Pandayas out of their territories and into Lanka (c. 910
C.E.). He then invaded the island to quell any opposition to the Chola expansion.
Rashtrakutas and Gangas in the north posed the biggest threat the nascent Chola Empire (c. 940
C.E.). The Chola prince Rajaditya was killed in one of the bloodiest battles in Thakkolam (949
C.E.) and the growth of the Cholas was halted for a few years.
The period following was one of the most difficult and dangerous for the Cholas. Parantaka had a long reign and when he died in 950
C.E., his second son Gandaraditya
became king. He was more suited to the realm of religion than politics. His reign was marked for the stagnation in the progress of the Chola power. The Chola throne went to Gandaraditya’s younger brother Arinjaya
briefly before Arinjaya’s son Sundara Chola
took the reins of the kingdom overlooking the claims of the still minor Uttama Chola, Gandaraditya’s son.
C.E.
Rajaraja Chola and his equally distinguished son Rajendra Chola gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power. Rajaraja consolidated the Chola defences in the north by eliminating the last remnants of the Rashtrakuta power. The Rashtrakutas were replaced by the resurgence of Chalukyas of Kalyani. This was the beginning of the long history of conflict between the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas. The Chola-Chalukya conflicts resulted in the river Tungabhadra being recognised as the frontier between the two kingdoms.
Rajaraja soon extended his kingdom overseas to Lanka and the Chola army occupied most of the island (993
C.E). Rajaraja also invaded Vengi to restore the throne to his nephew Saktivarman.
Rajendra Chola extended his father’s successes by completing the conquest of Lanka (1018 C.E.). The Sinhala king was captured and imprisoned in the Chola country. Rajendra also had to fight the Western Chalukyas (1021 C.E.) and invade Vengi to sustain the Chola influence there (1031 C.E.).
Rajendra’s reign was marked by his expedition to the river Ganges (c. 1019 C.E.). The Chola army dashed through the kingdoms north of Vengi and engaged the Pala
king Mahipala
and defeated him. The victorious Chola army returned with the waters of the holy Ganges. Historians now discount this expedition as nothing more than a pilgrimage to the Ganges and no permanent gain of territories resulted from it. The inscriptions of Rajaraja however glorify this as a major conquest.
Rajendra’s overseas conflicts are of similar nature. The Chola navy attacked and conquered the kingdom of Srivijaya
. The cause of this conflict is likely commercial interests rather than political. Srivijaya was located at the hub of the thriving trade between Cholas and the ancient China. This expedition was to secure Chola strategic interests. There was no permanent territorial gain and the kingdom was returned to the Srivijaya king for recognition of Chola superiority and the payment of periodic tributes.
. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split in to two sibling dynasties of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas
. Rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya. Stemming from this Cholas had a filial interest in the affairs of Vengi. Western Chalukyas however felt that the Vengi kingdom was under their natural sphere of influence. Several wars were fought and neither could claim mastery over the other. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas
of Kalyani, who never managed to get a foothold in the Tamil
country at any time of their existence. For the most part, the frontier remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms, though these wars, however, resulted in a lot of bloodshed and the death of at least one monarch (Rajadhiraja Chola
).
and Virarajendra Chola
all had to continue the Chalukya wars. Rajadhiraja lost his life on the battlefield during one such battles and Rajendra Chola II crowned himself on the battlefield and continued the fight. Virarajendra managed to split the Western Chalukya kingdom by convincing Vikramaditya IV to an alliance. Vikramaditya acted as a buffer between the Cholas and the Chalukyas in Kalyani.
Vikramaditya also tried to prevent Rajendra Chalukya, an Eastern Chalukyan prince of Chola descent from ascending the Vengi throne. However when Virarajendra died in 1070 C.E., Rajendra Chalukya utilised and even engineered some internal confusion in the Chola kingdom, in which the Chola king Athirajendra Chola
was assassinated. Rajendra Chalukya crowned himself Kulothunga Chola I (1070 C.E.), thereby starting the Later Chola dynasty.
Justice was administered by regularly constituted royal courts in addition to village courts. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were dealt with the king himself. The most striking feature of the Chola period was the unusual vigour and efficiency of the autonomous rural institutions.
This period of the Chola rule saw the maturity of the Tamil Temple architecture. Rajaraja built the great Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. His son Rajendra imitated this effort by building the temple at his new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram
.
This age also saw the Hindu religious revival in both Saiva
and Vaishnava traditions. The Saiva and Vishnava canons were collected and categorised during this period.Though recent movies portray persecution of Vaishnavas during this period, these claims are completely false.
South India
South India is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area...
under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya
Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6...
. They dominated the political affairs of Lanka
Lanka
Sri Lanka is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the legendary king Ravana in the great Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata...
for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east.
Cholas and Chalukyas, the other major power of that time, were continuously in conflict over the control of the Vengi
Vengi
The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount Mahendragiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the south of India. This area was part of Kalinga until that kingdom was conquered by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the mid 3rd century...
kingdom and this conflict eventually exhausted both the empires and brought down their decline. The Chola dynasty merged into the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty of Vengi through decades of alliances, and at the end of this period came under one ruler (Kulothunga Chola I
Kulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
).
After the Sangam Era
The Early CholasEarly Cholas
The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period were one of the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country. Their early capitals were Urayur and Kaveripattinam...
of the Sangam era were one of the most dominant political force in the Tamil country. They had managed to establish hegemony over the Pandyas and Cheras
Chera dynasty
Chera Dynasty in South India is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas, they formed the three principle warring Iron Age Tamil kingdoms in southern India...
and their influence was even felt beyond the traditional boundaries of the Tamil country.
Kalabhras
After the close of the Sangam epoch, from about 300300
Year 300 was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Constantius and Valerius...
C.E. to 600
600
Year 600 was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 600 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* Smallpox arrives in Europe for the first...
C.E., there is an almost total lack of information regarding events in the Tamil country. Some time after 300 C.E. the whole south India was upset by the predatory activities of the Kalabhras
Kalabhras
The Kalabhras dynasty ruled over the entire Ancient Tamil country between the 3rd and the 6th century in an era of South Indian history called the Kalabhra interregnum. The Kalabhras displaced the kingdoms of the early Cholas, early Pandayan and Chera dynasties. Information about its origin and...
. These people, possibly from the south Deccan, were not Tamil speakers, and could have once been part of the Satavahana
Satavahana
The Sātavāhana Empire or Andhra Empire, was a royal Indian dynasty based from Dharanikota and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar and Prathisthan in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of India from 230 BCE onward...
kingdom. After the demise this kingdom, its various dominions split up and established their independence. Kalabhras arose out of this political confusion, and trying to carve themselves a territory, invaded the land of the Tamils. The Tamil dynasties were not prepared to face this new threat and their defiance quickly crumbled.
Kalabhras, not bound by the norms and customs of the Tamils, upset the existing order by their ways. They are speculated to be the followers of Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
and did not respect the traditional Hindu values. These differences in the custom probably caused animosity to them amongst their subject and were probably the reason for the uniform adverse reports by the Tamil historians and authors who wrote following their demise.
Pandyas and Pallavas
From c. 600 C.E., the Pandya KadungonKadungon
Kadungon was a Pandya king who revived the Pandya rule in South India in the 7th century CE. Along with the Pallava king Simhavishnu, he is credited with ending the Kalabhra rule, marking the beginning of a new era in the Tamil speaking region. Most historians, including R. C...
and the Pallava
Pallava
The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram...
Simhavishnu managed to oust the Kalabhras from their territories and dominted the Tamil country for the next three centuries. After repeated wars, their frontier fluctuated along the river Kaveri. Cholas almost disappeared from the political map. They retained their ancient seat of Urayur
Urayur
Urayur , located near the city of Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu, India, was the capital of the early Cholas, who were one of the three main kingdoms of the ancient Tamil country. Sometimes spelled as Uraiyur, this location is also known as Thirukkozhi, Nikalaapuri, Uranthai, and Kozhiyur. It has a...
and probably aligned with both the Pandyas and the Pallavas as the situation demanded. Their home country around Urayur was the location of many battles between the two major kingdoms. It is most likely, due to the strategic location of the Chola country during this time, both the Pallavas and Pandyas sought their help.
Rise of the Imperial Cholas
Beginnings of the Empire
Vijayalaya CholaVijayalaya Chola
Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India Thanjavur during c. 848 C.E. and re-established the Chola dynastic rule.-Dark age of Cholas:The ancient Chola kingdom once famous in Tamil literature and in the writings of Greek merchants and geographers faded in to darkness after c 300 C.E. Cholas...
, who was probably a Pallava Vassal, rose out of obscurity during the middle of the 9th century C.E. Making use of the opportunity during a war between Pandyas and Pallavas, Vijayalaya rose out of obscurity and captured Thanjavur in 848
848
Year 848 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* The Saracens destroy Leontini.* Charles the Bald, Louis the German and Lothar meet in Koblenz....
C.E.
We do not know whom Vijayalaya defeated to capture Thanjavur. During the 8th century a family of chiefs known as the Muttaraiyans ruled Thanjavur. Historians have suggested that they may have belongs to the Pandya clan. In the disturbed state of affairs that existed then, Vijayalaya seems to have found a good opportunity to defeat the Muttaraiyan chiefs, and make himself the ruler of Thanjavur and the surrounding Chola country.
The Cholas under Aditya I
Aditya I
Aditya I , the son of Vijayalaya, was the first great Chola king of South India who extended the Chola dominions by the conquest of the Pallavas.- Pallava Civil War :...
soon displaced the remnants of Pallava power in the north (c. 869
869
Year 869 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* May 26 – An earthquake and tsunami devastate a large part of the Sanriku coast near Sendai, Japan....
C.E.) and subdued the Pandayas and Cheras in the south (c. 903
903
Year 903 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Abaoji is named commander of all Khitan military forces.- Religion :...
C.E.). Parantaka I
Parantaka I
Parantaka Chola I ruled the Chola kingdom in southern India for forty-eight years. The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.-The Invasion of the Pandya Kingdom:...
drove the Pandayas out of their territories and into Lanka (c. 910
910
Year 910 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* August 5 – The allied forces of Mercia and Wessex defeat an army of Northumbrian Vikings in the Battle of Tettenhall...
C.E.). He then invaded the island to quell any opposition to the Chola expansion.
848 - 871 |
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871 - 907 |
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907 - 950 |
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(d.949) |
950 - 957 |
956 - 957 |
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970 - 985 |
957 - 970 |
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(d. 965) |
985 - 1014 |
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1012 - 1044 |
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1018 - 1054 |
1051 - 1063 |
1063 - 1070 |
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Rashtrakutas and Gangas in the north posed the biggest threat the nascent Chola Empire (c. 940
940
Year 940 was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Saadia Gaon compiles his siddur in Iraq.* Narita-san Temple is founded in Chiba, Japan....
C.E.). The Chola prince Rajaditya was killed in one of the bloodiest battles in Thakkolam (949
949
Year 949 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Sayf al-Daula raids into the Byzantine theme of Lykandos but is defeated. The Byzantines counter-attack and seize Germanikeia, defeating an army from Tarsus, and the raiding as far south as Antioch...
C.E.) and the growth of the Cholas was halted for a few years.
The period following was one of the most difficult and dangerous for the Cholas. Parantaka had a long reign and when he died in 950
950
Year 950 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Duke Boleslav I of Bohemia makes peace with Otto I....
C.E., his second son Gandaraditya
Gandaraditya
Gandaraditya Chola succeeded his father Parantaka I and became the Chola king c. 955 C.E.-Turbulent period:From the death of Parantaka I, to the accession of Rajaraja I in 985 C.E., Chola history is obscure. During this period of 30 years there were five princes who must have occupied the throne...
became king. He was more suited to the realm of religion than politics. His reign was marked for the stagnation in the progress of the Chola power. The Chola throne went to Gandaraditya’s younger brother Arinjaya
Arinjaya
Arinjaya Chola succeeded Gandaraditya Chola c. 956 C.E. Arinjaya was the third son of Parantaka I and the younger brother of Gandarditya. Arunjaya seems to have ruled for a very short time.- Other names :...
briefly before Arinjaya’s son Sundara Chola
Parantaka Chola II
Parantaka Chola II ruled for approximately twelve years. Parantaka II was also known by the name Madhurantakan Sundara Chola. He was the son of Arinjaya Chola. His mother’s name was Kalyani, a princes from the clan of Vaidumbas...
took the reins of the kingdom overlooking the claims of the still minor Uttama Chola, Gandaraditya’s son.
Empire Blossoms
The Chola power recovered during Sundara Chola’s reign. The Chola Army under the command of the crown prince Aditya Karikala defeated the Pandyas and invaded in the north up to Tondaimandalam in the north. Sundara Chola’s reign although was marked by a personal tragedy His son Aditya Karikala was assassinated in a political intrigue. Uttama Chola’s involvement in this plot has been suspected. Uttama, son of the previous Chola king Gandaraditya forced Sundara Chola to declare him heir apparent. Uttama Chola’s reign was conspicuous for the lack of any major initiatives and he was replaced by the great Rajaraja Chola in 985985
Year 985 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Barcelona is sacked by Al-Mansur....
C.E.
Golden Era
Rajaraja soon extended his kingdom overseas to Lanka and the Chola army occupied most of the island (993
993
Year 993 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- In fiction :* The fantasy role-playing game Dragon Warriors is set in a fantasy world called "Legend" modeled on medieval Europe in an era approximate to this year.* In the Harry Potter series, Hogwarts School of Witchcraft...
C.E). Rajaraja also invaded Vengi to restore the throne to his nephew Saktivarman.
Rajendra Chola extended his father’s successes by completing the conquest of Lanka (1018 C.E.). The Sinhala king was captured and imprisoned in the Chola country. Rajendra also had to fight the Western Chalukyas (1021 C.E.) and invade Vengi to sustain the Chola influence there (1031 C.E.).
Rajendra’s reign was marked by his expedition to the river Ganges (c. 1019 C.E.). The Chola army dashed through the kingdoms north of Vengi and engaged the Pala
Pala Empire
The Pāla Empire was one of the major middle kingdoms of India existed from 750–1174 CE. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala , which means protector. The Palas were often described...
king Mahipala
Mahipala
Mahipala I is considered the second founder of the Pala dynasty. Gopala I established the dynastic rule of the Palas in the middle of the 8th century CE. The Pala Dynasty ruled Bengal and Bihar for about four centuries from the middle of the 8th century CE...
and defeated him. The victorious Chola army returned with the waters of the holy Ganges. Historians now discount this expedition as nothing more than a pilgrimage to the Ganges and no permanent gain of territories resulted from it. The inscriptions of Rajaraja however glorify this as a major conquest.
Rajendra’s overseas conflicts are of similar nature. The Chola navy attacked and conquered the kingdom of Srivijaya
Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6...
. The cause of this conflict is likely commercial interests rather than political. Srivijaya was located at the hub of the thriving trade between Cholas and the ancient China. This expedition was to secure Chola strategic interests. There was no permanent territorial gain and the kingdom was returned to the Srivijaya king for recognition of Chola superiority and the payment of periodic tributes.
Chola Chalukya Wars
The History of Cholas from the period of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of conflicts with the Western ChalukyasWestern Chalukyas
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical...
. The Old Chalukya dynasty had split in to two sibling dynasties of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas were a South Indian dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was Vengi and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 C.E. when the Vengi kingdom merged with the Chola empire...
. Rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya. Stemming from this Cholas had a filial interest in the affairs of Vengi. Western Chalukyas however felt that the Vengi kingdom was under their natural sphere of influence. Several wars were fought and neither could claim mastery over the other. Cholas inflicted several defeats on the Western Chalukyas
Western Chalukyas
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka and alternatively the Later Chalukya from its theoretical...
of Kalyani, who never managed to get a foothold in the Tamil
Tamil people
Tamil people , also called Tamils or Tamilians, are an ethnic group native to Tamil Nadu, India and the north-eastern region of Sri Lanka. Historic and post 15th century emigrant communities are also found across the world, notably Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, South Africa, Australia, Canada,...
country at any time of their existence. For the most part, the frontier remained at the Tungabhadra River for both kingdoms, though these wars, however, resulted in a lot of bloodshed and the death of at least one monarch (Rajadhiraja Chola
Rajadhiraja Chola
Kōpparakēsarivarman Rājādhiraja Chōla I was one of the greatest emperors of the Chola empire succeeding his father in the 11th century. During his long reign, he helped his father conquer many territories and maintained the Chola authority over most of Lanka, Vengi, Kalinga, etc. and the relations...
).
Rajendra’s Successors
Rajendra after his long reign was followed by three of his sons in succession. Rajadhiraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola IIRajendra Chola II
Rajendra Chola II reigned as the Chola king succeeding his elder brother brother Rajadhiraja Chola. He is best remembered for his role in the battle of Koppam alongside his elder brother where he dramatically turned the tables on the Chalukyan King Somesvara I.- Koppam Battle :The Chola forces were...
and Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola was one of the most under-rated Chola kings, mainly because a major part of his life was spent in the apprenticeship of his two elder brothers Rajadhirajan Chola I and Rajendra Chola-II, who along with Virarajendra Chola himself were the illustrious sons of their Chakravarti...
all had to continue the Chalukya wars. Rajadhiraja lost his life on the battlefield during one such battles and Rajendra Chola II crowned himself on the battlefield and continued the fight. Virarajendra managed to split the Western Chalukya kingdom by convincing Vikramaditya IV to an alliance. Vikramaditya acted as a buffer between the Cholas and the Chalukyas in Kalyani.
Vikramaditya also tried to prevent Rajendra Chalukya, an Eastern Chalukyan prince of Chola descent from ascending the Vengi throne. However when Virarajendra died in 1070 C.E., Rajendra Chalukya utilised and even engineered some internal confusion in the Chola kingdom, in which the Chola king Athirajendra Chola
Athirajendra Chola
Athirajendra Chola reigned for a very short period of few months as the Chola king succeeding his father Virarajendra Chola. His reign was marked by civil unrest, possibly religious in nature, in which he was killed...
was assassinated. Rajendra Chalukya crowned himself Kulothunga Chola I (1070 C.E.), thereby starting the Later Chola dynasty.
Society and Culture
The medieval Cholas under Rajaraja and his successors developed a highly organised administrative structure with central control and autonomous village assemblies. The system of government was a hereditary monarchy and the coronation of the king was an impressive ceremony. The royal household had numerous servants of varied descriptions. For the purpose of administration the empire was divided into convenient areas such as valanadu, mandalam, nadu, etc. Land revenue was the mainstay of public finance and great care was undertaken to recording land rights and revenue dues.Justice was administered by regularly constituted royal courts in addition to village courts. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were dealt with the king himself. The most striking feature of the Chola period was the unusual vigour and efficiency of the autonomous rural institutions.
This period of the Chola rule saw the maturity of the Tamil Temple architecture. Rajaraja built the great Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. His son Rajendra imitated this effort by building the temple at his new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Gangaikonda Cholapuram was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India at the beginning of the 11th century C.E. It occupies an important place in the history of India. As the capital...
.
This age also saw the Hindu religious revival in both Saiva
Shaivism
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas," and also "Saivas" or "Saivites," revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer,...
and Vaishnava traditions. The Saiva and Vishnava canons were collected and categorised during this period.Though recent movies portray persecution of Vaishnavas during this period, these claims are completely false.